1 Underlying Rights
Never judge a book by its movie.
J. W. Egan
Financing Intellectual Property Rights
One of the fundamental elements of the film business is the buying and selling of rights: rights in books, scripts, treatments, magazine articles, short stories and various other forms of intellectual property. It is customary for a producer or production company to initially option the underlying rights in a project that is based on an existing form of intellectual property. For economic reasons, the cost of an option is much less than buying the rights. As a rule of thumb, producers generally pay 10 per cent per year of the purchase price. If the purchase price is £50,000 then a producer will pay £5,000 for a year-long option. This gives the producer a year to decide whether they want to exercise the option and purchase the rights. Producers usually negotiate the right to extend the option for another year by paying an additional fee, i.e., another 10 per cent. In most cases, the initial option fee is on account of the purchase price so, in the example above, if the producer decides to exercise the option during the first option period, he will have to pay only £45,000 for the rights, as he has already paid the £5,000 option fee.
An Option Agreement must be in writing and must be signed by the person who owns the underlying work (the person who owns the copyright).
From a financier's or a banker's perspective, the ownership of rights is paramount for any film financing transaction. From personal experience as an entertainment lawyer, many film-financing transactions are delayed because producers have not acquired all of the rights necessary to satisfy the requirements of the financier or bank.
Assuming that a producer has raised all the funds needed to finance their film, a bank or financier will send the producer a term sheet or deal memorandum offering to lend money and help finance their production. This is usually done so that a producer will agree the material deal points with the bank or financier. The term sheet/deal memo will contain all the relevant commercial issues and will generally set out a list of condition precedents required by the bank before lending any money. (See chapter four for a sample term sheet/offer letter.)
In relation to rights, most term sheets have a condition precedent provision as follows:
The borrower must provide original or certified copies of the rights documents and/or evidence that the borrower has title to the rights.
Another variation can read:
The borrower must provide the rights documents confirming that the borrower has full and unfettered title to produce the film based on the screenplay.
Banks will require a full chain of title in relation to any film they decide to finance. The chain of title documents that the producer must provide, may, depending on the type of underlying rights, include any or all of the following:
- An Option Agreement
- An Option Extension Agreement
- Assignment or Purchase Agreement
- Short Form Option Agreement
- Short Form Assignment Agreement
- Assignment of Copyright
- Quit Claim
- Writer's Agreement
- Publisher's Release
- Life Story Rights Agreement
All film deals are different, so the particular underlying rights documents required by the bank vary depending on the facts. A film based on a book with a screenplay written by multiple writers over a long period of development with various drafts will have more documents in the chain of title than a film based on an original screenplay by one writer.
It is common practice and sometimes a requirement by financiers to record documents at the United States Copyright Office. Most long form option agreements for copyright works include a short form option agreement and short form assignment. These documents are for registration purposes and do not contain all of the commercial terms agreed between the parties. By recording these documents, this enables others to see that the producer has an interest in an underlying work.
In many film financing deals, the bank and other financiers will require the producer's lawyer to provide a chain of title opinion. The producer's lawyer will be required to review all of the underlying rights documents and give an opinion that the producer owns or has acquired all the rights that are necessary to exploit the film. In addition, the opinion will also have to confirm that the producer has the right to assign all rights (or certain rights) under the chain of title documents. Lawyers generally qualify and limit the scope of/and who can rely on their opinion.
The following is a checklist of important clauses in an option/assignment agreement that are necessary for the due diligence process to be completed by a bank or bank's lawyer. If a producer has entered into an agreement with a writer or owner of an underlying work and has not included most of the following clauses then a bank or financier will require the producer to re-draft their documentation. This can result in lengthy negotiations with agents or lawyers. In many cases, the closing of the financing is delayed as a result. The following is a checklist which the bank or financier's lawyers will focus on while reviewing an option and assignment agreement.
- Parties to the Agreement
It is common for a producer at the outset of the development process to enter into an agreement with a writer or rights owner with a company that may be different from the entity, usually a single purpose company (SPV) set up to make the film. A producer will be required to assign the option or any rights that have been assigned from the original company to the new SPV. - Consideration for the Option
All sums due under the agreement should be paid and the producer may be required to provide proof of that payment in the form of a receipt or acknowledgement in writing from the rights owner. - Option Period
The agreement will set out how long the option period runs for and whether it has expired. Believe it or not, in many deals an option may have expired, even though all parties to the deal are in agreement with one another. A simple solution in this circumstance is to draft an extension agreement that is attached to the original option agreement. This option extension agreement will then form another document in the chain of title. - Exercise of Option
If the option has been exercised in writing and all payments are made under the assignment then there should be a written document that records this. - Assignment
Since copyright is a form of property, it can (subject to certain exceptions) be bought and sold, charged, licensed and dealt with, in any way the original owner may choose. It is essential that the rights that the producer is trying to acquire are freely assignable. Not only should the rights be assignable, but the agreement entered into by the producer, intending to assign or give the producer the right to do so, should also be assignable to a potential financier as security. - Entire Agreement Clauses
Just what it says. That the agreement is the complete understanding between the parties, it supersedes all other agreements and cannot be modified except in writing and signed by both parties. - Governing Law
This clause sets out which country's laws govern the agreement and in most cases if there is a dispute, where the dispute will be adjudicated.
The assignment/purchase agreement
- Parties to the Agreement
See option agreement notes. - Rights Granted
This is the clause that is of most concern to a bank or potential financier. At one time, producers would acquire all rights in the underlying work for the full period of copyright. This would enable the producer to exploit the rights by all means and in all media without any restrictions whatsoever and without the obligation to make any further payments except to certain performers in relation to residuals, repeat fees, or other collection organizations.
Now that deals have become much more complex, both in the acquisition of rights and in the financing process, producers often may obtain limited rights to make only one film. If this is the case, it is prudent to negotiate in advance, upon payment of a further fee, the right to make prequels, sequels or other derivative works based on the underlying rights.
The financier's or banker's lawyer reviewing this clause in an agreement will set out, in detail, all the rights that the producer is entitled to exploit. The report will set out if there are any reserved rights, such as publication, stage or radio rights or any rights that the producer is not entitled to. - Duration and Extent of Rights Granted
The agreement must contain a clause that sets out how long the producer can exploit the underlying rights. For feature films it is advisable to acquire as many rights as possible for the full period of copyright. A short duration will ultimately affect the sales agent's or distributor's ability to exploit the finished film. Most financiers or end users such as distributors will not acquire rights in a film unless the producer has all rights in the underlying work and subsequent film for the full period of copyright or at least a substantial amount of time that will enable the sales agent or distributor to recoup their investment by making appropriate long-term licences/sales of the film. - Right to Make Changes
In order for the producer to fully exploit the rights, they will have to ensure that there is a waiver of the author's or writer's moral rights and with an express right to alter and adapt the underlying work. - Consideration
The due diligence process will ensure that all payments have been made or will be paid on the first day of principal photography. This clause will also set out what is being paid for, i.e. film rights, TV rights or separate payments for different types of exploitation. - Representation and Warranties and No Infringement
Standard representations and warranties that the writer is the owner of the copyright, the work is original, has not breached any third party rights and that the rights have not be assigned to anyone else, will be required in the agreement. - Indemnity
The agreement should contain a clause that requires each party to agree an indemnity against all losses that may arise as a result of the other parties' breach. Since the producer will be assigning the benefit of the agreement to a bank or financier then that assignee will want the right to rely on any indemnities that have been given. - Credit Provisions
The credit provisions will be checked to ensure that prior to delivery of the film, the writer or author will receive their agreed credit. This provision should state that any inadvertent failure to give a credit will not enable the individual entitled to that credit to seek an injunction against the producers or subsequent theatrical distributor. If this was the case, then a writer who was entitled to a credit that was not given for whatever reason could actually stop the film from being released. Usually this type of clause sets out that the only remedy for missing credits are monetary damages. - Assignment
A bank or financier will require that the producer is able to transfer or assign the agreement to the bank or financier in order to take a charge or mortgage over the rights. This ultimately enables the bank or financier to enforce repayment in certain circumstances. A charge or mortgage will be meaningless if it cannot be assigned to a lender. See chapter four for further explanation of charges.
The Chain of Title Opinion
A chain of title opinion letter is usually required by a bank or financier as a condition precedent for closing the financing on a film production. Not only do banks require the chain of title opinion, but any other financier or participant who is at risk in a film transaction may ask to be named as a beneficiary to the opinion. The opinion acts as an additional form of comfort that all of the underlying rights are in order and that there is no likelihood of potential litigation or a claim being made. The following is an example of a form of opinion letter that is given bya producer's lawyer to a bank involved in the financing of a feature film. Please note that an opinion given by a lawyer in relation to the underlying rights in a feature film will always be based on the particular circumstances and rights involved in the development of that specific film.
Sample Chain of Title Opinion Letter
Dated:
Dear Sirs
[Name of Bank] (the ‘Bank’)
[Name of Producer] (the ‘Producer’)
[Name of Film] (the ‘Production’)
We act in the capacity of UK production counsel to the Producer in connection with the production and financing by the Producer of the Production.
As such counsel, we have examined or reviewed the following agreements relating to the acquisition by the Producer of all rights and copyright in and to the screenplay in respect of the film currently entitled ‘[ ]’
- Option Agreement dated [ ]
- Option Extension Agreement dated [ ]
- Option and Purchase Agreement dated [ ]
- Short Form Option dated [ ]
- Short Form Assignment of Copyright dated [ ]
- Certificate of Authorship dated [ ]
- Assignment Agreement dated [ ]
- Exercise Letter dated [ ]
- Quit Claim dated [ ]
- Second Option Extension dated [ ]
(Collectively the ‘Chain of Title Documents’)
In connection with this opinion, we have not reviewed documents other than the Chain of Title Documents referred to above.
We have assumed that in respect of all documents referred to herein, all signatures are genuine, all documents submitted as originals are authentic, all documents submitted as certified copies conform to the original document and such documents are authentic. We have further assumed the legal competency of any individual executing such documents.
We have also assumed that the Chain of Title Documents have been executed and delivered by the parties therein in accordance with the laws of the jurisdiction or jurisdictions applicable thereto.
Based upon and relying on the foregoing, and subject to the assumptions, qualifications and limitations expressed herein, weare of the opinion that:
- By virtue of the Chain of Title Documents, the Producer owns or has acquired all rights which are necessary to exploit the Production in all media throughout the world, and the Producer has the right to assign all rights under the Chain of Title Documents to the [NAME OF BANK IN MOST CASES BUT SOME EXCEPTIONS]
- No person, firm or corporation has any agreement or option or rights capable of becoming an agreement for the purchase of the rights contemplated in the Chain of Title Documents.
The foregoing opinions are subject to the following qualifications:
- Copyright in [may wish to state jurisdiction] arises upon the creation of the work by the author or composer and subsists even in the absence of the legal formality of copyright registration. We have conducted no copyright searches in respect of this matter. Under the laws of [Name of country] an assignment may be affected even in the absence of the legal formality of copyright registration. Therefore, even a search of the copyright registers may not reveal all copyrighted works such as are contained in the Production.
- This opinion is based upon the laws of [England and Wales] and therefore do not express an opinion under the laws of any other jurisdiction other than the laws of the jurisdictions referred to above.
- We are of the opinion that all moral rights of parties contributing copyright works to the Production have been waived.
- The validity, enforceability and binding nature of the Chain of Title Documents is subject to (i) any applicable bankruptcy, insolvency, moratorium, organization, personal property or similar laws at the time in effect affecting the rights, powers, privileges, remedies and/or interests of creditors generally.
- Equitable remedies, such as specific performance and injunctions, are in the discretion of the applicable court of competent jurisdiction before which such remedies are sought. Without limiting the generality of the foregoing, a court may consider the conduct or course of conduct of the parties and require that the parties act with reasonableness.
- We express no opinion with respect to the availability of any particular remedy and the ability to recover certain costs, damages and expenses, whether by reason of indemnity,contribution or otherwise, is subject to the discretion of the court regardless of whether enforcement is considered in equity or at law. In particular, nothing in this opinion is to be taken as indicating that the remedy of, or any order for, specific performance or the issue of any injunction will be available.
- There may be material added to the script based on underlying works and contemplating the use of music, other works, translations, locations and personal appearances. Consequently, our opinion is in respect of the [Chain of Title Documents] only. The Producer's ownership of certain rights in the completed Production will be subject to the Producer's full and proper clearance of all underlying works, music, translations, personal appearances and other matters subject to clearance during production and in accordance with a valid errors and omissions policy of insurance and such an insurer's recognized clearance procedures.
- A number of the agreements entered into by the Producer may contain obligations to extend participation, credit and profit participation to other parties as well as obligations of the Producer which are customary in the film industry. This opinion is given assuming that all such obligations have been fulfilled to date or will be fulfilled by the Producer and are not encumbrances to ownership of the Production.
This opinion is rendered solely for the benefit of [Name of bank, financier or the parties that require an opinion] in connection with [Name of film] and not for the benefit of any other person and may not be used, circulated, quoted from, published or otherwise referred to for any other purpose and may not be relied upon by any other person without our prior written consent in each instance. This opinion is rendered as of the date set forth above and we are under no obligation to revise, supplement or update the opinions contained herein to take into account any changes in facts or changes in law which are brought to our attention after the date hereof.
Yours faithfully
[Name of Lawyer, Law Firm]
Sample Chain of Title Documents
- Certificate of Authorship
- Short Form Option Agreement
- Short Form Assignment Agreement
- Quit Claim and Notice of Ownership of Copyright and Other Rights
Certificate of Authorship
Reference is made to the film currently entitled [ ] (the ‘Film’) I, [Name of Writer] hereby certify that I wrote the original screenplay entitled [ ] (‘the Work’) and that pursuant to various assignment agreements, [ ] (‘the Producer’) owns all right, title and interest throughout the world in and to said Film based on the Work and the results and proceeds of my writing services in accordance with the said agreement and the Producer shall be deemed the author and sole owner of the Work and all other literary works, drafts and revisions thereto written by me and the right to use, adapt and change said Work and derivative works thereof.
The above rights have been signed in perpetuity.
[Name]
Writer
On [ ], before me, a notary public or solicitor, personally appeared [Name of Writer], known to me personally or proved to me on the basis of satisfactory evidence, to be the person who executed the within instrument, as the individual who executed the within instrument.
Witness my hand and official seal [ ]
NOTARY PUBLIC
Short Form Option Agreement
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS: That in consideration of the payment of [£1] and other good and valuable consideration, receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, the undersigned, [ ] (Author), does hereby grant to [ ] (‘Producer’) and its assigns, successors, licensees and transferees forever, the exclusive and irrevocable right and option to purchase from the undersigned all audiovisual rights of every kind, now known or hereafter devised, including, without limitation, the sole and exclusive film, television musical, merchandising and commercial tie-up rights, and all allied and ancillary rights, throughout the universe, in perpetuity, in and to that certain original, [published] [unpublished] [novel] [screenplay] described as follows:
TITLE: [ ]
AUTHOR: [ ]
COPYRIGHT REGISTRATION: [ ]
The undersigned and Producer have entered into that certain literary option/purchase agreement (the ‘Agreement’), dated [ ], relating to the transfer and assignment of the foregoing rights in and to said literary work. Without limiting the generality of the foregoing, this Short Form Option Agreement shall be deemed to include, and shall be limited to, those rights of whatever nature which are included within the Agreement, which is not limited, added to, modified or amended hereby, and this Short Form Option Agreement is expressly made subject to all of the terms, conditions and provisions contained in the Agreement.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the undersigned has executed this instrument as of
[ ], 200[ ].
[ ]
(Name of Author/Writer)
Short Form Assignment Agreement
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS: That in consideration of the payment of [£1] and other good valuable consideration, receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, the undersigned, [ ] (Author), does hereby sell, assign, grant and set over unto [ ] (‘Producer’) and its assigns, successors, licensees and transferees, all audiovisual rights of every kind, now known or hereafter devised, including, without limitation, the sole and exclusive film, television, musical, merchandising and commercial tie-up rights, and all allied and ancillary rights, throughout the universe, in perpetuity, in and to that certain original, [published] [unpublished] [novel] [screenplay] described as follows:
TITLE: [ ]
AUTHOR: [ ]
COPYRIGHT REGISTRATION: [ ]
Including all contents thereof all present and future adaptations and versions, and the theme, title and characters thereof, everywhere throughout the universe.
The undersigned and Producer have entered into that certain literary option/purchase agreement (the ‘Agreement’), dated as of [ ], relating to the transfer and assignment of the foregoing rights in and to said literary work. Without limiting the generality of the foregoing, this Short Form Assignment shall be deemed to include, and shall be limited to, those rights of whatever nature which are included within the Agreement, which is not limited, added to, modified or amended hereby, and this Short Form Assignment is expressly made subject to all of the terms, conditions and provisions contained in the Agreement.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the undersigned has executed this Assignment on
[ ].
[ ]
(Name of Author/Writer)
Acknowledgement
On [ ], 200[ ], before me, [ ], personally appeared [ ], personally known to me (or approved to me on the basis of satisfactory evidence) to be the person(s) whose name(s) is/are subscribed to the within instrument and acknowledged to me that he/she/they executed the same in his/her/their authorized capacity(ies), and that by his/her/their signature(s) on the instrument the person(s), or the entity(ies) upon behalf of which the person(s) acted, executed the instrument.
WITNESS my hand and official seal.
[ ]
Signature of Notary
Quit Claim and Notice of Ownership of Copyright and Other Rights
This agreement (the ‘Agreement’) is entered into and is effective as of [ ] by and between ABC Films Limited, (the ‘Producer’) and Y(‘Y’):
WHEREAS:
- By Agreement dated as of [ ], Y entered into an Option Agreement (the ‘Short Form Option’) with Producer, whereby Producer acquired an option to purchase the screenplay (the ‘Screenplay’) currently entitled [ ] written by Y;
- By Agreement dated as of [ ], the Short Form Option was extended until [ ] (the ‘Option Extension’);
- By Agreement dated as of [ ], Y entered into a Literary Option and Purchase Agreement pursuant to which Y agreed to sell and Producer agreed to purchase the Screenplay on the terms and subject to the conditions set out therein (the ‘Purchase Agreement’) so that Producer could produce a feature length motion picture based on the Screenplay (the ‘Film’);
- By Agreement dated as of [ ], the Producer assigned all right, title and interest in and to the Short Form Option and the Option Extension to Y (the ‘Assignment’);
- The Short Form Option, the Option Extension, and the Assignment are collectively referred to as the ‘Agreements’;
- The Producer wishes to remise, release and quit claim any and all of its rights acquired from Y under the Agreements.
NOW THEREFORE THIS AGREEMENT WITNESSES that in consideration of the obligations and undertakings of the parties hereunder and for other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which is hereby acknowledged, the parties agree as follows:
Quit Claim
- The Producer remises, releases and quit claims all right, title and interest in and to the Screenplay and the Film granted pursuant to the Agreements, and for greater certainty, confirms that it is not currently and hereafter shall not subsequently be entitled to any revenues from the exploitation of the Film.
- The Producer further quit claims any and all copyright interest in connection with the Film.
- The Producer hereby agrees to execute any and all further documents and assurances that Y may reasonably request to effect, protect, evidence or continue the quit claim of the Film set forth above.
- The parties acknowledge and agree that upon the execution of this Agreement, the Agreements shall be deemed terminated. Thereupon each of the parties shall have released and do hereby release, the other from and against any and all obligations and claims of any kind and nature under the Agreements.
- The Assignment is hereby nullified.
Representations and warranties
The Producer hereby represents and warrants to Y with respect to the Screenplay as follows:
- Except as set out above, it has not sold, transferred, assigned or otherwise disposed of any of its right, title and interest in and to the Screenplay.
- It has the right and capacity to enter into and perform this Agreement.
- There are no liens or encumbrances on the Screenplay, and no claims have been made or litigation instituted or, to the best of its knowledge, threatened with respect thereto.
- It has not produced or authorized the production of any motion picture, television or dramatic presentation in any media whatsoever based on the Screenplay.
- Prior to the effective date hereof, it did not breach any, and performed all of the obligations which it was required to perform under the Agreements, and all sums which had accrued and were payable pursuant to the provisions of the Agreements were paid.
- To the best of its knowledge, it has not done or omitted to do any act or thing that will impair, alter, diminish the rights herein assigned, granted, quit claimed and otherwise transferred to Y.
Indemnification - The Producer shall defend, indemnify and otherwise hold Y, his successors, heirs, assigns and licensees free and harmless from and against any and all liabilities, claims, demands, damage, fees, expenses and costs (including reason outside attorneys; fees and disbursements) arising out of or resulting from any breach by The Producer of any of its representations, warranties or agreements contained in this Agreement.
Other documentation - The parties hereto shall each execute and deliver to the other such further documents, if any, as are reasonably required to carry out and effectuate the purposes and intent of this Agreement.
Notices - Notices required by this Agreement shall be in writing. Any notices hereunder shall be given by personal delivery, or by mailing by registered or certified mail or by telecopying the same to the appropriate party at the addresses set forth below:
To [ ]
To Producer: [ ]
c.c. [ ]
Any notice mailed, personally delivered or telecopied as aforesaid shall be deemed to have been given on the date of mailing or telecopying or the date of personal delivery.
Binding on successor and assigns - This Agreement shall be binding on and inure to the benefit of the parties hereto and their respective successor, heirs, licensees and assigns.
Governing law - This Agreement shall be construed and enforced in accordance with the laws of [ ] applicable to contracts entered into and performed therein.
Counterparts - This Agreement may be executed in one or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original, but all of which shall be taken together shall constitute one and the same instruments. Delivery of an executed counterpart of the Agreement via telephone facsimile shall be effective as delivery of a manually executed counterpart.
Entire agreement - This Agreement contains the entire understanding of the parties hereto and replaces any and all former agreements, understandings and representations and contains all of the terms, conditions, understandings and promises of the parties hereto, relating in any way to the subject matter hereof. This Agreement may not be modified except in writing signed by the parties.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the parties have executed this Agreement effective as of the date and year first set forth above.
By: [ ]
Its: [ ]
[ ]
PRODUCER HEREBY ACKNOWLEDGES THIS AGREEMENT
Per:
[ ]
Per: [ ]