NOTES

Introduction

  1. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed., s.v. “civilization.”

  2. Ibid., s.v. “primitive.”

  3. Ibid., s.v. “civilized.”

  4. Ibid., s.v. “stereotype.”

  5. Liana Markelova, “Corpus-Based Analysis of the Collocational Profiles of the Terms Denoting the Mentally Challenged,” Linguistik Online (2017), https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/3647/5505.

  6. “From Tonto to Tarzan: Stereotypes as Obstacles to Progress toward a More Perfect Union,” Seminars and Symposia Program, Smithsonian National Museum of American Indian, February 9, 2017, https://youtu.be/4fXxkOgesoY.

  7. Ibid.

  8. Ibid.

Chapter 1. The Venom of Stigma

  1. John A. Grigg and Peter C. Mancall, eds. British Colonial America: People and Perspectives (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 54.

  2. James A. Cox, “Bilboes, Brands, and Branks: Colonial Crimes and Punishments,” Colonial Williamsburg Journal (Spring 2003), http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/spring03/branks.cfm.

  3. Wikipedia, s.v. “Native Americans in the United States,” last modified June 2, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States.

  4. Helen Oliff, “Treaties Made, Treaties Broken,” Partnership with Native Americans, March 3, 2011, http://blog.nativepartnership.org/treaties-made-treaties-broken/.

  5. “American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month: November 2012,” United States Census Bureau, October 25, 2012, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb12-ff22.html.

  6. “Indian Country Demographics,” National Congress of American Indians, accessed June 4, 2017, http://www.ncai.org/about-tribes/demographics.

  7. Dylan Stableford, “What’s Behind the Dakota Pipeline Protests?” Yahoo News, November 21, 2016, https://www.yahoo.com/news/whats-behind-the-dakota-pipeline-protests-224501143.html.

  8. Jack Healy, “North Dakota Oil Pipeline Battle: Who’s Fighting and Why,” New York Times, August 26, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/02/us/north-dakota-oil-pipeline-battle-whos-fighting-and-why.html.

  9. Wikipedia, s.v. “Standing Rock Indian Reservation,” last modified May 23, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_Rock_Indian_Reservation.

10. Ibid.

11. Amy Harder and Colleen McCain Nelson, “Obama Administration Rejects Keystone XL Pipeline, Citing Climate Concerns,” Wall Street Journal, November 6, 2015, https://www.wsj.com/articles/obama-administration-to-reject-keystonexl-pipeline-citing-climate-concerns-1446825732.

12. Darran Simon and Eliott C. McLaughlin, “Keystone and Dakota Access Pipelines: How Did We Get Here?” CNN, January 25, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/24/us/daplkeystone-pipeline-environment-protesters-trump-order/.

13. Ibid.

14. Jack Healy, “Neighbors Say North Dakota Pipeline Protests Disrupt Lives and Livelihoods,” New York Times, September 13, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/14/us/north-dakota-pipeline-protests.html?_r=0.

15. Ibid.

16. “Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome,” Dr. Joy DeGruy: Be the Healing, accessed June 4, 2017, http://joydegruy.com/resources-2/post-traumatic-slave-syndrome/.

17. Ray Sanchez and Ed Payne, “Charleston Church Shooting: Who Is Dylann Roof?” CNN, December 16, 2016, http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/19/us/charleston-church-shooting-suspect/.

18. Dennis C. Dickerson, “Our History,” African Methodist Episcopal Church, https://www.ame-church.com/our-church/our-history/.

19. Dick Price, “More Black Men Are in Prison Today Than Enslaved in 1850,” Dick and Sharon’s LA Progressive, last modified March 27, 2011, https://www.laprogressive.com/black-men-prison-system/.

20. Li-Tzy Wu, George E. Woody, Chongming Yang, et al., “Racial/Ethnic Variations in Substance-Related Disorders among Adolescents in the United States,” JAMA Psychiatry (November 2011), http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1107330?link=xref.

21. “Tuskegee Syphilis Study,” Science Museum, accessed February 27, 2017, http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/tuskegee.

22. “Report of the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent on Its Mission to the United States of America,” United Nations General Assembly, August 18, 2016, http://www.ushrnetwork.org/sites/ushrnetwork.org/files/unwgepad_us_visit_final_report_9_15_16.pdf.

23. Associated Press, “New NRA Leader James Porter Has History of Controversial Rhetoric,” CBS News, May 4, 2013, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-nra-leader-james-porter-has-history-of-controversial-rhetoric/.

Chapter 2. The Audacity of Stigma

  1. Louise Ridley, “The Holocaust’s Forgotten Victims: The 5 Million Non-Jewish People Killed by the Nazis,” Huffington Post, January 27, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/01/27/holocaust-non-jewish-victims_n_6555604.html.

  2. Daniel A. Gross, “The U.S. Government Turned Away Thousands of Jewish Refugees, Fearing That They Were Nazi Spies,” Smithsonian.com, November 18, 2015, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/us-government-turned-away-thousands-jewish-refugees-fearing-they-were-nazi-spies-180957324/.

  3. “Pre-War Discrimination,” National Asian American Telecommunications Association (2002), accessed June 4, 2017, https://caamedia.org/jainternment/ww2/prewar.html.

  4. “Japanese-American Relocation,” in The Reader’s Companion to American History, edited by Eric Foner and John A. Garraty (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1991), http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/japanese-american-relocation.

  5. Steven Hill, “Why Does the US Still Have So Few Women in Office?” The Nation, March 7, 2014, https://www.thenation.com/article/why-does-us-still-have-so-few-women-office/.

  6. Nicholas Kristof, “Hillary Clinton, Free to Speak Her Mind” New York Times, April 8, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/08/opinion/sunday/hillary-clinton-free-to-speak-hermind.html.

  7. Chris Isidore, “U.S. Women Soccer Players Charge Pay Discrimination,” CNN Money, March 31, 2016, http://money.cnn.com/2016/03/31/news/companies/womens-soccer-equal-pay/.

  8. “CDC Fact Sheet: Today’s HIV/AIDS Epidemic,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, October 2016, https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/docs/factsheets/hiv-todaysepidemic-508.pdf.

  9. Rod McCullom, “Black Women Confront HIV Stigma, Health and Funding Disparities at USCA 2011,” The Black AIDs Institute, accessed June 4, 2017, https://www.blackaids.org/news-2011/1036-black-women-confront-hiv-stigma-health-and-funding-disparities-at-usca-2011.

10. “Discrimination against Women of Color,” The Leadership Conference, accessed June 4, 2017, http://www.civilrights.org/publications/reports/cerd-report-falling-further-behind/discrimination-against-women.html.

11. Ibid.

Chapter 3. The Process of Stigmatization

  1. “Prisoners and Prisoner Re-Entry,” United States Department of Justice, accessed May 19, 2017, https://www.justice.gov/archive/fbci/progmenu_reentry.html.

  2. J.F., “America’s Prison Population, Who, What, Where, and Why,” The Economist, March 14, 2014, https://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2014/03/.

Chapter 4. The Outcome of Stigma: Stereotypes and Prejudices

  1. J.E. Sussman, “Disability, Stigma and Deviance,” Social Science and Medicine 38, no. 1 (1994): 15–22.

  2. Chris Emdin, For White Folks Who Teach in the Hood . . . and the Rest of Y’all Too: Reality Pedagogy and Urban Education (Boston: Beacon Press, 2017).

  3. Jason A. Okonofua and Jennifer L. Eberhardt, “Two Strikes — Race and the Disciplining of Young Students,” Psychological Science 26 (2015): 617–24.

  4. “R.B. Stall High School,” Public School Review, accessed March 26, 2017, https://www.publicschoolreview.com/r-b-stall-high-school-profile.

  5. Jennifer Chau, “Afraid to Be a Nerd: Effects of Nerd Stereotypes on Women’s Math Performance” (2014), Electronic Theses & Dissertations. 1102. http://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd/1102.

  6. “The Costly Business of Discrimination Against LGBT Employees,” Center for American Progress, March 2012, https://www.americanprogress.org/press/release/2012/03/22/15296/release-the-costly-business-of-discrimination-against-lgbt-employees/.

  7. M. Gumpangkum, “World Bank: Economic Consequences of Discrimination,” The Borgen Project, March 2014, http://borgenproject.org/world-bank-economic-consequences-of-discrimination/.

Chapter 5. Stigma and Health

  1. “About Mental Illness,” The Kim Foundation, accessed March 1, 2017, http://www.thekimfoundation.org/html/about_mental_ill/statistics.html.

  2. Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2015). Behavioral Health Trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50), http://www.samhsa.gov/data/.

  3. Elizabeth Agnvall, “Stress! Don’t Let It Make You Sick,” AARP, November 2014, http://www.aarp.org/health/healthy-living/info-2014/stress-and-disease.html.

  4. Ibid.

  5. David Beaton, “Effects of Stress and Psychological Disorders on the Immune System,” Rochester Institute of Technology (November 2003), http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/beaton.html.

  6. “Obesity, Bias, and Stigmatization,” Obesity Society, accessed March 5, 2017, http://www.obesity.org/obesity/resources/facts-about-obesity/bias-stigmatization.

  7. Pamela DeCarlo and Maria Ekstrand, “How Does Stigma Affect HIV Prevention and Treatment?” University of California, San Francisco, Center for AIDS Prevention Studies, October 2016, http://caps.ucsf.edu/archives/factsheets/stigma.

  8. Devin Dwyer, “U.S. Ban on HIV-Positive Visitors, Immigrants Expires,” ABC News, January 5, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/united-states-ends-22-year-hiv-travel-ban/story?id=9482817.

  9. Rose Troupe Buchanan, “Where Are the Most Dangerous Places to Be Gay?” Independent, June 30, 2015, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/where-is-it-illegal-to-be-homosexual-and-which-is-the-most-deadly-country-to-begay-10355338.html.

10. Associated Press, “12 States Still Ban Sodomy a Decade after Court Ruling,” USA Today, April 21, 2014, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/04/21/12-states-ban-sodomy-a-decade-after-court-ruling/7981025/.

11. “Stigma, Discrimination and HIV,” AVERT, last modified May 8, 2017, https://www.avert.org/professionals/hiv-social-issues/stigma-discrimination.

12. “Global HIV/AIDS Overview,” AIDS.gov, last modified November 29, 2016, https://www.aids.gov/federal-resources/around-the-world/global-aids-overview/.

13. Harriet Washington, Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Penguin Random House, 2006).

14. Ibid.

15. “U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, last modified December 8, 2016, https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid.

20. Faroque A. Khan, “The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks” JIMA 43 (2011): 93–94, doi: 10.5915/43-2-8609.

21. Denise Watson, “Cancer Cells Killed Henrietta Lacks — Then Made Her Immortal,” The Virginian-Pilot, May 10, 2010, http://pilotonline.com/news/local/health/cancer-cells-killed-henrietta-lacks---then-made-her/article_17bd351a-f606-54fba499-b6a84cb3a286.html; Lisa Margonelli, “Eternal Life,” New York Times Sunday Book Review, February 5, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/07/books/review/Margonelli-t.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all&.

22. Sheila Thorne, “Race, Health & Medicine: The View from the Black Diaspora,” Healthy Churches 2020 Conference, accessed June 4, 2017, http://healthychurches2020conference.org/2015-conference-powerpoints/.

23. Robert M. Califf, “2016: The Year of Diversity in Clinical Trials,” FDAVoice, January 27, 2016, https://blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2016/01/2016-the-year-of-diversity-in-clinical-trials/.

Chapter 6. Levels of Intervention

  1. “The Death of Emmett Till,” This Day in History, History.com, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-death-of-emmett-till; “Four Black Schoolgirls Killed in Birmingham,” This Day in History, History.com, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/four-black-schoolgirls-killed-in-birmingham.

Chapter 7. Changing How We Think about Stigmatized Diseases

  1. “Flint Water Crisis Fast Facts,” CNN, April 10, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2016/03/04/us/flint-water-crisis-fast-facts/.

  2. Ibid.

  3. “Effects of Lead Exposure During Pregnancy,” LEAD SAFE Illinois, accessed May 19, 2017, http://www.leadsafeillinois.org/family-safety/pregnancy.asp.

  4. Ali Vitali, “Trump Signs Bill Revoking Obama-Era Gun Checks for People with Mental Illnesses,” NBC News, February 28, 2017, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-signs-bill-revoking-obama-era-gun-checks-people-mental-n727221.

  5. Timothy Cama, “Trump Moves to Kill Obama Water Rule,” The Hill, February 28, 2017, http://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/321610-trump-directs-epa-to-reconsider-obama-water-rule; Juliet Eilperin and Brady Dennis, “Trump Moves Decisively to Wipe Out Obama’s Climate Change Record,” Washington Post, March 28, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/trump-moves-decisively-to-wipe-out-obamas-climate-change-record/2017/03/27/411043d4-132c-11e7-9e4f-09aa75d3ec57_story.html?utm_term=.e25a72b43e45.

  6. Dan Mangan, “24 Million Would Lose Health Insurance Coverage by 2026 under GOP’s Obamacare Replacement, New Estimate Says,” CNBC, March 13, 2017, http://www.cnbc.com/2017/03/13/cbo-says-millions-lose-health-insurance-under-gop-obamacare-replacement.html.

  7. D.H. Granello and T.A. Gibbs, “The Power of Language and Labels: ‘The Mentally Ill’ Versus ‘People with Mental Illness,’” Journal of Counseling and Development 94, no. 1 (2016): 31–40, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcad.12059/abstract.

  8. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed., s.v. “empathy.”

  9. Matteo Forgiarini, Marcello Galluci, and Angelo Maravita, “Racism and the Empathy for Pain on Our Skin,” Frontiers in Psychology, May 23, 2011, http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00108/full.