4
The Actors of the Innovation Ecosystem
Enter into the orchestra.
G. Bateson, 1904–1980
4.1. Introduction
This chapter aims to explain the evolution of “contrib-actors” and complementary actors beyond the classical logic of technological standards. The roles of the actors are multiple and depend on their position in the innovation ecosystem.
Based on three key roles, we will see how the breeders, feeders and niche actors coordinate their scientific, technological and business activities in order to carry out the innovation process by setting up mechanisms of co-specialization and dependence, combined in a search for coherence of activities and the innovation process.
4.2. The actors of the ecosystems
4.2.1. Four profiles of actors: the “contrib-actors”
Ecosystems bring together a population of heterogeneous organizations [MOO 96] composed of suppliers, customers, regulators, institutions, industrialists, entrepreneurs and business people [GUE 04]. Studies on ecosystem actors agree on the stakes of value creation, whether associated with technologies or not [GAL 10]. To explain the complexity of the relationships between these actors, researchers deconstruct these relationships and their interdependencies generated by the implementation of coopetition strategies [DAI 17]. Based on these studies, Iansiti and Levien have highlighted four profiles of actors that they call “contrib-actors” [IAN 04]. They are presented in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1. The “contrib-actors”, adapted from [IAN 04]
These contrib-actors interact at the heart of ecosystems under the pressure of innovation which is directed by the focal actor, in the form of a value proposition to be conceived, towards the other actors.
Keystone and niche actors are under strong innovation pressure. Keystone actors are members of the focal firm. The latter plays a central role in the emergence and development of the ecosystem.
They design innovation trajectories that encourage the commitment of other actors [GUE 04]. They coordinate them in order to create a state of mutual dependence that encourages the actors to develop reciprocal behaviors rather than opportunistic strategies. Niche actors diffuse innovation internally within the ecosystem and externally to customers. They ensure that the innovation is appropriated by all the actors.
Business introducer and dominant actors have a lower degree of innovation than keystone and niche actors. This is explained by a lower degree of commitment to the innovation process. It is common for these actors to take advantage of ecosystem resources to develop an offer that competes with that designed by ecosystem actors. Keystone and niche actors try to counter these opportunistic behaviors that endanger the survival of the ecosystem.
Table 4.1. Characteristics of the actors, adapted from [RON 09]
| Actor | Features | Relationships |
| Keystone | Central role in the ecosystem (creation-development) As a leader, they manage and control the flow of products, services, skills and resources Main objective is to transform value proposition into a marketable product Regulates and coordinates the actors and actions of the ecosystem, often via a digital platform | All actors Environment |
| Niche | The majority in commercial ecosystems, this actor is very invested. They are an expert in a specific activity This actor is very much oriented towards innovation, opportunities for which are highly dependent on the knowledge and material assets to which the keystone actor will provide access | Keystone actors Business introducer actors |
| Niche | The majority in commercial ecosystems, this actor is very invested. They are an expert in a specific activity This actor is very much oriented towards innovation, opportunities for which are highly dependent on the knowledge and material assets to which the keystone actor will provide access | Keystone actors Business introducer actors |
| Business introducer | With little investment in the ecosystem, this actor seeks to use the assets and knowledge generated by other actors in the ecosystem without acting reciprocally As the dominant actor, they benefit from capturing value to improve the margins of activities | Keystone actors Niche actors |
| Dominant | With little investment in the ecosystem, this actor is also looking to capture value to improve the margins of activities. To do so, they build relational links with the business introducers Behavior is oriented towards the control of material assets and knowledge essential to the development of activities | Keystone actors Business introducer actors |
Table 4.1 summarizes the characteristics of these four “contrib-actor” profiles and identifies the main relationships that unite them.
The behaviors of the actors, appearing through their characteristics, show that they are part of a “technological standardization approach” [ATT 12] aiming to impose technological standards on the markets [EDO 10].
4.2.2. Logics beyond technological standards
The aim of the ecosystem is to create and capture value [ADN 19] for all actors. To do this, the contrib-actors organize themselves as legally independent entities. They involve themselves in value-producing activities [JAC 18]. Here, the focus is on actors whose productive contributions correlate with the goals of the ecosystem. Their commitment and investment in achieving these objectives are dependent on the pressure of innovation they face [HEL 02].
Other actors complement these contrib-actors: they produce or provide complements [JAC 18] that are indispensable to the evolution of the innovation process and the ecosystem. Among these complementary actors, several authors [DUR 13] have identified the following:
- – government institutions that provide regulations in terms of technological standards, funding and subsidies;
- – universities that are both teaching and R&D centers [HWA 12];
- – public, private and entrepreneurial organizations and independent professional associations that provide specialized knowledge but do not have strong dependencies on the ecosystem actors [CAR 12];
- – financing actors such as banks, business angels1, venture capitalists and organizations that help finance and develop radical innovations;
- – customers and civil societies, such as associations, which create societal and environmental opportunities that impact the development of innovations [RAB 15];
- – industries and companies that develop corporate incubators [LAT 18] to evaluate proposed innovative solutions and train “qualified entrepreneurs” capable of developing technologies by taking advantage of the R&D laboratories of these entities.
These complementary actors, who assume several roles, drive the dynamics of both the ecosystem and the innovation process. They have fundamentally different and complementary roles. Their interests are divergent, as they pursue different objectives at different stages of the innovation process.
4.2.3. The roles of the actors within the innovation ecosystem
Zahra and Nambisan have identified three key roles at the heart of innovation ecosystems: the roles of “breeders,” “feeders” and “niche actors” [ZAH 11]. All of these actors perform activities that serve the growth of the innovation ecosystem.
4.2.3.1. Breeder actors
Breeders are actors who bring forth new discoveries that transform the knowledge of the ecosystem. Three key characteristics qualify breeders. They have a strong interest in the discovery of new technologies and scientific knowledge, and a lack of interest in the market and commercialization. Finally, they have relational capabilities that may be average to strong with the actors of the technological ecosystem if the knowledge base is similar or close, while being weak, or even non-existent, with the actors in the commercial ecosystem.
These characteristics shape the roles of breeders. Their poor knowledge of markets means that they do not always see how their discoveries can be transformed into future marketable innovations. An innovation ecosystem that confines itself to the scientific and commercial ecosystems would have great difficulty in producing innovation that is useful to users. The technological ecosystem plays a key role in the “passage” from discovery to innovation.
The grouping of scientific actors in the scientific ecosystem is important so that these actors know precisely the roles they have to play in the innovation ecosystem. The framework2 constituted by the innovation process helps them to clearly identify their roles and functions. Attentive to technological changes and their evolution, they focus on scientific intelligence and learning. They may be the source of new ideas that they can share with the other actors of the innovation ecosystem via the innovation platforms.
4.2.3.2. Feeder actors
Feeders are actors who create inventions from these discoveries. Three key characteristics qualify them. They have a strong interest in the application and integration of scientific discoveries into innovative new product inventions. However, they have weak commercial skills that are limited to evaluations of the commercial potential of the invention. Finally, they have highly developed interpersonal skills that lead to strong interactions with the other actors of the innovation ecosystem.
These characteristics guide the roles of the feeders. Their low commercialization capacity means that they are able to determine the potential profitability of an invention without mastering the mechanisms of commercialization. They are highly dependent on the commercial ecosystem whose core business is the launch and diffusion of innovations on the market.
These actors, grouped within the technological ecosystem, must make judicious decisions for the development of innovation-oriented inventions. Their highly developed relational capacity means that they position themselves as true “linking pins” [ZAH 11] that connect breeders to other actors in the ecosystem.
These actors are able to guide technological development by working with scientists on technical feasibility and with salespeople on the functionalities and uses of the future innovation. Attentive to the evolution of technologies and technical products that emerge on the markets, these actors focus on technology watch and learning about these technologies. Like scientists, these technological actors may be the source of new ideas that they share with other actors in the innovation ecosystem.
4.2.3.3. Niche actors
The niche actor is a contrib-actor [IAN 04]. Niches are defined as “protected spaces that allow the experimentation with the co-evolution of technology, user practices, and regulatory structures” [SCH 08].
Niches are home to specialized actors who develop innovations of use based on their inventions, which they can then distribute to a targeted market. Three key characteristics qualify these niche actors. They have a strong capacity to “convert” inventions into innovations by creating value through the use of the product to satisfy the end customer. They have a good knowledge of the market and highly developed marketing capabilities. They position themselves as leaders in new markets or strengthen their strategic position in existing niche markets with offers that are particularly well adapted to the target market. Finally, their highly developed interpersonal skills lead to strong synergies with all the actors in the innovation ecosystem.
These characteristics guide the roles of niche actors. Strong marketing skills mean that these actors exploit their skills to commercialize high value-added innovations for the market segments that they are very good at identifying. They find or create new market spaces that they can occupy in order to generate high profitability.
Niche actors create value for the ecosystem by enhancing the market value of discoveries, inventions and innovations through use. It is common for several uses to be imagined from a single invention-product. Here, based on their expertise, some actors are behind the creation of new start-ups that specialize in the development of specific uses associated with an invention.
Attentive to product and market developments, these actors focus on business intelligence and learning. They do not hesitate to learn and develop new business models that transform the relationships between ecosystem actors and market actors.
Table 4.2 presents the characteristics of these actors.
The roles of the actors influence their activities at the heart of the innovation ecosystem. They are distinct according to their position in the innovation ecosystem. These activities are structured around three main axes: communities of actors, activities of innovation actors and coordination of actors through digital platforms.
Table 4.2. The three key roles of actors, adapted from [ZAH 11]
| Actors | Features |
| Breeder scientific ecosystem | Function: creation of new technologies and scientific knowledge Roles in the innovation ecosystem: exploring and generating knowledge beyond the boundaries of the scientific ecosystem Key features: discovery and, if skills are present, invention-product Technological capabilities: strong scientific expertise. Highly developed research skills. Technology development skills: depending on the skills of certain scientists Marketing capabilities: very limited Relational skills: very limited except between scientists of the ecosystem or of scientific networks |
| Feeder technological ecosystem | Function: application and integration of scientific findings and creation of new technological knowledge Roles in the innovation ecosystem: harnessing new technologies and knowledge to generate invention-products Key features: technological inventions Technological capabilities: strong technological expertise. Highly developed development skills Marketing skills: skills often limited to identifying and/or evaluating the commercial potential of an invention. Weak or non-existent commercialization skills Relational skills: well-developed and extensive links with other ecosystems and networks |
| Niche commercial ecosystem | Function: integration of uses in the invention. Positioning on a dominant niche market (market leader) Roles in the innovation ecosystem: exploiting inventions and new knowledge. Developing customer–user-oriented innovation platforms Key features: transforming inventions into innovations (uses) Technological skills: limited to the knowledge required to transform the invention into an innovation Marketing capabilities: in-depth knowledge of the market. Very focused on market segments Relational skills: very well developed, close links with customers and other key actors in the niche market. Strong with technology actors. Weak with scientists |
4.3. Activities of actors in the innovation ecosystem
4.3.1. Communities of actors
Teece considers the ecosystem as a “community of organizations, institutions, and individuals that impact the enterprise and the enterprise’s customers and suppliers” [TEE 07]. In the innovation ecosystem, each ecosystem, scientific, technological and commercial, is assimilated to a community of interacting actors, breeders, feeders and niche actors. They share a “common destiny” [IAN 04] where the overall performance of the innovation ecosystem is linked to the performance of each community of actors.
Each community manages the mobility of knowledge from one ecosystem to another, as well as the appropriation of material assets produced by these communities of actors. Access to resources, knowledge and markets is crucial to ensure the growth of the innovation ecosystem [ZAH 12].
4.3.2. Innovation activities
The activities of the actors concentrate on the collection of components and complements that support the innovation process. Collaborative strategies allow these communities of actors to combine their resources and knowledge to design radical innovations based on the assets – discovery– invention–innovation – generated by each ecosystem.
In this logic, the activities of the actors are underpinned by dependencies that stimulate the creation of value throughout the innovation process, from discovery to market. Its success depends on the strategic alignment of the actors in each ecosystem [ADN 17]. These alignments are based on the interactions and dependencies that drive or affect collaborations between breeder, feeder and niche actors. Here, the focus is on understanding the dynamics of actors in interaction, and how they create and develop innovations that will ultimately benefit users.
The key to successful innovation process activities, from discovery to market, lies in the coordination of these actors. This coordination is not without risk because if it is insufficient, the different stages of the innovation process do not bring the expected results and the innovation may be doomed to failure [KAP 13]. The capacity of the actors of the different communities to coordinate their investments and the evolution of the innovation process will be affected.
Under these conditions, the sharing of assets and knowledge may be hindered and impede the growth of the innovation ecosystem [LET 13]. To counteract these effects, coordination is often orchestrated through digital platforms.
4.3.3. Coordination through digital platforms
Working in the industrial world to accelerate competition and the development of innovative products and services, digitalization, processes and knowledge transfers induces new applications that modify the relationships between actors [AND 19].
In meta-organizations, such as ecosystems, value creation mobilizes collective intelligence. Actors from different organizations coordinate and strategically align themselves via digital platforms so that “the organization is understood as a contact interface, via its information systems, for employees or citizens, regardless of their geographical location” [HEN 21].
In ecosystems, changes in task planning between actors are difficult to implement. The heterogeneity of each ecosystem makes any kind of traditional strategic planning obsolete. Since each ecosystem is in essence a complex system composed of specific assets and knowledge, a focal actor would be in trouble if they had to plan the tasks of actors whose activities and knowledge they do not control. Moreover, “the characteristic of complex systems is to implement interactive loop mechanisms that make any form of strategic planning impossible, and more broadly defy linear thinking” [HER 19].
Via the platform, the actors have access to all types of information. They are able to share existing knowledge to advance the innovation process. For example, breeders use certain data to make new discoveries that they transform into new assets and new scientific knowledge. Feeder actors take advantage of this and develop product inventions that niche actors will, in turn, transform into innovations that will be disseminated on targeted markets.
4.3.4. Towards hub and spoke ecosystems
Platforms act on the interactions between actors. Here, the ecosystem takes the form of a hub and spoke [VAL 15] where the different communities are connected via digital platforms. These platforms allow the sharing of strategic information about existing material assets and knowledge present in each ecosystem. They promote the understanding of methods, methodologies, processes, protocols, etc. through the visualization of complex data of these assets and knowledge [SEG 10].
This visualization is particularly appropriate when the knowledge is unfamiliar [BAS 09]. It favors the understanding and analysis of technological and business strategies and the resolution of complex problems [TUF 83]. These platforms provide real support to the understanding and dissemination of knowledge and participate in the development of the cognitive capacities of the actors.
The information and visualizations are exploited by the different actors. They explore, interpret, assimilate, appropriate and then apply and integrate the new knowledge into new assets leading to new discoveries, inventions and innovations. Here, platforms are no longer limited to being a means for actors to access end customers [WAR 14]. They encourage the actions and activities of all actors in the innovation ecosystem [THO 18].
Coordination no longer necessarily involves a focal firm: it extends to all communities of actors. Through their ability to link all the actors, platforms structure organization around the activities that need to be carried out to complete the innovation process. They participate in the construction of new knowledge that can be stored and made available to be shared among stakeholders.
4.4. Coexistence of multiple dependencies
4.4.1. Co-specialization
Co-specialization is characterized by the technological relationships that produce synergies between the actors of the innovation ecosystem. Dependency relationships are expressed through this co-specialization [JAC 18], which appears when a bilateral and idiosyncratic dependence is created [TEE 07] between the scientific ecosystem and the technological ecosystem.
This dependence stems from the creation of assets that are compatible with other assets. This compatibility, between assets, allows the actors of the technological ecosystem to make technical adaptations that will allow them to integrate the discoveries made by the scientific ecosystem. Without this compatibility, the invention of a new product would be impossible. However, this synergistic interaction creates value if co-specialization is based on complementarity and mobility [JAC 06].
4.4.1.1. Complementarity
Complementarity appears when one actor has a strong impact on the activity of another actor [JAC 06], as is the case when the actors in the technological ecosystem are strongly impacted by the assets and knowledge arising from the actors in the scientific ecosystem. Complementarity can only exist if the actors are heterogeneous, as in innovation ecosystems composed of actors from different communities. It allows these heterogeneous actors to make the best of their contribution [ADN 10] to the innovation process. It induces a state of dependence [THO 18] between the scientific and technological communities of the innovation ecosystem.
Complementarity exists at two levels:
- – at a low level, the dependency relations between these two communities could hinder the innovation process, especially if the actors reduce the production of value related to both assets and knowledge [BAL 09];
- – at a high level, the relations of dependence between these two communities of actors favor the dynamic production of assets and knowledge. Here, complementarity energizes the innovation process. The actors produce inventions that can later enter the design phase of the innovation.
Complementarity is based on digital platforms that act as an interface between the actors. The stronger the complementarity, the more assets and knowledge are transferred.
Good complementarity allows communities to combine their resources, knowledge and capabilities [BAL 09] to improve the efficiency of producing new assets and knowledge that can be integrated into future innovations and thus benefit end users.
4.4.1.2. Mobility
Mobility is the second component of co-specialization. It characterizes the degree of similarity in the resources and capabilities of actors [THO 18]. For example, there is a high degree of mobility between actors in scientific and technological ecosystems when methods, procedures and methodologies are based on scientific and technical processes. It is common for actors from scientific ecosystems to participate in the development of the invention with actors from the technological ecosystem. This will be even more frequent if the actors of the technological ecosystem have R&D centers.
There will be a low degree of mobility between the actors of the scientific and commercial ecosystems because the methods are based on scientific concepts for the former and on managerial methods for the latter. These actors encounter problems of language understanding. Sharing knowledge is difficult between those who work to bring scientific discoveries to light and those who are interested in innovation, and in particular its launch on the market.
Actors in the technological ecosystem generally have a high degree of mobility. They are able to work in concert with scientists to integrate discoveries into inventions. They are also able to transform or participate in the evolution of these inventions into innovations. Depending on their strategies, these actors, from the technological ecosystem, can be integrated into a commercial ecosystem if they have, for example, managerial experience. A high degree of mobility offers greater flexibility [AUT 14] to actors. This provides opportunities for innovation through combinations of assets and collective knowledge that promote the generation of ideas for future innovations. Similar skills and knowledge open up a large field of action favorable to the emergence of innovation [BAL 09].
4.4.1.3. Modularity
Modularity refers to the separability of activities and decisions throughout a production process [JAC 18]. It favors the coordination of entities that are both autonomous and interdependent. Here, modularity allows the actors of the three autonomous ecosystems to carry out, in an interdependent manner, all the phases of the innovation process, from discovery to the market, that a single ecosystem would not be able to do alone.
Modularity is the condition that allows an innovation ecosystem to take on a hub and spoke form [VAL 15] through flexible connections between the three communities. In this context, it creates the ideal conditions for the emergence of innovation. It is a response to the absence of a “central hierarchy” [JAC 18] and to the problem of inter-entity coordination as distinct from alliances, supply chains and purely market-based interrelationships.
Each ecosystem is a grouping of actors which, as we have seen, presents varying degrees of modularity. In the innovation process, the actors work autonomously, as in the emergence of the discovery, and they work in collective mode, as in the transformation of the invention into an innovation. Here, modularity pushes the actors towards co-specialization, where complementarity is present at the level of the sets of roles of the actors [ADN 17] that link the different ecosystems together. Thus, the actors of the ecosystems do not remain fixed in individual or community relationships, but rather take advantage of an expanded set of inter-ecosystem relationships to benefit from broader opportunities for discovery, invention and innovation.
In this context, the actors in each ecosystem retain control over their own assets. In other words, no actor, no ecosystem, can decide alone on the evolution of the innovation process as it is done in the presence of a focal firm.
4.4.2. Coordination
In co-specialization, coordination is orchestrated by regulatory relationships. This includes membership rules, the definition and understanding of objectives, and the control of processes [WAR 14] for transferring assets and knowledge from one ecosystem to another.
Coordination is based on relationships of trust that make the actors in the three ecosystems feel involved in a common innovation project. By identifying themselves collectively as actors in the innovation process, they feel legitimate [GUL 12] in the innovation ecosystem.
This legitimacy acts on the coordination of the actors. They know that the production of their assets will be valued. This legitimacy also encompasses the material and financial resources and the scientific and technical capacities [GAW 13] of the actors in these ecosystems. Here, coordination is based on regulatory relationships between actors. This is considered essential in the governance of the ecosystem [ADN 12].
It generates a tension between flexibility needs, which requires standardization, especially for technological assets [WAR 14]. The role of coordination is based on balancing this tension. In order to do this, three elements are essential: the control of actors, the definition of objectives and the control of processes [THO 18].
4.4.2.1. Membership as control of actors
The boundaries of ecosystems are permeable. The control of actors is generally based on membership [NAM 11]. It facilitates or hinders the ease with which actors enter and exit an ecosystem. Since there is no focal firm, the rules for membership of actors are set by each ecosystem, which will thus ensure the control of these actors.
The purpose of these membership rules is to delimit the space in which the actors of the ecosystem can act and deploy their activities [GUL 12]. For example, in the scientific ecosystem, these rules are set by the scientists according to the common objective to be achieved. The same is true for the technological and commercial ecosystems. Membership is indirectly controlled by common norms. For example, in order for the actor to join the ecosystem of their choice, they must commit to actively participating in the innovation process.
To do so, the actor commits to developing capabilities that provide results in terms of discovery, invention or innovation that are consistent with the common goals set by the actors in the innovation ecosystem [THO 18]. Within each ecosystem, actors can establish norms, particularly in science and technology, which will facilitate or harden the conditions for actors to adhere [BAL 09].
For the three ecosystems, indirect control of the actors is based on the results that emerge from each ecosystem. The expected results are those of the innovation process. The actors of the innovation ecosystem expect a discovery from the scientific ecosystem. Based on this discovery, the actors of the technological ecosystem will produce an invention that will be assimilated to an expected result, and finally, it is the turn of the actors of the commercial ecosystem to produce their results by designing the innovation and then distributing it on the targeted market.
The innovation ecosystem produces a small number of innovations that offer a more convincing outcomes in terms of ecosystem value than a large volume of innovations created without control of the actors by each ecosystem [HAG 10].
4.4.2.2. Sharing common goals
Strategically, stakeholder buy-in is facilitated if the objectives of the ecosystem, its reason for existence, are clearly understood by all stakeholders in the innovation ecosystem. For an objective to be clear, it must be developed collectively by all the actors. This objective must have a source. Often, the scientific ecosystem “sets the pace”. The discovery may be finalized or about to be finalized.
This source is detected via digital platforms or professional networks. Actors activate their networks which will serve as an information channel between actors of close or similar communities. Through this channel, they generate ideas for invention and/or innovation. Depending on the technology discovered, it is common for the final stage of the discovery to be guided by ideas for inventions or innovations generated during exchanges between scientists and technologists.
At this precise moment, the innovation ecosystem emerges, especially if the actors come together for the first time around a common idea of product invention–innovation. They develop the objectives of the innovation ecosystem. As a general rule, the more detailed and clear the objectives of the innovation ecosystem are, the greater the potential to generate value. These objectives order the flow of resources and knowledge [NAM 11] that are essential to the innovation process.
4.4.2.3. The innovation process as a framework
Strategically, these objectives must be in line with the purpose of the innovation ecosystem. The control of processes takes account of the rules and norms that govern the interactions between the actors [THO 18]. In the innovation ecosystem, goals are developed in accordance with the different phases of the innovation process (see Chapter 2). Here, the innovation process serves as a basis for the construction of common and shareable objectives. It provides a framework that establishes the “rules of the game” of the innovation ecosystem [THO 18]. It channels the implementation of these objectives up to the diffusion of the innovation on the market.
These coordination rules govern the activities, the sequence of phases in the innovation process, its feedback loops and the synchronization of actions. Called “participation architecture” [LUS 15], these coordination rules govern the flow of resources and knowledge between the actors who collectively interact to co-create value in the innovation ecosystem [NAM 11].
4.4.3. Co-evolution
The innovation process frames the innovation ecosystem and its actors in a logic of co-evolution. This is represented by a performance of values created by the results produced by each ecosystem. It is described as sustainable because it is influenced by the optimization [LUS 15] of the results obtained by each ecosystem. The result of one ecosystem will be valued by another ecosystem until the innovation is finalized and diffused on the market.
Actors co-evolve along with the innovation process. Zahra and Nambisan have shown that breeder, feeder and niche actors are more involved in co-evolutionary logics than in their own strategic positioning in the innovation ecosystem [ZAH 11]. This is probably due to the fact that the innovation ecosystem is not organized around a focal firm that controls the actors, coordinates them and manages the innovation process.
In the innovation ecosystem, the actors coordinate themselves according to the objectives of the innovation ecosystem. These actors know their roles within this ecosystem and coordinate their actions and activities according to the progress of the innovation process. These actors influence each other in this environment that is more flexible than one under the control of a focal firm. They take initiatives and are able to react quickly to environmental changes. These actors co-evolve to preserve their synergy through co-specialization. They maintain a favorable balance in which actors and ecosystems co-evolve in a sustainable and efficient manner.
4.5. Conclusion
This chapter, devoted to the actors of the innovation ecosystem, has highlighted the importance of the roles of contrib-actors and complementary actors grouped into three distinct communities. These communities, between co-specialization and multiple dependencies, do not require the guidance and control of a central hierarchy, usually exercised by a focal firm.
As we have seen, digital platforms support this co-specialization and stimulate the evolution of the actors and the ecosystem. They maintain the complementarity of the actors. This is articulated between mobility and the modularity of their activities and decisions. They encourage control based on the adhesion of actors who share common objectives – those of the innovation ecosystem – within the framework of the innovation process.
Digital platforms encourage actors to move towards hub and spoke ecosystems. Indeed, they are a melting pot of data, on material assets and knowledge acquired and produced by the actors of the innovation ecosystem. Through these platforms, actors share all types of information useful to the realization of the innovation process. In the absence of a focal firm, these platforms are the basis for the emergence of strong interdependencies, as we will see in Chapter 5.