8-bit imaging, 463–4
16-bit imaging, 463–4
Aberrations, 175–80
Abney effect, 96
Absolute colorimetry, 87–9, 100
Absolute spectral power distribution, 100–101
Absorption filters, 194–5
Accelerators, 256
see also Alkalis
Acceptance angles, 233–5
Acceptor dopants, 157–8
Acetateebutyrate, 8
Achromat lenses, 182
Achromatopia, 69
Acquisition devices, 383–5
Actinic exposure, 150
Active pixel sensors, 164
Acutance, 256
ADC, see Analogue-to-digital conversion
Additive colour photography, 98, 393–5, 412–13
Additive mixing, 10
Adobe RGB (red, green, blue) 1998, 385–6, 419
AE, see Automatic exposure
Afocal converter lenses, 191–2
After-images, 95
Aliases/aliasing, 135, 136, 137
Alkaline cells, 223
Allyl diglycol carbonate, 103
Amacrine cells, 66
Amplification: image sensors, 164–6
Amplitudes: light theory, 22–3, 28–9
Analogue systems, 2–4, 13, 206, 273–4
see also Silver halide imaging
Analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC), 162, 164–6, 207, 231, 240
Analysis stages of colour image control, 6
Anastigmat lenses, 183–4
Angular limits of resolution, 34
Angular temporal frequencies, 25
Anhydrous sodium sulphite, 257–8
Anomalous vision, 69–70
Anti-aliasing filters, see Optical low pass filters
Antibloom drains, 168–9
Anti-foggants, 258
Anti-reflection coatings, 104–5, 115–16, 194–5
Apertures, 111, 112, 180, 228, 229
Appearance colour reproductions, 100
Arbitrary density, 142–3
Arithmetic operations, 507
L-Ascorbic acid, 257
Aspherical mirrors, 108–9
Assisted focusing autofocus modes, 217
Atmospheric gases, 336
Atoms: light theory, 40–42
Autocorrelation functions, 437, 439
Auto-exposure, 273
Autofocus systems, 217–19, 273
Automatic exposure (AE), 95, 219
Automatic flash exposure, 54, 55
Average gradients, 146–7
Average reflectance, 229–30
Averaging luminance values, 240
Axial chromatic aberrations, 105, 175–6
Axial lighting, 55
Axial myopia, 71
Back focal distance (BFD), 185–6, 190
Band-pass/stop filters, 527–9
Bare-bulb technique, 48
BartlesoneBreneman effects, 97
Battery-capacitor circuits, 51
Battery power, 222–3
Beam candle power (BCP), 52
Bellows extensions, 215–16
Bessel function, 33
BezoldeeBrücke hue shift, 96
BFD, see Back focal distance
Binocular vision, 73
Bipolar cells, 66
Bit-depths, 13–16, 286, 389–91, 463–4
Bit-plane coding, 543
Black-and-white photography, 128, 129, 195
Black body radiation, 20
Black-body radiation, 37–9
Black-body radiators, 44
Black light, 36–7
Blooming, 168–9
Blur, 209
Brewster angle, 196
Bridge digital cameras, 279
see also Tone reproduction
Bruch’s membrane, 61
Buffers, 258
Cadmium sulphide (CdS) photoresistors, 229–30, 233, 234
Cadmium sulphide cells, 219
Callier coefficients, 141–2
Calotype processes, 7
Camera backs, 279–80
Camera flare, 115
Camera lenses, 175–97
aberrations, 175–80
achromats, 182
afocal converter lenses, 191–2
anastigmats, 183–4
catadioptric lenses, 192
close-up lenses, 192
compound lenses, 181–2
double Gauss lenses, 184
doublet lenses, 181–3
fish-eye lenses, 186
long-focus lenses, 186–8
macro lenses, 191
modern camera lenses, 184–5
optical attachments, 191–4
optical filters, 194–7
Petzval lenses, 182
retrofocus lenses, 186
simple lenses, 181
symmetrical-derivative lenses, 185–6
symmetrical doublet lenses, 182–3
teleconverters, 193–4
triplet lenses, 184
wide-angle lenses, 185–6
Camera obscura, 6
CAMs, see Colour appearance models
Candela units, 46
Carbon–zinc cells, 223
Cardinal planes, 106–7
Cartesian sign conventions, 107–8
Catadioptric lenses, 176, 187–8
Cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, 12, 125–6, 289–93, 381–2
CATs, see Chromatic adaptation transformations
‘Cat’s-eyes’, 75
CCDs, see Charge-coupled devices
CCMs, see Colour correction matrices
CdS, see Cadmium sulphide photoresistors
Cellulose triacetate, 8
Cemented achromatic doublet lenses, 175, 176
Central processing units (CPUs), 206–7
Centre-weighted average metering, 237–8
Ceramic oscillators, 207
CFAs, see Colour filter arrays
Characteristic curves, 143–6, 149–50
Characterization models, 425–6
Charge-coupled devices (CCDs):
colour science, 100–101
detective quantum efficiency, 452–3
digital cameras, 266–8
exposure/image control, 230, 232, 233
image formation, 120, 125, 128, 129, 137–8
readouts, 161–4
sensitivity/speed, 374–5
spectral sensitivity, 366
Chemical development, 256
Chemical sensitization, 251
Chief ray angles (CRAs), 169
Chlorobromide materials, 251
Chlorolabe, 66
Choroid, 61–2
Chroma, 78
Chromatic aberrations, 175–7
Chromatic adaptation, 94
Chromatic adaptation transformations (CATs), 95, 97–8
Chromatic colours, 78
Chromatic corrections, 181
Chromaticity diagrams, 88–91
CIE standard illuminants, 81–2
see also Commission Internationale de l’Éclarage
Ciliary body, 61
Circular aperture diffraction, 32–4
Circular polarization, 29–30, 197
Closed-loop management systems, 476–7
Close-up depth of field, 111
Close-up lenses, 192
Close-up photography, 108, 114
CMOS, see Complementary metal oxide semiconductors
CMSs, see Colour management systems
CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow), 10, 15, 393
CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, black), 413, 496–7
Coherent wavefronts, 30–32
Coincidence-type rangefinders, 216–17
Cold mirror filters, 195
Collimated light, 27
Collodion, 7
Colorimetry, 142–3, 408–9, 414
basics, 84–94
chromaticity diagrams, 88–91
colour differences, 91–2
colour matching functions, 86–7
colour science, 82, 84–94, 99–101
metamerism, 92–4
photographic colour reproduction, 408–9
spectral data, 87–8
standard observers, 86–7
tristimulus values, 87–8
uniform colour spaces, 91–2
Colour:
anomalous vision, 69–70
appearance spaces, 414
blindness, 69–70
camera lenses, 195
colourfulness, 78
constancy, 95
demosaicing, 274–5
densitometers, 153–4
digital printing, 309–312
displays, 300–301
encoding, 316
human visual system, 69
image sensors, 171–2
imaging process, 5, 6, 9–10, 11–12
light theory, 38
negative film, 372
rendering, 277
sensitivity, 367
space conversion profiles, 487–8
speed, 372–3
temperature, 44–6
Colour appearance models (CAMs), 97–8
Colour correction matrices (CCMs), 172
Coloured ‘gels’, 6
Colour filter arrays (CFAs), 172, 270–71
Colour management systems (CMSs), 6, 317, 464–6, 475–99
closed-loop management, 476–7
CMYK, 496–7
colour space conversion profiles, 487–8
digital camera profiling, 492
digital image workflow, 464–6
display profiles, 490–91
early-binding workflow, 496
input profiles, 491–2
intermediate colour spaces, 497
late-binding workflow, 496
open-loop management, 476–7
output profiles, 493–5
profile connection space, 479
profile processing models, 484–6
profile structure, 486–9
proofing images, 497–8
RGB, 496–7
scanner profiling, 492
soft-proofing images, 497–8
tasks, 475–6
workflow, 495–8
Colour rendering indices (CRIs), 45
Colour reproduction, 98–100, 347
Colour reversal film, 372–3
Colour science, 77–102
chromatic adaptation transformations, 97–8
colour appearance, 94–8
colour matching functions, 86–7
colour reproduction, 98–100
illuminating geometries, 80–81
measurement instruments, 100–101
models, 97–8
object colour, 78–80
physics, 77
standard illuminants/sources, 81–2
terminology, 77–8
viewing conditions, 101–2
viewing geometries, 80–81
Colour silver-based materials, 372–3
Column parallel readouts, 268
Coma: camera lenses, 178
Commercial photography, 471–2
Commission Internationale de l‘Éclarage (CIE), 6, 77–102, 413
Compact cameras, 190–91, 200–201, 278–9
Compact-source iodide (CSI) lamps, 50
Complementary metal oxide
semiconductors (CMOS):
detective quantum efficiency, 452–3
digital cameras, 266–8
exposure/image control, 230
image formation, 120, 125, 128, 129
spectral sensitivity, 366
Complex lenses, 106–7
Compound mirrors, 108–9
Compression, see Image compression
Computer monitors, 12
Conduction bands, 41
Conductors, 155–6
Cone receptors, 9–10, 62–6, 68–9, 75
Conjunctiva, 60
Constant phases: light theory, 27
Constructive interference, 30, 31
Continuous image functions, 13
Continuous quantities: light theory, 38
Continuous spectra, 43
Continuous tone images, 12
Contouring, 390
Contrast:
displays, 299
human visual system, 68
image formation/photographic process, 255–6, 259
photographic optics, 114–15
sensitometry, 143–5, 147, 150–51
spatial image processing, 503–4
tone reproduction, 386–8
see also Tone reproduction
Contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs), 74, 83
Conversion profiles, 487–8
Convolution, 123–4, 127–8, 133, 134, 523–4
Corpuscular theory, 19–20
Correction of eyesight, 70–71
Correction filters, 195
Corresponding colour reproduction, 100
Cortical magnification, 73
Cosine (cos) waves, 23–5, 120–22, 129–30, 134–6
Cosine law of illumination, 47
Coupled rangefinder systems, 217
Coupler-incorporated films, 402–3
Covalent bonds, 156–7
Covering power, 181
CPUs, see Central processing units
CRAs, see Chief ray angles
CRIs, see Colour rendering indices
Crispening, 96
Critical states, 41
Cropping, 276
CRT, see Cathode ray tube displays
Crystalline optical materials, 103–4
Crystalline sodium sulphite, 257
CSFs, see Contrast sensitivity functions
CSI, see Compact-source iodide lamps
Curvature of field, 178
Curvilinear distortions, 178–80
Custom device profiles, 489–95
‘Cut-off’, 112
Cyanolabe, 66
D/A converters, see Digital-to-analogue converters
Daguerreotype, 7
Dark chambers, 6
Dark fading, 331–3
Darkroom work, 260
Daylight series, 82
Densitometers, 152–4
Density, 114, 140–43, 153, 369, 508–9
Depletion regions, 158–9
Depth of field, 111
Depth of focus, 111
Depth-of-field autofocus modes, 217
Destructive interference, 30–31, 32
Detective quantum efficiency (DQE), 450–53
Deutans, 69
Deuteranopia, 69
Developers, 256
Developing solutions, 256–7
Development latitude, 150
Device colour characterization, 420–26
Device dependent colour spaces, 413, 414
Diaphragms, 111
Dichroic filters, 11
Dichromacy, 69
Dictionary techniques, 546–7
Differential coding, 543–4
Diffuse density, 140–42
Digestion sensitization, 251
Digital acquisition devices, 383–5
Digital cameras, 190–91, 240–42, 263–88, 366–7, 492
analogue processing, 273–4
auto-exposure, 273
autofocus control, 273
bridge digital cameras, 279
camera backs, 279–80
colour capture, 269–72
colour management systems, 492
colour rendering, 277
compact types, 278–9
dynamic ranges, 268–9
image control, 240–42
image sensors, 266–8
large formats, 279–80
medium formats, 279–80
optics, 265–6
profiling, 492
rendered camera processing, 272–3
scanners, 280–87
shutter systems, 268
single-lens reflex cameras, 279
specialist cameras, 280
spectral sensitivity, 366–7
still cameras, 263–5
tone rendering, 277
types, 277–80
unrendered camera processing, 272–3
zone systems, 242
zoom lenses, 190–91
Digital colour reproduction, 411–32
Digital half-tones, 14
artefacts, 350–51
colour capture, 11–12
colour image control, 6
colour representation, 15
early digital images, 10–11
evaluating image quality, 17
exposure/image control, 232
file formats/sizes, 15, 315–28
image quality/system performance, 350–51
image representation, 12–15
longevity/storage, 339–43
processing, 521–34
spatial image processing, 501–2
workflow, 457–73
Digital input device characterization, 428–9
Digital Negative (DNG) formats, 322
Digital printing, 303–314
Digital print life expectancies, 336–9
Digital processing, 274–7
Digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras, 279
Digital still cameras (DSCs), 128, 129, 263–5
Digital-to-analogue (D/A) converters, 207
1,4-Dihydroxybenzene, 257
Diode lasers, 57
Dirac combs, 134–5
Dirac delta functions, 130–31, 132
Direct density, 140–41
Direct Fourier transformations, 439–40
Direct-vision optical finders, 213
Discontinuous spectra, 43
Discounting the illuminant, 95
Discrete convolution, 503
Discrete Fourier transforms (DTFs), 134–8
Discrete image functions, 13
Discrete wavelet transforms, 533–4
Dispersion:
light theory, 19–20, 27–8, 33, 36–7
photographic optics, 105
Display characterization, 426–8
Display profiles, 490–91
Displays, 289–302
artefacts, 301–2
cathode ray tube displays, 289–93
characteristics, 297–302
colour, 300–301
contrast ratios, 299
flexible displays, 297
image displays, 289
liquid crystal displays, 293–6
luminance, 299
organic light-emitting displays, 296–7
plasma display panels, 296
refresh rates, 297–8
resolution, 298–9
response times, 297–8
viewing angles, 299–300
viewing conditions, 302
Distortion, 17, 108, 181, 351, 547–8
Dithering, 310
DNG, see Digital Negative formats
Donor dopants, 157–8
Doped silicon, 11
Doping, 156–8
Dorsal streams, 72–3
Dots per inch (dpi), 14
Double diffuse density, 140–41
Double-Gauss lenses, 184
Double-helical focusing mounts, 215
Down-sampling, 14
Dpi, see Dots per inch
DQE, see Detective quantum efficiency
DSCs, see Digital still cameras
DSLR, see Digital single-lens reflex cameras
DTFs, see Discrete Fourier transforms
Dual slope integration, 165
Dye sensitization, see Spectral sensitization
Dynamic ranges, 5, 8, 285–6, 386–8
Early-binding workflow, 496
Early digital images, 10–11
ED, see Extra-low dispersion
Edge detection filters, 514–17
Edge input methods, 446
Edge spread functions (ESFs), 126
EDM, see Electronic distance measurement
EDOF, see Extended depth of field
Effective focal length (EFL), 180
Electric field strengths: light theory, 25
Electromagnetic radiation, 20–21, 22–37, 41–2
Electron beam coatings, 116
Electronic cameras, see Digital cameras; Digital imaging
Electronic distance measurement (EDM), 217–18
Electronic flash:
automatic flash exposure, 54, 55
circuitry, 52
duration/exposure, 53
exposure/image control, 54, 55, 238–9
integral flash units, 54
output/power, 52–3
portable units, 53
red-eye avoidance, 55
studio flash, 53–4
Electronic Photography (EP), 318–19
Electronic system noise, 441–2
Electrons, 40–41, 155–6, 157–8
Electrophotographic (EPG) printers, 305–6
Electrostatic attractions, 40
Elementary colour vision, 69
Elements, see Pixels
Elliptical polarization, 30
Emission theory, 19
Emissive stimuli, 93
Emulsification, 251
Emulsions:
colour sensitivity, 367
image sensors, 165
photographic process, 252–3
photography origins, 7–8
sensitometry, 149
Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) format, 326–7
Enhancement of photographic colour reproduction, 407, 408
Entropy, 540
EP, see Electronic Photography
EPG, see Electrophotographic printers
EPS, see Encapsulated PostScript format
Equivalent colour reproduction, 100
Erythrolabe, 66
EV, see Exposure values
Evaluative metering, 238
Evaporation coatings, 116
Exact colour reproduction, 100
Exchangeable Image File Format (EXIF), 317
Excited states: light theory, 41–2
Expendable flashbulbs, 50–51
‘Exposing to the right’, 241
electronic flash, 238–9
high-dynamic-range imaging, 242–3
image sensors, 170–71
in-camera metering modes, 237–8
light measurement, 237
logarithms, 228–9
meters, 232–6
optics, 114
reciprocity law failure, 236–7
reflected light measurement, 239–40
relationships, 228–9
sensor dynamic ranges, 230–2
subject luminance ratios, 229–30
techniques, 240–41
zone systems, 241–2
Exposure metering systems, 219–22
Exposure values (EV), 219–21, 222, 235, 236
Extended depth of field (EDOF), 532
Extended sensitivity materials, 250
Extension tubes, 215–16
Extra-low dispersion (ED), 177, 187
Extrastriate cortex, 72
Extreme infrared radiation, see Infrared
Extrinsic semiconductors, 157
Eye performance, 73–5
Eye structure, 59–68
Faceted mirrors, 108–9
FADs, see Fully automatic diaphragms
‘Faithful’ colour reproduction, 99
Far-field diffraction, 32
Far infrared radiation, see Infrared
Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test, 69
Far-sightedness, 70–71
Fast Fourier transforms (FFT), 137, 523
Fast panchromatic film, 128, 129
Fidelity, 351–2
Field angle of view, 5, 180–81
Field depth, 111
Field stops, 111
Field of view (FOV), 180–81
Film based supports, 252
Film scanners, 283
Film sensitivity, 374–5
Fine grain film, 129
First ripening, 251
Fish-eye lenses, 186
Fixed density, 369
Fixed-focal-length lenses, 189
Flash factors, see Guide numbers
Flashguns, 48
Flash synchronization, 209–211
Flat-bed scanners, 12, 282–3, 284
Flat mirrors, 108–9
Flexible displays, 297
Flexible ‘gel’ filters, 103
Flextight scanners, 284
Fluorescence, 41–2
Fluorescent lamps, 50
Fluorescent series, 82
Fluorite, 177
Focal length of lenses, 4–5
Focal plane arrays (FPAs), 45
Focus depth, 111
Focusing systems, 70–71, 110, 181, 214–17
‘Fog effect’ filters, 193
Fog levels, 144
Folding-baseboard technical cameras, 203
Forensic imaging, 472
Fourier theory of image formation, 119–20, 122–30, 134–8
Fourier transforms, 130–33, 439–40, 522–3
Four-spot anti-aliasing filters, 266
FOV, see Field of view
Fovea, 65
Foveon™ sensors, 12
FPAs, see Focal plane arrays
Fractional gradients, 370
Frame finders, 213
Frame-interline charge-coupled devices, 268
Frame-transfer charge-coupled devices, 268
Frame transfers, 163
Fraunhofer diffraction, 32, 33–4
Frequency-domain filtering, 524–7
Fresnel diffraction, 32
Front principal focus, 107
Full-frame camera formats, 267
Full-frame charge-coupled devices, 268
Full frame transfers, 163
Full radiators, 44
Fully automatic diaphragms (FADs), 213
Gallic acid, 7
Gallium arsenide phosphide photodiodes (GPDs), 229–30, 233
Gamma correction, 389–91, 505–6
Gammaetime curves, 145
Gamut mapping, 429–32
Gaussian functions, 132
Gaussian planes, 106–7
Gelatin, 7–9, 103, 194, 195, 251
‘Gel’ filters, 103
General-service lamps, 49
Geometrical optics, 103, 106–111
Geometric optics models, 22
Geometric transformations, 512
Germanium, 156–7
GIF, see Graphic Interchange Format
Glare spots, 196
Glycin, 257
GPDs, see Gallium arsenide phosphide photodiodes
Gradients:
sensitometry, 146–7
speed, 369–70
Graininess, 9, 120, 255, 348, 434–6
Graphic Interchange Format (GIF), 15, 323–4
Grey level resolution, 13
Ground-glass screens, 214, 216
Ground states, 41
Gyro-stabilizers, 224
Halide family of atoms, 41
Hand-held exposure meters, 233, 234
‘Haze effect’ filters, 193
HDR, see High-dynamic-range imaging
Heat maps, see Thermography
Helical focusing mounts, 215
Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect, 96–7
Helson and Judd effect, 96
Herepathite, 103
High-boost filters, 527
High-contrast materials, 145
High-dynamic-range (HDR) imaging, 232, 242–3, 387
High-intensity reciprocity law failure, 236–7
Highlight luminance measurements, 240
High-pass frequency-domain filtering, 526–7
Histograms, 231, 507–8, 509–512
HMI, see Hydragyrum metal iodide lamps
Homogenous media, 27
Honeycomb metering, 238
Horizontal cells, 66
HSL (hue, saturation, lightness), 413
Huffman coding, 545–6
Human eye structure, 59–68
Human visual system (HVS), 59–76, 228, 346, 360
Hunt and Stevens effects, 97
Hybrid imaging chains, 16
Hydragyrum metal iodide (HMI) lamps, 50
Hydroquinone, 257
4-Hydroxyphenylaminoacetic acid, 257
Hyperopia, 70–71
Iceland spar, 103
Illuminance, 113–14
Illuminant metamerism, 94
Image acquisition, 466–7
Image archiving/storage, 329–43, 470
Image compression, 316, 359, 360, 535–52
Image displays, see Displays
Image editing, 469
Image encoding systems, 381–6
Image fidelity, 17–18
Image formation, 111–16, 119–38, 245–61
Image magnification, 108
Image motion compensation (IMC), 223, 224
Image noise, 348, 433–4, 437–41
Image quality, 345–63
Image quantization/thresholding, 504–5, 507
Image restoration, 529–32
Image scanners, see Scanners
Image stabilization, 223–4
Image states, 414–16
Image Technology (IT), 319
Imaginary primaries, 86–7
Imaging chains, 15–17, 345–6, 378–9, 457–63
Imaging optics, 265–6
Imaging process, 1–18
complementary metal oxide semiconductors, 11
digital imaging, 10–15
image control, 3–6
image quality, 17–18
imaging chains, 15–17
photography origins, 6–8
present day photography, 8–10
IMC, see Image motion compensation
In-camera metering modes, 237–8
Incident light measurement, 237
Information theory, 433, 453–5, 536, 539–42
Infrared (IR), 35, 36, 195–6, 233, 250
Inkjet printing, 16, 303–5, 308–9
In phase oscillations, 22–3
Input profiles, 491–2
Input-referred sensor dynamic ranges, 230
Input resolution, 14
Instant return mirrors, 202
Insulators, 155–6
Integral flash units, 54
‘Intensity-scale’ factors, 152
Intensity transformations, 503–6, 507
Interactive restoration, 532
Interference filters, 194
Interline-transfer charge-coupled devices (ITCCDs), 268
Interline transfers, 163–4
Intermediate colour spaces, 497
Intermediate infrared radiation, see Infrared
Intermittency effect, 152
Internal focusing, 215
International Color Consortium (ICC), 478–9, 481–95
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 8
exposure/image control, 227–8
image sensors, 171
sensitivity/speed, 370–74
sensitometry, 153–4
Inverse filtering, 529–31
Inverse square law of illumination, 47, 113–14, 238
Iodobromide materials, 251
Iodopsin, 66
Ionization levels, 41
IR, see Infrared
Iris, 60–61
Iris diaphragms, 211–13
Irradiance, 27
ISO, see International Organization for Standardization
IT, see Image Technology
ITCCDs, see Interline-transfer charge-coupled devices
Jacob’s membrane, 64
JNDs, see Just-noticeable differences
Joint Photographic Experts Group 2000 (JPEG 2000), 15, 320, 551–2
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), 15, 319–20, 385–6, 549–51
Just-noticeable differences (JNDs), 228, 355–7
Just resolvable resolution/separation limits, 34–5
Kelvin scale, 44
Kepler telescopes, 213–14
Keystoning, 225
Key tones, 239–40
Kirchhoff’s Radiation Law, 37
Kodak cameras, 8
Kodakchrome, 10
Lambert’s cosine law of illumination, 47, 113–14
Landscape lenses, 182
Laplacian convolution filters, 67
Large format digital cameras, 279–80
Late-binding workflow, 496
Latent images, 2–3, 7–9, 247–8
Lateral chromatic aberrations, 105, 106, 176–7
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), 72
Lateral magnification, 108
Law of illumination, 113–14
LCAs, see Longitudinal chromatic aberration
LCD, see Liquid Crystal Display technology
Lead screens, 249
LEDs, see Light-emitting displays
Left circular polarization, 29–30
Lens barrels, 215
Lens flare, 114–15
Lens hood attachments, 192–3
Lens reversing rings, 216
Lens shading, 169
LGN, see Lateral geniculate nucleus
Light:
adaptation, 94–5
fading, 333–4
scatter, 140–42
sources, 43–57
theory, 19–42
Light-emitting displays (LEDs), 55–7, 206, 207
Lighting, 5
see also Tone reproduction
Light-sensitive materials/sensors, 251–2
Linear filtering, 512–17, 523–4
Linear polarization, 23, 29, 30
Linear, spatially invariant systems, 124
Linear systems theory, 503
Linear transformation functions, 503–4
Line spectra, 43
Line spread functions (LSFs), 34, 126, 127
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology, 293–6
exposure/image control, 240
image formation, 125–6
imaging process, 12
photographic camera systems, 206, 207
tone reproduction, 382
Lithium cells, 223
Lithography, 313
Logic operations, 507
Long-focus lenses, 186–8
Longitudinal chromatic aberrations (LCAs), 105, 106
Longitudinal magnification, 108
Look-up tables (LUTs), 424–5
Lossless compression, 542–7
Lossy compression, 547–52
Low-intensity reciprocity law failure, 236
Low-pass frequency-domain filtering, 526
Lumens, 46–7
Luminaires, 47–8
Luminance:
displays, 299
exposure/image control, 228–30, 239
human visual system, 73–4
photographic optics, 112–13
Luminosity, 78
LUTs, see Look-up tables
Lux units, 46–7
Mach banding, 14
Macula, 65
MAE, see Mean absolute error
Magnetic storage, 340
Matrix metering, 219, 221–2, 238
Mavica camera, 10–11
Maximum entropy reconstruction, 531–2
Maximum filters, 520
Maxwell’s additive colour photographic process, 394
Mean absolute error (MAE), 547
Mean noon sunlight, 49
Mean squared error (MSE), 547
Measuring display transfer functions, 382–3
Mechanical compensation, 188, 189
Mechanical vignetting, 112
Median filters, 518–20
Medical imaging, 472–3
Medium format digital cameras, 279–80
Melanin, 60–61
Mercury button cells, 223
Mesopic vision, 64
Metadata, 317
Metal-halide lamps, 50
Metal oxide semiconductors (MOS), 11, 160, 207
4-Methylaminophenol sulphate, 257
Metol, 257
Michelson’s formulae, 389
Microflash units, 53
Microlasers, see Diode lasers
Microlens arrays, 169
Microprism arrays, 214
Microprism grids, 217
Micro-saccade eye movement, 71
Microwave regions, 35
Middle grey surface measurements, 239–40
Minimum filters, 520
Minimum useful gradients, 369–70
Mired scales, 46
‘Mirror lenses’, see Catadioptric lenses
Mirrors, 108–9
Miscellaneous additions to developers, 258–9
Miscellaneous additions to developing solutions, 256–7
Mixed lighting, 45
Modern camera lenses, 184–5
Modulation of sinusoidal waves, 121, 122
Modulation transfer functions (MTFs), 442
cascading, 133
corrections, 447
digital cameras, 266
edge input methods, 446–7
image formation, 120, 128–30, 132–4, 137–8
image quality, 449–50
image quality/system performance, 347–8
measurements, 445
slanted edge functions, 446–7, 448
Monochromatic waves, 25, 27, 30–32
Monochrome digital images, 11
Monochrome printers, 260
Monochrome process, 3
Monorail technical cameras, 201, 203
MOS, see Metal oxide semiconductors
Motion-detection autofocus modes, 217
MSE, see Mean squared error
M-synchronization, 210–211
MTFs, see Modulation transfer functions
Multi-layer anti-reflection coatings, 194–5
Multi-mode cameras, 219–20
Multiplier lenses, 193
Multi-spectral scanners, 284
Multi-zone metering, 238
Myopia, 71
Nasal visual pathway fields, 72
Natural mica, 103–4
Natural quartz, 103–4
‘Natural vignetting’, 113–14
ND, see Neutral density filters
Near-field diffraction, 32
Near infrared radiation, see Infrared
Near-sightedness, 71
Negative characteristic curve main regions, 143–4
Negative film, 372
Negative granularity, 436–7
Negativeepositive processes, 3, 4, 7, 396–400, 403–5
Neighbourhood processing, 512
Neutral density (ND) filters, 196
Nitrocellulose, 103
Noble gases, 41
Nocturnal animals, 75
Noise, 276–7, 348, 359–60, 374, 433–42
Noise power spectra, 437–9
Non-dispersive media, 26
‘Non-imaging’ cell layers, 66
Non-linear quantization, 389–91
Non-linear spatial filtering, 517–20
Non-substantive colour reversal processes, 402
Normalized colorimetry, 87–8
N-type doping, 157–8
N-type semiconductors, 158–9
Numerical models, 422–3
Nyquist frequencies, 135
Objective colour reproduction, 100
Objective image evaluation, 119
Objective image quality, 345–50
Objective tone reproduction, 377
Observer metamerism, 94
Ocelli, 75
OECFs, see Opto-electronic conversion functions
Off-centre receptive fields, 67
Off-the-film (OTF) metering, 53–4, 219
OLEDs, see Organic light-emitting displays
OLPFs, see Optical low pass filters
On-centre receptive fields, 67
One dimension imaging equation, 128
Open-loop colour management systems, 476–7
Opponent theory of colour vision, 9–10, 69
Optical attachments, 191–4
Optical compensation, 188
Optical disc storage, 340–42
Optical low pass filters (OLPFs), 265–6
Optical transfer functions (OTFs), 133
Optic chiasm, 72
Optic nerve, 62
Optic radiations, 72
Optimal filtering, 531
Optimization workflow, 470–71
Optimum exposure control, 232
Opto-electronic conversion functions (OECFs), 144, 242, 366–7, 383–5
Opto-kinetic reflex eye movement, 71, 72
Orbits, 156
Organic light-emitting displays (OLEDs), 296–7
Organic restrainers, 258
Original-referred colour encoding, 415–16
Orthochromatic materials, 9, 249
Orthoscopic lenses, 178–9
Oscillations, 22–3, 24, 29, 30
Ostwald ripening, 251
OTF, see Off-the-film
OTFs, see Optical transfer functions
Output profiles, 493–5
Output-referred colour encoding, 415
Output-referred sensor dynamic ranges, 230, 231
Output resolution, 14
Overall gamma, 378
Overall transfer functions, 378
Panchromatic materials, 9, 249–50
Panoramic cameras, 205
Paper based supports, 252
Paper contrast, 150–51
Parallax, movement, 73
Paraphenylenediamine, 257
Parasympathetic system, 70
Partial area metering, 237
Partially polarized light, 30
Passive focusing aids, 216
PC, see Perspective control
PCD, see Photo CD formats
PDF, see Portable Document Format
PDFs, see Probability density functions
PDPs, see Plasma display panels
PE, see Polyethylene coated papers
Peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), 547–8
PECVs, see Piezo-electric ceramic vibrators
Pellicle beamsplitters, 103
Pentaprism viewfinders, 202, 203
Perceptibility tolerances, 92
Perceptual intent reference media, 481
Performance trade-offs in image sensors, 167–9
Permanence factors, 338–9
Perspective control (PC) lenses, 225
Petzval lenses, 182
Pewter images, 7
Phase detection autofocus, 218
Phase-shifted sine waves, 120
Phase velocity, 27–8
Phenidone, 257
1-Phenyl-3-pyrazolidone, 257
Phosphors, 50
Photoabsorption, 158
Photo CD (PCD) formats, 325–6
Photodiodes, 161
Photoelectric effect, 20, 39–40
Photoemission, 158
Photoflood lamps, 49
Photogates, 160
Photogenic printing, 7
Photographic camera systems, 199–225
automatic cameras, 206–8
battery power, 222–3
camera movement, 224–5
camera shake, 223–4
camera types, 199–204
exposure metering systems, 219–22
image formats, 199
image stabilization, 223–4
special purpose cameras, 204–5
Photographic colour reproduction, 393–409
Photographic emulsions, 367
Photographic lamps, 49
Photographic media life expectancies, 329–36
Photographic noise, 434–7
Photographic optics, 111–16
Photographic process, 245–61, 452
chemistry, 256–9
detective quantum efficiency, 452
latent images, 247–8
materials, 251–6
printing, 259–60
silver halides, 245–7
spectral sensitivity/sensitization, 246, 248–51
superadditivity, 246, 257, 259
Photolithography, 159
Photomacrography, 108
see also Close-up photography
Photoreceptors, 9–10
Photoshop Document (PSD) format, 15, 325
Physical development, 256
Physical ripening, 251
Pictography, 308
Piecewise linear functions, 504
Piezo-electric ceramic vibrators (PECVs), 217
Pincushion distortion, 108, 181
Pixel parallel/serial readouts, 268
Pixels, 3, 11–15, 98, 120, 161
Planckian radiators, 44
Planck’ Law, 38–9
Plane mirrors, 108–9
Plane of polarization, 28
Plane polarization, 29
Planographic printing, 313
Plasma display panels (PDPs), 296
PMMA, see Polymethylmethacrylate
PNG, see Portable network graphics
Point processing, 503–6, 507–512
Point spread functions (PSFs), 120, 123–4, 126, 127–8
Polarization, 26, 28–30, 105, 106
Polarizing filters, 196–7
Polycarbonate, 103
Polydispersal, 8–9
Polyethylene (PE) coated papers, 252, 253
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), 103
Portable Document Format (PDF), 327
Portable electronic flash units, 53
Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format, 324–5
Portrait photography, 192, 193
Portrait studios, 7
Posterization, 391
PostScript (PS) format, 326
Potassium bromide, 258
Potassium metabisulphite, 258
Power, 21
Power-law transformations, 505–6
P-polarization, 196
Predictive autofocus modes, 217
Preferred colour reproduction, 100
Preferred image quality criteria, 17–18
Pre-flashing, 260
Primaries, 10, 45, 85–7, 91, 393
see also RGB
Primary visual cortex, 72–3
Prime lenses:
see also Fixed-focal-length lenses
Principle of Superposition, 30, 122–3
Print characteristic curves, 149–50
Printing, 303–314
darkroom work, 260
development, 260
image archiving/storage, 336–9
image formation, 259–60
imaging chains, 16
permanence factors, 338–9
photographic process, 259–60
photography origins, 7
tone reproduction, 386
transfer functions, 386
Printing presses, 312–13
Probability density functions (PDFs), 387–8, 508–9
Probability distribution functions, 508–9
Profile connection space (PCS), 479
Profile processing models, 484–6
Programmed exposure modes, 219–21
Progressive waves, 25
Proofing images, 497–8
Propagation numbers, 25
Protanopia, 69
Protans, 69
Proximal fields, 101
PS, see PostScript format
PSD, see Photoshop Document format
Pseudo-isochromatic plates, 70
PSFs, see Point spread functions
PSNR, see Peak signal-to-noise ratio
Psychophysical colour reproduction, 100
Psychophysical experiments, 17–18
Psychophysical phenomena, 77
Psychophysics, 346, 354–7, 358
Psychovisual redundancy, 537–8
P-type doping, 157–8
P-type semiconductors, 158–9
Pulsed xenon lamps, 50
Purkinje shifts, 68–9
Purple boundaries, 89–90
QE, see Quantum efficiency
Quadrant diagrams, 379–80
Quanta, 20–21
Quantum efficiency (QE), 170
Quantum optics, 22
Quarter-wave plates, 30, 103–4, 197
Quartz, 103–4
Quartz oscillators, 207
Quartzeiodine (QI) lamps, 50
Quasi-fish-eye lenses, 186
Quasimonochromatic harmonic waves, 25
Quasi-Planckian light sources, 45
Quinol, 257
Radially graduated ND filters, 196
Radiant flux, 20
see also Electromagnetic radiation
Radiating states, 41
Radiometry, 21
Radio waves, 35
Random access memory (RAM), 206
Rangefinder cameras, 202
Raster graphics, 315–16
Rayleigh criteria, 34–5
RC, see Resin-coated papers
Read-only memory (ROM), 206, 207
Rear curtain synchronization, 211
Rear principal focus, 4–5, 107
Receptive fields, 67–8
Recess printing, 313
Reciprocal functions: image formation, 132
Reciprocity law failure (RLF), 151–2, 236–7
Recommended Exposure Indices (REI), 373, 374
Rectangular functions, 130, 131
Rectilinear focusing mounts, 215
Red-eye avoidance, 55
Redundancy, 543–7
Reflection:
exposure/image control, 229–30, 237, 239–40
light sources, 47–9
light theory, 19
photographic optics, 104, 105, 115–16
sensitometry, 152
Refraction:
camera lenses, 177
photographic optics, 104
Refresh rates, 297–8
Regression: digital colour reproduction, 423–4
Related colours, 78
Relative apertures, 229
Relative colorimetry, 87, 88–9
Relative light flux, 101
Relative spectral power distribution, 101
Relief printing, 312–13
Rendered camera processing, 272–3
Rendering intents, 479–81
Rendering options, 495–6
Residual curvilinear distortions, 181
Resin-coated (RC) papers, 252, 253
Resizing, 276
digital image workflow, 459–63
displays, 298–9
image quality/system performance, 347
image scanners, 284–5
light theory, 33–5
Resonance states, 41
Response curves, 148–50
Retrofocus lenses, 186
Reversal film, 372–3
Reversal processes in colour reproduction, 399–400, 402–3
Reversed Galilean type finders, 213, 214
RGB (red, green, blue), 393
colour capturing, 10
colour management systems, 496–7
colour representation, 15
digital colour reproduction, 412–13, 416–19
Rhodopsin, 65
Right circular polarization, 29–30
RIMM (Reference Input Medium Metric) RGB, 419
Ring flash, 239
RLF, see Reciprocity law failure
Rod receptors, 62–3, 64–6, 68–9, 75
Roll film, 8
Rolling shutters, 170–71
ROM, see Read-only memory
ROMM RGB (red, green, blue), 419
Rotating panoramic cameras, 205
Rounding errors, 165, 389, 391
Run-length encoding, 543
SA, see Spherical aberrations
Salt screens, 249
Scaling methods, 356–7
Scalloped images, 14
bit depths, 286
characteristics, 284–7
colour management, 492
drivers, 286–7
drum scanners, 282
dynamic ranges, 285–6
film scanners, 283
flatbed scanners, 282–4
flextight scanners, 284
image sensors, 166–7
image transfers, 286
imaging process, 12
multi-spectral, 284
resolution, 284–5
sampling, 284–5
speed, 286
types, 282–4
Scene dependency, 357–61
Scene-referred colour encoding, 414–15
Scheimpflug Rule, 225
Sclera, 59
Secondary colours, 393
Second ripening, 251
Segmented metering, 238
Segmented photocells, 219, 221–2
Selenium cells, 219, 229–30, 233
Self-developing material cameras, 204
Self-propagating waves, 20
Selwyn’s law, 437
Semi-automatic diaphragms, 213
see also Complementary metal oxide semiconductors; Metal oxide semiconductors
Sensitivity, 365–8
charge-coupled devices, 374–5
colour, 367
digital cameras, 366–7
film, 374–5
unknown photographic emulsions, 367
wedge spectrograms, 367–8
Sensitometry, 139–54
average gradients, 146–7
Callier coefficients, 141–2
characteristic curves, 143–6
contrast indices, 147
densitometers, 152–4
density, 140–43
light scatter, 140–42
light sources, 49
paper, 148–50
print requirements, 150–1
reciprocity law failure, 151–2
response curves, 148–50
sensitometers, 152
Sensor colour encoding, 414
Sensor dynamic range, 230–32
Shadow luminance measurements, 240
Shah functions, see Dirac combs
Shannon’s theorem, 540–42
Sharpened cone responsivities, 98
Sharpening/sharpness, 14, 277, 433, 442, 449–50, 514–17
image formation/photographic process, 256
image quality/system performance, 347–8
imaging process, 9
Shells: light theory, 41
Shifts: photographic camera systems, 224–5
Short-wave radiation, 248–9
Shutter systems, 207, 209, 228, 229, 268
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 440–41, 453, 547
Silicon, 156–7
Silicon photodiodes (SPDs), 229–30, 233, 234
Silver-based materials, 372–3
Silver bromoiodide, 7
Silver halide imaging, 2–4, 7–9, 15–16, 245–7
Silver iodide, 7
Silver nitrate, 7
Silveredyeebleach processes, 406–7
Simple cameras, 199–200
Simple finders, 213
Simple harmonic motion, 23–5
Simultaneous contrast, 96
Sinc functions, 33–4
Sine (sin) waves, 23–5, 120–23, 129–30
Sine-wave methods, 445
Single-beam densitometers, 152, 153
Single-frame panoramas, 205
Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, 202, 203, 214, 216, 218–19, 265
Single slit diffraction, 32–4
Single-use cameras (SUC), 200
Sinusoidal waves, 22–5, 120–25, 129–30, 132–3
Skylight, 49
Slanted edge methods, 446–7, 448
Slave units, 51
SLR, see Single-lens reflex cameras
Smearing, 163–4
Smoothing spatial filters, 514
Smooth pursuit eye movement, 71, 72
Snell’s Law, 19
SNR, see Signal-to-noise ratio
Sodium hyposulphite, 7
Sodium sulphite, 257–8
Soft-focus attachments, 193
Soft-proofing images, 497–8
Solid glass anti-reflection coatings, 194
SOS, see Standard output sensitivity
Spatial contrast sensitivity, 83
Spatial image processing, 501–520
Spatial limits of resolution, 34–5
Spatially invariant systems, 124
Spatial periods, 23
Spatial redundancy, 537, 538, 543–4
SPDs, see Silicon photodiodes
Specialist digital cameras, 280
Special purpose cameras, 204–5
Special strobe flash units, 53
Spectral absorptance, 79–80
Spectral colour reproduction, 99
Spectral data, 87–8
Spectral density, 142
Spectral loci, 89–90
Spectral luminous efficiency function, 21
Spectral power distribution curves, 43–4
Spectral quality, 43
Spectral responsivity, 65–6
Spectral sensitivity, 9, 65–6, 366–7
Spectral sensitization, 249–51
Spectral transmission, 181
Spectrophotometry, 101
Spectroradiometry, 100–101
Specular density, 140–41
Speed of imaging systems, 365, 368–75
Spherical aberrations (SA), 177–8, 187, 188
Spherical mirrors, 108–9
Split-image rangefinders, 214, 217
S-polarization, 196
Spot filters, 114
Spotlights, 48
Spread functions, 120, 123–8, 133
Spreading: colour science, 96
Square-wave methods, 445–6
SRGB transfer functions, 385–6
Stage theory, 82–3
Standard colour space, 416–19
Standard output sensitivity (SOS), 374
Standing waves, 38
States of polarization, 29
Stationary states: light theory, 41
Statistical operations: spatial image processing, 507–512
Status M densitometry, 153–4
StefaneBoltzmann Law, 38
Steradian units, 46
Stereopsis, 73
Stevens’ psychometric scales, 355
Stopped-down modes, 219
Storage, 329–43
Striate cortex, 72
Studio flash units, 53–4
Subjective colour reproduction, 100
Subjective image quality, 345–50
Subjective judgement in image formation, 119
Subjective tone reproduction, 377, 378–9
Subject luminance ranges/ratios: exposure/image control, 228–30
Subject movement, see Movement
Subtractive-based colour spaces, 412, 413
Subtractive colour mixing, 10
Subtractive colour reproduction, 98–9, 393, 395
Subtractive image dyes, 396, 397
SUC, see Single-use cameras
Successive approximation, 165
Sunshade attachments, 192–3
Superachromat lenses, 176
Superadditivity, 246, 257, 259
The Super Charge-Coupled Device™, 271–2
Supplementary lenses, see Close-up lenses
Surround fields, 101–2
Swings: photographic camera systems, 224–5
Symmetrical-derivative lenses, 185–6
Symmetrical doublet lenses, 182–3
Synthesis stages, 6
Synthetic quartz, 103–4
System performance, 345–63
digital image artefacts, 350–51
fidelity, 351–2
objective image quality, 345–50
psychophysics, 354–7
reference images, 353
scene dependency, 357–61
subjective image quality, 345–50
test charts, 353–4
test scenes, 353, 354, 358, 359, 360–61
Tabular crystals, 250–52
Tactile theory, 19
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), 15, 317–19
Tapetum, 61
TCAs, see Transverse chromatic aberrations
Technical cameras, 203–4
Telecentric lenses, 265
Teleconverters, 193–4
Telephoto converters, 191
Telephoto wide-angle lenses, 190
Tele-zoom lenses, 189
Temperature, 44–6
Temporal contrast sensitivity, 83
Temporal periods, 23
Temporal visual pathway fields, 72
Test charts, 353–4
Test image targets, 388–9
The Foveon™ sensor, 272
Thermodynamic scales, 44
Thick lenses, 106–7
Three-sensor cameras, 269–70
Threshold systems, 369
Through printing, 313
Through-the-finder (TTF) metering, 213, 214
Through-the-lens (TTL) metering, 114, 189, 219, 220
TIFF, see Tagged Image File Format
Tilts, 224–5
‘Time-scale’ factors, 152
TLR, see Twin-lens reflex cameras
T-numbers, 115
Tone distributions, 222
Tone in imaging process, 5
Tone mapping, 242
Tone rendering, 277
Tone reproduction, 377–91
Adobe RGB transfer functions, 385–6
bit-depth requirements, 389–91
contrast ratios, 386–8
CRT displays, 381–2
dynamic ranges, 386–8
gamma, 377–9
gamma correction, 389–91
image encoding systems, 381–6
image quality, 346–7
imaging devices, 381–6
JPEG transfer functions, 385–6
liquid crystal displays, 382
measuring display transfer functions, 382–3
non-linear quantization, 389–91
optimum gamma, 378–9
overall gamma, 378
overall transfer functions, 378
printers, 386
quadrant diagrams, 379–80
sRGB transfer functions, 385–6
subjective tone reproduction, 378–9
system performance, 346–7
test image targets, 388–9
theory, 377–80
transfer functions, 377–8, 381–6
uniform area contrast, 388–9
viewing conditions, 378–9
Toner materials, 309
Toning, 336
Total scene luminance, 239
Transfer functions:
acquisition devices, 383–5
digital acquisition devices, 383–5
exposure/image control, 232, 233
image quality/system performance, 346–7
printers, 386
tone reproduction, 377–8, 381–6
see also Modulation transfer functions
Transistors, 159
Transmittance:
Transparencies, 405–7
Transverse chromatic aberrations (TCAs), 105, 106, 176–7
Transverse magnification, 108
Trichromacy, 10, 11, 69, 82–3, 85
Tristimulus values, 85, 86, 87–8, 98
True fish-eye lenses, 186
TTL, see Through-the-lens metering
Tungsten lamps: light sources, 45–6, 49–50
Tunics, 60
Turbid emulsions, 125
Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras, 202, 214
UCS, see Uniform chromaticity scales
Ultraviolet (UV), 36–7, 195–6, 249
Ultrawide-angle cameras, 203–4
Uncompressed image file sizes, 535
Underwater cameras, 204
Uniform area contrast, 388–9
Uniform chromaticity scales (UCS), 89, 90–91
Uniform colour spaces, 91–2
Uniform pre-exposures, 260
Unique hues, 92
Unit focusing, 215
Unkown photographic emulsions, 367
Unrelated colours, 78
Unrendered camera processing, 272–3
Up-sampling, 14
UV, see Ultraviolet
Valence bands, 156, 157–8, 160
Valencies, 41
Van Albada finders, 213
Variable contrast, 150–51, 259
Variable contrast papers, 259
Variable flash output, 239
Variable-length coding, 544–6
Vector graphics, 315–16
Veiling glare, 114–15
see also Lens flare
Ventral streams, 72–3
Vergence eye movement, 71
Vestibular-ocular reflex eye movement, 71–2
Viewfinder systems, 213–14
Viewing angles, 299–300
Viewing environments/conditions, 101–2
Virtual images, 107
Visible radiation, 249
Visual acuity, 74–5
Visual cortex, 72–3
Visual density, 142
Visual pathways, 72–3
Vitamin C, 257
Vitreous cavity, 61
Von Kies hypothesis, 98
Wave optics models, 22
Wave recordings, 445–6
Wave theory, 22–35
Waveeparticle duality, 20
Weber fraction of contrast, 389
WebereFechner Law, 73, 74, 228
Wedge spectrograms, 367–8
Well capacity, 160
Wet-collodion process, 7
White balance setting, 275–6
White light, 9–10, 19–20, 36, 37
Wide-angle converters, 191
Wiener filtering: digital image processing, 531
Wien’s Displacement Law, 38
Windowing, 164
X-synchronization, 210–211
YCC (luminance, chrominance 1, chrominance 2), 413, 418
Young–Helmholtz theory, 9–10, 69, 82–3
Zero padding, 137
Zone systems, 241–2