An official census of Great Britain’s population was first held in 1801 (during the NAPOLEONIC WARS), influenced by magazine editor John Rickman (1771–1840) who believed it would benefit military planning and other matters (e.g., food supply). It was also influenced by the pessimistic attitude to population growth of T.R. MALTHUS. Based on parishes, the census enumerated three matters: houses, male and female inhabitants, employment. Information was collected in England and Wales by overseers of the poor, and in Scotland by schoolmasters. The exercise was repeated in 1811, and in 1813–15 an abortive attempt was made to cover Ireland (grand juries proved incompetent or unco‐operative).

From 1821 to 1911 (inclusive) a census of the United Kingdom occurred every ten years; likewise thereafter in Britain (except for 1941, during WORLD WAR II, and with an experimental census in 1966). More diverse information was collected.

A census was avoided in Ireland in 1921 because of the War of IRISH INDEPENDENCE. In NORTHERN IRELAND censuses were held in 1926, 1937, 1951 and then as in Britain at ten‐yearly intervals (with an additional census in 1966). In SOUTHERN IRELAND censuses were held in 1926, 1936, 1946, then usually at five‐yearly intervals (the 1976 census was delayed to 1979 to save expenditure).

From the 18th century population enumerations were made in some imperial territories (e.g., N American colonies); in the 19th century census taking became more widespread and regular (e.g., in NEW SOUTH WALES from 1828, WEST INDIES colonies from 1844, INDIA from 1867–72). From the 1840s administrators in Britain desired to organize an imperial census coinciding with the UK census; this proved impractical. From the 1860s to 1930s digests of population figures and estimates were published alongside UK figures, and in 1906 as a separate volume, Census of the British Empire, 1901.

The debt owed by a State to individuals and corporate organizations, usually referring to long‐term debt requiring regular interest payments. Originating in 14th‐century Italy, such public debt was first raised in England with the ‘tontine loan’ of 1693 (under which the shares of deceased holders were reallocated to survivors). Subsequent schemes included foundation of the BANK OF ENGLAND (1694). The Bank administered the debt from 1715.

Long‐term debt was incurred initially to help fund the War of the GRAND ALLIANCE (1689–97), which left the debt at £16.7 million. Acceptance of long‐term borrowing enabled Great Britain to act as a major power. With subsequent wars, the debt rose to £37.4 million (1715), £78 million (1750), £232 million (1783), £840 million (1820). Attempted reductions, through SINKING FUNDS and consolidation at 3% interest (1749–55), had little effect.

Britain’s national debt was accepted as an institution by the 1720s–30s, and considered a sound form of investment because of Parliament’s authorization. But it was regressive in that wealthy individuals generally held capital while ordinary people funded interest payments through taxation (see EXCISE). Between the early 18th and mid 19th centuries, debt servicing absorbed roughly 30–50% of central government expenditure, thereafter declining. UK debt included Ireland from 1817 to 1922 (see NATIONAL DEBT, IRELAND).

UK debt was increased by WORLD WAR I (1914–18) to £7800 million, by WORLD WAR II (1939–45) to £21,000 million. As a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), it reached almost 238% in 1948, declining below 48% in 1974, and below 26% in 1991, before rising to almost 39% in 2008. Following the 2008 financial crisis, declining tax receipts and increased welfare spending rapidly increased the debt to over 80% (2016), despite cuts in government expenditure. See also FINANCIAL REVOLUTION; FISCAL–MILITARY STATE; SOUTH SEA BUBBLE.

The Irish government initiated long‐term borrowing in 1716. By 1760 its debt was relatively low, at (Irish) £5300. It increased substantially in the 1780s, following the War of AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, though servicing cost only 10 per cent of total expenditure. It then rocketed during the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS (1793–1815), reaching £38 million by 1804 and £107 million in 1816. The Irish and British debts were amalgamated in 1817 (see EXCHEQUER, IRELAND, ABOLITION OF).

After foundation of the IRISH FREE STATE (1922), southern Ireland sustained a national debt. It remained relatively low until the 1970s, when international oil crises and wage inflation increased it to (Irish) £313 million (1977). Attempted stimulation of economic growth then raised the debt to £7000 million (1981), and £23,000 million (1986; 116% of gross domestic product or GDP). Through retrenchment and economic expansion the debt was reduced to 23% of GDP (2006), but it increased rapidly after the 2008 financial crisis, reaching 119% (2012), largely due to bank failures. By 2016 the debt was reduced to 73%.

Name of the Conservative‐dominated British coalition government of 1931–40, led by Ramsay MAC DONALD, Stanley BALDWIN and Neville CHAMBERLAIN.

In 1931, when the Labour government split over spending cuts required to obtain loans during a currency crisis, King GEORGE V urged party leaders to co‐operate in a National Government. Despite opposition from most Labour MPs, MacDonald, the Labour leader, formed a coalition (25 Aug.). Though half the Liberals left in Oct. 1932, the Conservatives collaborated with ‘Liberal Nationals’ (led by John SIMON) and a handful of ‘National Labour’ MPs until 10 May 1940 (formation of wartime coalition). The National Government is associated with the GREAT DEPRESSION and APPEASEMENT. See also HENDERSON, ARTHUR.

Term applied to State‐funded medical services established in the UK in the late 1940s, as recommended by the 1942 ‘Beveridge Report’ (see BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM). The UK Labour government created services in England and Wales (National Health Service Act, 1946) and Scotland (1947). Both were launched in 1948. Northern Ireland’s Unionist government created a similar service (legislation in 1946, 1948).

The English and Welsh service was initially supervised by a British government minister. The Welsh section was transferred to the secretary of state for Wales in 1969, and to the Welsh Assembly and government in 1999. The Scottish service was supervised by the secretary of state for Scotland, then transferred to the Scottish Parliament and Executive in 1999. Northern Ireland’s service was transferred to British ministers during periods of ‘direct rule’ from 1972 (see EXECUTIVES, NORTHERN IRELAND).

Free primary, hospital, dental and optical treatment were funded from NATIONAL INSURANCE and general taxation. Hospitals were nationalized but general practitioners (‘GPs’) and dentists remained independent and could accept private patients (as could hospital surgeons). Some prescription charges were introduced from 1951 (e.g., for dentures and spectacles). Services in England and Northern Ireland were periodically restructured to restrain costs and relocate power (e.g., as between managers and GPs). ‘NHS Trusts’, with considerable self‐government, were established within the English NHS from 1990. By the late 20th century the UK’s health services were collectively the country’s largest providers of employment.

A compulsory State‐organized welfare scheme created by the 1911 National Insurance Act, funded by employees, employers and government. Implemented in Great Britain and Ireland, and administered through friendly societies, it insured most employed persons against sickness, disablement and maternity costs, and provided unemployment benefits to 2.25 million workers in certain trades.

Major reorganization under the 1946 National Insurance Act (for Great Britain) made a Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance responsible for administration, extended benefits, subsidized costs from taxation, and allocated funds towards the NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE. The arrangements were replicated by the government of NORTHERN IRELAND. See also SOCIAL SERVICES AND WELFARE, SOUTHERN IRELAND.

The main nationalist political party in NORTHERN IRELAND following the province's creation (1921); a continuation of the IRISH PARLIAMENTARY PARTY. It represented the province's minority Catholic population, and sought reunion with southern Ireland.

Initially led by Joe DEVLIN (d. 1934), the Party held about ten seats in the Northern Ireland Parliament, though it abstained until 1925 and refused to be the ‘official' Opposition until 1965. It lacked a central organization before the 1960s. Although it supported the CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT (1960s), it declined (1969–73) and was effectively replaced by the SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC AND LABOUR PARTY. See also PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION, NORTHERN IRELAND.

Patron saints became established in differing circumstances, usually based on important cults. In Wales, the cult of DAVID, an ascetic monk (c.530–89), was disseminated by the Norman BERNARD OF ST DAVIDS, bishop of ST DAVIDS 1115–48. Drawing on native ambitions (exemplified by Rhigyfarch’s recent Life of St David), he obtained papal approval of David’s cult (1120), and later sought archiepiscopal status for his see.

In Ireland the cult of PATRICK, a British missionary (5th century), was promoted in the later 12th century by the Anglo‐Norman John de COURCY, an invader in NE Ireland. He commissioned a Life of St Patrick (by Jocelin of Furness), and in 1185 claimed to have discovered Patrick’s body. St Patrick was promoted in association with ARMAGH as Ireland’s primary see. Patrick was accepted by Anglo‐Normans as well as Gaelic Irish.

In Scotland a cult of the apostle Andrew (d. c.60) existed by the late 8th century (see ST ANDREWS). His protection was first invoked nationally in 1286 by the guardians appointed for the minority of MARGARET, ‘THE MAID OF NORWAY’. He was invoked again, alongside COLUMBA, during the Wars of Independence (see SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290–1357), and afterwards considered the patron of the Scottish kingdom and Church.

In England, Edmund (d. 869), the last king of EAST ANGLIA, and King EDWARD THE CONFESSOR (ruled 1042–66), became important saints. From the 1260s the royal family displayed interest in the martyr St George (d. possibly c.303 in Palestine), who was associated with KNIGHTS, and in 1349 King Edward III named him patron of the Order of the GARTER. He was invoked as England’s patron from 1415, during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR.

Powerful 7th‐century Anglo‐Saxon kings utilized ships, though the method of procurement is unknown. Occupations of ANGLESEY and the Isle of MAN by EDWIN of Deira (ruled 616 or 617–33) required shipping, as did the raid on Ireland (684) by EGFRITH of Bernicia.

In the 9th–10th centuries kings of WESSEX fought at sea mainly against VIKINGS, initially with small fleets. Athelstan, son of ÆTHELWULF and subking of Kent, attacked a VIKING fleet in 851 – the first recorded Anglo‐Saxon naval battle. ALFRED intermittently attacked Vikings (875–82, 885) and in 896 commissioned a fleet employing a new ship design. EDWARD THE ELDER mobilized a large fleet – allegedly 100 ships – against Vikings (910); ATHELSTAN, king of England, used ships in an expedition against Scotland (934).

A system for funding and manning ships was introduced, possibly during the reign of EDGAR (959–75). It was based on ‘ship‐sokes’: groups of three ‘hundreds’ (small administrative territories), beginning with sokes of bishops and abbots. Landowners provided ships (possibly 30–60) and areas provided crews, although skilled seamen must have been employed. The arrangements enabled ÆTHELRED II to counter renewed Viking activity (992, 999, 1009). The Danish ruler of England CNUT (1016–35) also maintained ships from heregeld (‘army geld’). They were paid off by EDWARD THE CONFESSOR (by 1051), who obtained supplementary services from ports in SE England (see CINQUE PORTS). The ship‐soke system appears to have dwindled after the NORMAN CONQUEST (1066–70s). See also MILITARY SERVICE, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066.

Rivalry in sea power in the early 20th century, which was a major cause of Anglo‐German antagonism before WORLD WAR I (1914–18). In 1900 Germany proposed a fleet of 60 capital ships. Perceiving a threat to its maritime supremacy, Great Britain constructed a naval base at Scapa Flow (in ORKNEY ISLANDS, off NE Scotland), concentrated the Royal NAVY in home waters, and pursued a policy of German containment.

Britain’s introduction of the Dreadnought‐class of heavily armed battleships in 1906 intensified competition by making older vessels semi‐obsolete. When Germany accelerated its naval programme (1908), the Liberal government of H.H. ASQUITH became bitterly divided about how many ‘Dreadnoughts’ to build. David LLOYD GEORGE and Winston CHURCHILL tried to curb defence spending until 1911. By 1914, Britain was winning the Naval Race (with 22 ‘Dreadnoughts’ to Germany’s 13). See also GERMANY, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH; FISHER, LORD; PEOPLE’S BUDGET.

The Scots of DÁL RIATA levied men and resources to maintain ships (6th–9th centuries). Until the 16th century Scottish merchant skippers acted as privateers (e.g., Andrew Wood of Largo, c.1455–1515; Robert, John, and Andrew Barton of Leith, fl. early 16th century).

In 1505 King JAMES IV instituted a ship‐building programme, under which four large and several small ships were constructed. The Margaret (launched 1506) displaced about 700 tons, anticipating England's Mary Rose (1509); the Michael (1511) displaced 1000 tons and had 12 cannons a side. Thereafter efforts dwindled; in 1707 the Navy comprised two frigates, operating mainly against French privateers.

Legislation that restricted the transport of goods in overseas trade to a country’s own ships, to encourage SHIP BUILDING and SHIPPING business, and sometimes to exclude other countries. England’s first Act in 1381 required Englishmen to ship goods in English ships. Acts of 1463, 1485 and 1489 required wine and woad from SW France to be imported in English ships.

The 1651 Navigation Act passed by the RUMP PARLIAMENT began the creation of a ‘navigation system’. Aimed against the Dutch, it required imports to come directly from countries of origin and be carried in ships from the originating countries or English ships. Imports from Asia, Africa and America had to be carried in English ships (see ANGLO‐DUTCH WARS). After the RESTORATION (1660), the replacement 1660 Navigation Act made similar rules for the import of specified commodities and required English‐owned foreign‐built ships to be registered. The Staple Act of 1663 required most imports of European goods to English colonies to be purchased in England and carried in English‐owned ships. Restrictions were strengthened in 1673 and 1696.

Scottish shipping was included under the 1651 Act (see UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND, 1650S) but excluded at the Restoration. Scotland passed a retaliatory Navigation Act (1661). English legislation applied again to Scotland from 1707 (see UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND). The Navigation Acts were repealed, except for coastal trade, in 1849 (for coastal trade in 1854).

Navigation Acts also controlled Irish trade. England excluded Ireland from most colonial trade in 1663, and direct imports of sugar and tobacco to Ireland were banned in 1671. Ireland was allowed access to trans‐Atlantic trade in 1731. Commercial legislation against Irish trade was repealed in 1779. See also MERCANTILISM; FREE TRADE; FOREIGN TRADE, IRELAND, ENGLISH AND BRITISH REGULATION; ECONOMY, STATE INVOLVEMENT, BRITAIN.

Before the 16th century kings used sailing ships from the CINQUE PORTS and contracted others from merchants. HENRY V (ruled 1413–22) exceptionally acquired 39 ships. HENRY VII (1485–1509) developed facilities (e.g., dry dock) at Portsmouth (Hampshire).

HENRY VIII (1509–47), influenced by the Scottish Navy, established a permanent Navy by developing a fleet (including 46 commissioned warships and 38 others) and an administration (notably instituting a naval council, 1546, later the Navy Board). From the mid 1530s some warships included gun decks. ELIZABETH I (1558–1603) maintained about 30 warships. Ships continued to be hired as necessary. The ANGLO‐SPANISH WAR (1585–1604) included defeat of the SPANISH ARMADA (1588).

Under King JAMES VI/I (1603–25) maintenance stagnated (a strong fleet was considered unnecessary for foreign policy), although ten ships were built. When CHARLES I renewed war against Spain, a naval assault on Cádiz, SW Spain, failed (1625), as did expeditions to La Rochelle, SW France (1627, 1628). In the 1630s Charles sought a stronger navy, and built ten additional ships (1634–40); squadrons cruised in the English Channel to demonstrate power. But funding was stymied (see SHIP MONEY).

As CIVIL WAR approached in 1642, the Navy sided with PARLIAMENT. It was used to deter foreign intervention, protect overseas trade (to sustain CUSTOMS revenues), and provide tactical support for land forces. In 1648 nine crews defected, providing Royalists (in Dutch Republic) with a small fleet (see RUPERT, PRINCE). After the abolition of monarchy (March 1649), the Navy aided the conquest of Ireland (1649–50) and Scotland (1650–1).

From 1649 Parliament funded expansion, for defence against Royalists and protection of expanding overseas trade: by 1655 there were 133 ships (compared with 40 in 1640). The Navy fought the Dutch (1652–4; see ANGLO‐DUTCH WARS), and challenged Spanish power in the Caribbean (see WESTERN DESIGN). See also NAVIES, NORTH BRITAIN AND SCOTTISH; HAWKINS, JOHN; SHIP-BUILDING INDUSTRY, ENGLAND.

After the RESTORATION the ‘Royal Navy’ was improved (e.g., better training), although further ANGLO‐DUTCH WARS (1665–7, 1672–4) produced stalemates. From 1674 operations included protection for trade in the Mediterranean. During the Wars of the GRAND ALLIANCE (1689–97) and SPANISH SUCCESSION (1702–13) the Navy was increased from 109 to 180 major ships. It notably defeated the French at La Hogue (1692), and captured MINORCA from Spain (1708).

After 1713 Great Britain maintained a strong Navy (usually 150–300 ships), including fleets in distant waters, to sustain trade and empire, and assert power. During the SEVEN YEARS WAR (1756–63) the Navy operated worldwide. During the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS (1793–1815), with expansion to almost 400 ships, it blockaded French ports and inflicted a major strategic defeat at TRAFALGAR (1805).

Although subsequently reduced, the Navy remained overwhelmingly the world’s largest until the 1860s. Technological developments were adopted, for example steam engines (1845), iron warships (1860). Larger and faster vessels culminated in Dreadnought‐class battleships (1906); submarines were introduced (1901). From 1900 Germany challenged British naval power (see NAVAL RACE, GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY).

During WORLD WAR I (1914–18) the Navy blockaded Germany and (from 1917) escorted convoys. Air power was developed, including the first aircraft carrier, Argus (1918). At end 1918 the Navy had 780 ships (including 147 submarines), but was smaller than the US Navy. It was again reduced, and air power atrophied. During WORLD WAR II (1939–45) the re‐expanded Navy notably protected convoys (see ATLANTIC, BATTLE OF THE) and facilitated invasion of Normandy (see OVERLORD).

From the 1950s new technology (e.g., missiles) required drastic change. The Navy prioritized anti‐submarine warfare against Soviet power (see COLD WAR), and from 1968 provided submarine‐based nuclear deterrence. After the FALKLANDS WAR (1982), it developed expeditionary capabilities. In 2016 the Navy had 67 ships (including ten submarines). See also PEPYS, SAMUEL; FISCAL–MILITARY STATE; SHIP-BUILDING INDUSTRY, ENGLAND; ANGLO‐GERMAN NAVAL AGREEMENT; ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS.

(b. 14 Nov. 1889 at Allahabad, Agra and Oudh Provinces, India; d. 27 May 1964 at Delhi, Punjab, India, aged 74). Educated partly in England (1905–12), Nehru became involved with the Indian National Congress after returning to India and in Dec. 1916 met Mohandas GANDHI. He became a strong opponent of the British in India after the AMRITSAR MASSACRE (1919). He campaigned with Gandhi against British rule but lacked his appeal to the masses. From 1921 he was often imprisoned.

From 1945 Nehru was the chief negotiator for the Congress over INDIAN INDEPENDENCE and became interim prime minister in 1946. Independence was implemented in Aug. 1947, and Nehru remained prime minister until his death, promoting industrialization through State planning.

(b. 29 Sept. 1758 at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England; d. 21 Oct. 1805 off Cape Trafalgar, Spain, aged 47). A naval officer’s nephew, Horatio Nelson joined the British NAVY in 1770, aged 12. After war with France began (1793) he held commands in the Mediterranean. He lost sight in his right eye while on Corsica, leading an artillery assault (July 1794), and his right arm after assaulting Santa Cruz de Tenerife (22–25 July 1797). Following recuperation, he defeated a French fleet near Alexandria (battle of the Nile, 1–3 Aug. 1798), halting an invasion of Egypt. Made Lord Nelson, during 1798–1800 he lived mostly in Naples, helped to save its royal family from an insurrection, and began a lasting affair with Lady Emma Hamilton, wife of the British envoy.

In 1801 Nelson destroyed the Danish fleet (battle of Copenhagen, 2 April), ultimately ending the anti‐British ‘Armed Neutrality’ of Baltic States. Now Viscount Nelson, he also commanded raids on Boulogne (N France) to deter a French invasion of Britain (Aug.).

In service again from 1803, Nelson rejoined the Mediterranean fleet in Sept. 1805, but was killed while defeating a Franco‐Spanish fleet at TRAFALGAR. He was an outstanding leader and naval strategist. See also FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.

England (Great Britain from 1707) has taken a close strategic interest in the northern Netherlands, to prevent its use as a base for invasion. Following the declaration of independence against Spanish rule by the United Provinces (or Dutch Republic) in 1581, English forces supported the (Protestant) rebels against (Catholic) SPAIN 1585–1604 (see ANGLO‐SPANISH WAR). (Dutch independence was widely recognized from 1609.)

In the 17th century, commercial rivalry resulted in two naval wars (1652–4, 1665–7), while English subordination to FRANCE caused a third (1672–4; see ANGLO‐DUTCH WARS). England seized Dutch territory in N America in 1664, thereby connecting its two regions of colonization (see NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES).

The acquisition of the English Crown in 1689 by the stadholder (lieutenant) of the Dutch Republic, William of Orange, created a firm alliance (see WILLIAM III). It lasted throughout the Wars of the GRAND ALLIANCE (1689–97), SPANISH SUCCESSION (1702–13) and AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740–8). After conflict over Dutch trade with rebels in British N America (1780–4, ‘Fourth Anglo‐Dutch War’), the alliance was resumed in 1788.

Following French dominance and rule of the Netherlands (1795–1813), the British foreign secretary, Viscount CASTLEREAGH, promoted a ‘United Kingdom of the Netherlands’, including the southern Netherlands (1815); subsequently, however, Lord PALMERSTON helped to force the Dutch to withdraw from the southern section (1839; see BELGIUM). Later relations were generally amicable, though Dutch opinion resented the (Second) BOER WAR (1899–1902). Britain and the Netherlands were founder members of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (1949).

A noble family whose members were influential in N England in the 15th century, acting as a counter‐balance to the PERCY FAMILY, and also of national importance. They originated as barons of Raby (Co. Durham). Ralph Neville (c.1354–1425), 4th baron, was created earl of Westmorland in 1397 for supporting King RICHARD II against the APPELLANTS. His children married into leading noble families and supported the LANCASTRIAN kings. Ralph’s eldest son from his second marriage, Richard Neville (1400–60), was created earl of Salisbury (1429). Richard’s son, also Richard (1428–71), was created earl of WARWICK (1449).

In the 1450s the Nevilles feuded with the Percys. They also became leading supporters of Richard, duke of York, and were England’s most influential family in the 1460s under EDWARD IV. Warwick’s rebellion against Edward effectively ended their power. See also YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT.

(b. 21 July 1693 in Sussex, England; d. 17 Nov. 1768 at London, England, aged 75). Thomas Pelham took the surname Pelham‐Holles on inheriting extensive estates in 1711. Lord Pelham from 1712, he was created earl of Clare (1714) and duke of Newcastle (1715) by King GEORGE I. Through land ownership and co‐ordination of noble and royal PATRONAGE he became the leading manager of WHIG politicians and elections for Robert WALPOLE (prime minister 1721–42) and his own younger brother Henry PELHAM (1743–54).

As SECRETARY OF STATE (southern 1724–48, northern 1748–54) Newcastle supervised foreign policy. Unlike Walpole, he favoured involvement in the War of JENKINS’ EAR (from 1739) and alliance with Austria in the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740–8).

In 1754 Newcastle succeeded his brother as first lord of the Treasury (i.e., PRIME MINISTER), but seemed unsuitable. After unintentionally provoking the DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION and mishandling the start of the SEVEN YEARS WAR, he resigned (1756; replaced by duke of DEVONSHIRE).

Newcastle served again 1757–62, in coalition with William PITT the Elder (until Oct. 1761). He was succeeded by the earl of BUTE. A period as lord PRIVY SEAL (1765–6) under Lord ROCKINGHAM concluded Newcastle’s career. See also PELHAMS; GEORGE II; BYNG, JOHN; ROBINSON, THOMAS.

A city in NE England, by the R. Tyne; formerly centre of Northumberland (to 1974).

Founded by ROBERT CURTHOSE in 1080, together with a royal castle, Newcastle expanded in the 13th century, exporting COAL, lead and WOOL. In 1334 it was the fourth wealthiest place in England and the leading town N of YORK. Like most towns it contracted in the 15th century.

From the late 16th century coal exports from the Tyne Valley increased dramatically, with LONDON as the major market. In the 19th century Newcastle also became a large financial and industrial centre (heavy engineering, brewing, etc.). In 1882 a diocese was founded and Newcastle was designated a city. It suffered from industrial decline in the 1920s–30s, and from contraction of coal mining in the 1980s. Two universities were created by upgrading existing institutions: Newcastle University (1963) and Northumbria University (1992).

Est. popn: 1300, 3800; 1600, 10,000; 1800, 33,000; 1900, 214,000; 2000, 265,000.

(b. Feb. 1664 at Dartmouth, Devon, England; d. 5 Aug. 1729 at London, England, aged 65). Originally an ironmonger, Newcomen designed the first reliable steam engine, for industrial use. Constructed at Dudley (Worcestershire) and exhibited at London in 1712, it improved Thomas Savery’s ‘atmospheric engine’ (a steam‐powered device for pumping water from mines, patented 1699).

Newcomen’s engine condensed steam in a cylinder to create a vacuum, which drove a piston. The piston rocked a beam, which moved rods connected to a pump. The engine was quickly adopted for draining mines, and remained important until the late 18th century. Over 100 were built by 1733. See also COAL INDUSTRY, ENGLAND; WATT, JAMES.

A combination of English colonies in N America ordered by JAMES VII/II (king of England 1685–8). His scheme developed policies of CHARLES II, who sought greater control of American colonies from the mid 1670s and nullified the charter of MASSACHUSETTS by legal action (1684). He and James envisaged the amalgamation of England’s colonies into several larger territories, akin to Spanish viceroyalties, which would be under strong royal control.

The dominion was implemented from May 1686 (arrival of president), and consisted initially of Massachusetts with Maine Province, NEW HAMPSHIRE, PLYMOUTH PLANTATION and part of RHODE ISLAND. A governor, Sir Edmund Andros, arrived in Dec. 1686. He added the remainder of Rhode Island and CONNECTICUT (1687), and (1688) NEW YORK and the Jerseys (see NEW JERSEY). In 1689, following King James’s flight, a popular uprising in Boston (Massachusetts) overthrew Andros. The dominion collapsed (April–May), and individual colonies were allowed to resume autonomy. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES, GOVERNMENTS OF.

A former English CROWN COLONY in N America (British from 1707). Newfoundland island was visited in 1497 by the English‐sponsored explorer John CABOT, who annexed territory, and then reclaimed for England in 1583 by Humphrey GILBERT. England valued its cod fisheries but settlement was discouraged until the 18th century. Governors were appointed from 1729, initially residing seasonally. France maintained a claim until 1713, and retained fishing rights until 1904. From 1763 Newfoundland was awarded an increasing area of Labrador to the N (final establishment of boundaries, 1927).

The first permanently resident governor was appointed in 1817. Immigration accompanied the development of sealing and mining. A legislature was finally established in 1855. Newfoundland rejected confederation with Canada in 1869 and 1895, and was granted DOMINION status in 1917.

Newfoundland returned to British colonial rule in 1934 when nearly bankrupted by the Great Depression. It became the tenth province of CANADA in 1949, following a referendum, and was officially called Newfoundland and Labrador from 2001. Approx. population (Newfoundland and Labrador) in 1921, 263,000; in 1948, 339,000. See also UTRECHT, PEACE OF.

A former English colony in N America, in NEW ENGLAND (British from 1707). The name ‘New Hampshire' was originally given to land N of MASSACHUSETTS which was granted to John Mason in 1629 by the Council for NEW ENGLAND. English settlements had been founded there since 1623. By 1643 they acknowledged the authority of the Massachusetts colony.

From 1659 Mason’s grandson and heir Robert Tufton Mason sought to exclude Massachusetts’ jurisdiction. His claim was resolved when King CHARLES II issued a charter creating a separate province and CROWN COLONY (1679). WILLIAM III and MARY II issued a replacement charter (1691). New Hampshire was governed by a governor and council, appointed by the English Crown, and an elected assembly. Its boundaries were disputed. Est. population 1770: 60,000.

Following conflict with Great Britain, the governor fled in Sept. 1775 (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF). In 1776 New Hampshire adopted a new constitution and became a State of the USA. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES; NEW ENGLAND, DOMINION OF.

A former English colony in N America (British from 1707). It was part of a larger area organized from 1624 as New Netherland by the Dutch East India Company (incorporating ‘New Sweden’ from 1655). In March 1664 King CHARLES II granted New Netherland, though not in English possession, to his brother James, duke of York (see JAMES VII/II); in July, York granted part of the territory, SW of the Hudson River, to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. It was named New Jersey in honour of Carteret, who had been Royalist lieutenant‐governor of Jersey (in the CHANNEL ISLANDS) during the CIVIL WARS. York’s forces seized the New Jersey area in Sept. (see NEW YORK).

In 1674 Carteret and Berkeley’s successors divided New Jersey into East and West Jersey. Each was developed (including provision of government) by groups of proprietors (Carteret’s heirs sold his rights in 1681). But conflict occurred between inhabitants and owners. In 1702 the proprietors surrendered their governmental rights to the English Crown, making New Jersey a CROWN COLONY. It was then ruled by a Crown‐appointed governor (until 1738 the governor of New York) and elected assembly. Est. population 1770: 110,000.

New Jersey joined resistance to British policies in the 1760s–70s (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF). In 1776 the governor was arrested (June), a constitution was adopted (2 July), and New Jersey became a State of the USA. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES; NEW ENGLAND, DOMINION OF.

Name used from autumn 1994 as a ‘rebranding’ of the British LABOUR PARTY to broaden its electoral appeal following four general election defeats. Proposed in early 1994 by political consultant Philip Gould, it was deployed by Alastair CAMPBELL after the election of Tony BLAIR as leader.

‘New Labour’ referred to incipient ‘modernization’ of Party organization (e.g., reduction of union influence in leadership elections) and policies (e.g., being ‘tough on crime’ and, in April 1995, replacement of Labour’s commitment to NATIONALIZATION), and to the Party’s intent to pursue modernizing centrist rather than partisan policies in government. It is also used to characterize aspects of Blair’s government (1997–2007), such as retention of the Conservatives’ trade union reforms and some reforms of public services (e.g., ‘Trust’ hospitals). Blair’s rival and successor Gordon BROWN demonstrated limited co‐operation (see SPENCE AFFAIR); Brown’s successor (from 2010), Ed Miliband, abandoned the term.

(b. 21 Feb. 1801 at London, England; d. 11 Aug. 1890 at Birmingham, Warwickshire, England, aged 89). Of evangelical outlook (from 1816), Newman became a fellow of Oriel College, OXFORD (1822), and a Church of England clergyman (1824). He served as vicar of the University Church in Oxford (St Mary’s) from 1828. When the OXFORD MOVEMENT was launched (1833), Newman organized and published the Tracts for the Times to spread its views. He challenged liberal theology (see HAMPDEN, RENN), and promoted the Church of England as a via media (‘middle way’) between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism.

Newman eventually doubted the Church’s integrity. He resigned from St Mary’s (1843), and in Oct. 1845 left Oriel and became a Roman Catholic. He was ordained priest in Rome in 1847 and joined the Oratorians. He founded an oratory (community of secular priests) in England (1848), and attempted to found a Catholic university at DUBLIN, Ireland (1851–7). He was created a cardinal in 1879. Newman’s writings included hymns, the autobiographical work Apologia pro vita sua (1864), and influential works of theology (e.g., An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent, 1870). Newman was beatified in 2010 and canonized in 2019. See also KINGSLEY, CHARLES; ELGAR, EDWARD.

In England, the Army established by the LONG PARLIAMENT on 4 April 1645, during the First CIVIL WAR, which replaced existing armies as part of a new strategy to achieve victory (see SELF‐DENYING ORDINANCE). Weaknesses in Parliament’s military effort had resulted in demands for ‘new modelling’ of its armies. Though based on existing forces, it valued efficiency rather than social standing (as seen in the choice of officers).

The Army initially consisted of 22,000 officers and men, commanded by Sir Thomas FAIRFAX (succeeded, June 1650, by Oliver CROMWELL). Political radicals within the Army strongly influenced politics (see CIVIL WARS, POLITICAL ASPECTS; COMMONWEALTH AND PROTECTORATE), and units invaded Ireland (1649) and Scotland (1650). The Army reached a peak of 70,000 in 1652, and was still 42,000 strong in 1660. Divisions among the Army’s leaders sapped its political strength before the RESTORATION (1660), after which it was mostly disbanded, with a few regiments being retained by King CHARLES II. See also ARMY, ENGLISH AND BRITISH.

A concept proposed by the English historian J.R. Green in 1874. He claimed that King EDWARD IV (ruled 1461–70, 1471–83) and King HENRY VII (1485–1509) asserted authority over the NOBILITY, quelling the YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT. Green viewed this as despotism, but others saw it as strong government producing peaceful conditions. Both rulers demonstrably strengthened the Crown by increasing revenues, and Henry VII employed officers of modest background (so‐called ‘new men’, such as Edmund DUDLEY, Richard EMPSON).

Critics accepted that Edward and Henry were assertive, but argued that their methods were unoriginal: ‘new men’ had precedents, and government was little changed. Nobles remained powerful, although kings harnessed their authority in localities. The 1530s probably saw more important changes. See also GOVERNMENT, ENGLAND 1066 TO 1509; TUDOR REVOLUTION IN GOVERNMENT; RESUMPTION ACTS.

A city in SE Wales by the R. Usk; centre of Newport unitary authority (Welsh, Casnewydd, meaning ‘New castle’.)

Newport was founded probably in the early 12th century, alongside a castle (centre of the lordship of Newport). It remained a market town until the mid 19th century, when the building of docks made it the chief port of the eastern S Wales coalfield. Coal exporting and population increased rapidly: by 1900 Newport was the fourth largest town in Wales. Coal exporting declined from 1913. Industrial development after 1945 brought renewed growth (engineering, chemicals and steel making and working at nearby Llanwern from 1959). In the late 20th century, Newport was the third largest town in Wales. It was formerly in MONMOUTHSHIRE (1536–1974) and Gwent (1974–96). Newport was granted city status in 2002. See also NEWPORT RISING; CANALS, WALES; CATHOLICS AND CATHOLIC CHURCH, WALES.

Est. popn: 1300, 1000; 1600, 800; 1800, 1100; 1900, 67,000; 2000, 137,000.

A former British colony in Australia. The name was applied by James COOK to Australia’s E coast after he annexed it in 1770. A CROWN COLONY, initially for transported convicts, was founded in 1788 (see TRANSPORTATION). Some convicts chose to stay and were given land; free settlers arrived from the early 19th century.

The developing colony was deemed to comprise eastern and C Australia. From 1825 new colonies were formed by subdivision (see AUSTRALIA). Alongside agriculture and sheep grazing, mining was developed (gold was discovered in 1851). Transportation ended in 1850.

In 1855 the British Parliament granted New South Wales a new constitution and RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. It joined the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 (see AUSTRALIAN FEDERATION). Approx. population in 1901: 1,366,000. See also BOTANY BAY; BLIGH, WILLIAM; NEW ZEALAND.

Of various short‐lived news‐sheets published in LONDON in the early 17th century, the Weekly Newes (1622) may be considered the first regular newspaper. The First CIVIL WAR (1642–6) stimulated journalism, and lighter regulation after 1695 encouraged a proliferation of weekly and tri‐weekly titles, although stamp duty (1712–1855) impeded the growth of a cheap popular press. The first London daily was the single‐sheet Daily Courant (1702–35). Notable early provincial publications include the Worcester Post‐Man (from 1709) and the Leeds Intelligencer (1754; renamed Yorkshire Post 1866).

The Times (started 1785 as The Daily Universal Register; renamed 1788) won national pre‐eminence in the 19th century. The steam press, distribution by RAILWAYS, creation of news agencies, and linotype permitted all‐round expansion and the rise of mass‐circulation dailies serving the entire UK (including Ireland), such as the Daily Telegraph (1855). Sunday newspapers date from 1791 (with the Observer and Courier). The sensationalistic News of the World proved best‐selling (1843–2011).

A more populist approach was developed from the later 19th century, by such papers as the Daily Mail (1896), Daily Express (1900) and Daily Mirror (1903). As advertising revenue became increasingly important, editors boosted circulation by adding more entertainment (e.g., crossword puzzles, comic strips), though political partisanship remained common. The chief centre for national newspaper publishing was Fleet Street, London, until 1986 when the proprietor Rupert MURDOCH began a move to other locations to reduce trade union power. In the late 20th century there were over 1200 local newspapers. But competition from electronic media caused considerable reorganization from the 1990s, and in the early 21st century circulations suffered marked declines. In mid 2016 there were ten national daily papers, divided between ‘quality’ and ‘popular tabloid’, with the Sun (started 1964) as the best‐seller. See also ROTHERMERE, LORD; BEAVERBROOK, LORD; PHONE-HACKING SCANDAL.

The Irish Monthly Mercury (1649–51) was the first newspaper, published at CORK by the English Parliamentary army (see CROMWELL, OLIVER, AND IRELAND). Papers appeared intermittently in the 1660s–90s, then became longer lasting (e.g., Pue’s Impartial Occurrences, 1703–73). Though attacks on the government provoked taxes (1774) and a Libel Act (1784), papers devoted to causes were not deterred (e.g., over Catholic Emancipation in 1820s).

Repeal of tax on advertisements (1853) and stamp duty on newspapers (1855) stimulated expansion. Titles increased from about 100 to almost 300 by 1910. Many promoted outlooks or causes (e.g., Unionism by the Irish Times from 1859). The most influential nationalist paper was the Freeman’s Journal (1763–1924); others such as Sinn Féin and Irish Freedom were outlawed in 1914. English ‘new journalism’ and popular presentation (e.g., pictures) were influential from 1904 (relaunch of the Irish Independent modelled on Britain’s Daily Mail). Notable in the IRISH FREE STATE was Éamon DE VALERA’s Irish Press (1931–95). The Sunday Press (from 1949) was the most popular. In the early 21st century national and local newspapers faced growing competition from other media. British newspapers have also always been influential.

The first news publication was a reprint of English parliamentary proceedings from Dec. 1641 to Jan. 1642. In 1651 the irregular Mercurius Scoticus lasted for 21 editions; other short‐lived titles appeared after the RESTORATION (1660). Durable papers were established in Edinburgh in 1699–1720 (including the revived Edinburgh Gazette, from 1699), though they were hampered by stamp duty (1712–1855). The twice‐weekly Caledonian Mercury (1720) appeared five times a week from 1726. Papers generally supported the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION. Lasting provincial papers began with Aberdeen's Journal (from 1747). The Glasgow Advertiser (1783; retitled Glasgow Herald, 1805) was Glasgow's first long‐lived paper.

Publications steadily increased in the 19th century, including the Edinburgh Review (1802), Blackwood's Magazine (1817), and The Scotsman (1817). The North British Daily Mail, founded in Glasgow (1847), was Scotland's first daily newspaper. The Sunday Post, founded by D.C. Thomson of DUNDEE in 1920, became exceptionally popular. (The company also produced famous children's comic papers.) In the 1920s there were about 20 national papers, which fell to 12 after closures in the 1960s–70s. In the mid 1990s about 190 local newspapers were also published, including ‘free sheets' supported by advertising.

By 2017 the advent of the Internet was causing serious losses of readership and advertising, and closures. There remained four daily national newspapers (Daily Record, with largest circulation, The Herald, The Scotsman, and The National, the last launched in 2014 to support Scottish independence), four Sunday nationals (Sunday Mail, associated with Daily Record, Sunday Herald, Scotland on Sunday, and Sunday Post) and about 120 local newspapers. UK national newspapers also continued to publish Scottish editions.

Apart from a one‐issue publication of 1735, Welsh‐language periodicals appeared in the later 18th century, some spreading ideas from the FRENCH REVOLUTION. Most were short‐lived. Seren Gomer (‘Star of Gomer’), launched in SWANSEA (S Wales) in 1814, lasted as a weekly for 85 issues (and was later revived). By 1850, 139 periodicals had been launched, many having campaigned for radical causes such as CHARTISM and repeal of the CORN LAWS. Most failed.

Durable publications, some allied to nonconformist denominations, were established in the second half of the 19th century, with Thomas GEE's (Liberal) Baner ac Amserau Cymru (‘Banner and Times of Wales’) winning a substantial circulation (1857–1989). Welsh‐language periodicals were also published in England (Liverpool and London) and the USA.

Wales's first English‐language weekly was The Cambrian, launched in Swansea in 1804 (continuing until 1930). The first daily, also published in Swansea, was the (Liberal) Cambria Daily Leader (1861–1930). Another morning daily, the (Conservative) Western Mail, was published in CARDIFF (SE Wales) from 1869, followed by the (Liberal) South Wales Daily News from 1872. (From 1928 the Western Mail incorporated the Daily News.) The N was served from the late 19th century by the Wales edition of the Liverpool Daily Post. In 2003 this became a separate regional newspaper, the Daily Post.

In 2017 the Western Mail (the only Wales‐based British national newspaper) and Daily Post remained the main newspapers, both containing Welsh‐language content. Other news publications included about 60 regular Welsh‐language newsletters produced by volunteers (called papurau bro, ‘local papers’).

(b. 25 Dec. 1642 at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England; d. 20 March 1727 at Kensington, Middlesex, England, aged 84). A farmer’s posthumous son, Newton studied at Trinity College, CAMBRIDGE, from 1661. While in Lincolnshire 1665–7 (avoiding PLAGUE), he made fundamental advances in mathematics, analysis of light, and awareness of gravitation (the last allegedly inspired by seeing an apple fall from a tree). He became a fellow of Trinity (1667) and Lucasian professor of mathematics (1669). Newton’s submission of a telescope to the ROYAL SOCIETY won him election as a fellow (1672).

In 1687 Newton published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (‘Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’, known as the Principia), which explained cosmology mathematically. His other publications included Opticks (1704). He secretly explored ALCHEMY and was anti‐Trinitarian (see UNITARIANS).

In mid life, Newton entered public affairs, becoming an MP (1689–90, 1701–2), and warden of the Royal Mint (1696; master from 1699); he resigned his Cambridge positions in 1701. From 1703 he served as president of the Royal Society, and was knighted in 1705. One of the greatest natural philosophers (scientists), Newton was famously celebrated by Alexander Pope (1730): ‘Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night; / God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.’ See also HOOKE, ROBERT; SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION.

A former English colony in N America (British from 1707). It was part of an earlier, larger area, called ‘New Netherland’ from 1614, in which the Dutch West India Company organized settlements from 1624 (see also NEW JERSEY). In 1626 it purchased Manhattan Island from local Indians, on which New Amsterdam had already been started (later the principal settlement).

In March 1664 King CHARLES II of England granted the New Netherland territory, though not in English possession, to his brother James, duke of York, who sent a fleet. The Dutch colony’s director‐general surrendered on 27 Aug. The colony and New Amsterdam were renamed New York after the duke. (The Dutch briefly repossessed their former territory in 1673–4.) The colony’s first elected assembly met in 1683 and drafted a frame of government. New York became a CROWN COLONY in 1685 when York became king (see JAMES VII/II). It was ruled from 1689 to 1691 by a popular assembly led by Jacob Leisler (see NEW ENGLAND, DOMINION OF). Est. population 1770: 185,000.

New York resisted British impositions from 1765 but reluctantly became a State of the USA in 1776 (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF). Many battles took place in New York State during the AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES.

A former British DOMINION in the SW Pacific, comprising two large and several smaller islands. Charted by James COOK in 1769–70, New Zealand was then frequented by British whalers. Missionaries followed from 1814. Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796–1862) organized colonization in the 1830s, and Great Britain annexed South Island in 1839. Maori chiefs ceded sovereignty over North Island by the treaty of Waitangi (1840), but land disputes led to intermittent conflict with the Maoris (1845–7, 1860–72; see MAORIS AND BRITISH, MID 19TH CENTURY). New Zealand was considered part of NEW SOUTH WALES until made a CROWN COLONY in 1841.

New Zealand was granted a constitution in 1853, and RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT in 1856. Central government took over public works and immigration policy from the provinces in the 1870s. Pastoral farming flourished in the late 19th century, boosted from 1879 by the development of refrigerated ships. The Liberal Party predominated 1891–1912, introducing old age pensions (1898) and female suffrage (1893). New Zealand adopted dominion status in 1907. The Reform Party, in power 1912–28, supported farming interests and imperial unity.

During WORLD WAR I (1914–18), 130,000 New Zealanders fought in France and at GALLIPOLI. Between 1935 and 1949, Labour governments introduced social reforms. WORLD WAR II (1939–45) saw New Zealand send troops to Europe and N Africa while relying on the USA for defence from 1942. Formal independence (under the British Crown) was established in 1947, and British membership of the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (1973) led New Zealand to seek closer relations with AUSTRALIA and E Asia. Approx. population in 1921, 1,320,000; in 1946, 1,759,000.

A former British territory in W Africa. The English acquired slaves from the Niger Delta and other riverine areas from the mid 17th century (see ROYAL AFRICAN COMPANY), but from 1808 the British sought to suppress the SLAVE TRADE. Great Britain annexed Lagos as a base in 1861 and declared a PROTECTORATE over coastal areas in 1885 (the Niger Districts Protectorate; renamed Oil Rivers Protectorate 1891, Niger Coast Protectorate 1893). From 1886 the Royal Niger Company, formed by George GOLDIE, also administered extensive areas.

In 1900 the British territories became the protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria. Frederick LUGARD conquered the northern emirates (1903) and later united the territories as a single colony (1914). Cotton and cocoa were staples.

Nigeria was federated in 1954, and became independent under the British Crown (1960) and a republic (1963). Approx. population in 1921, 18,365,000; in 1959, 41,611,000. See also WEST AFRICA, ENGLISH AND BRITISH INVOLVEMENT; SHAW, FLORA; SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA.

Although the British explorers Richard BURTON and John Speke sought the source of the R. Nile in the 1850s (in eastern Africa), British strategic interest began when Great Britain became involved in EGYPT (1882). Egyptian agriculture relied on land irrigation from the Nile, which would be threatened by hostile control of the headwaters.

Britain’s position was challenged by the MAHDI REBELLION in SUDAN (from 1881), which Britain initially failed to suppress (see GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE). Britain secured its position by taking over UGANDA and KENYA, pacifying Sudan (1898), and seeing off a French challenge at FASHODA (Sept.–Nov. 1898). See also SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA.

In Ireland, conflict between Gaelic Irish and English, May 1593–March 1603. From May 1593 Irish chieftains in ULSTER (N Ireland) routinely attacked English officials and garrisons who ventured into their province. They were openly joined from May 1595 by the 2nd earl of Tyrone (Hugh O'NEILL), who defeated an English force at Clontibret (Co. Monaghan, 13 June 1595). A truce followed (to May 1596).

With Spanish encouragement the Irish renewed the war. After inconsequential warfare, and another truce (Dec. 1597–June 1598), Tyrone heavily defeated an English force at the Yellow Ford (Co. Armagh, 14 Aug. 1598). English strength in Ireland collapsed: CONNACHT and MUNSTER (W and S Ireland) were lost. A new English governor, the 2nd earl of ESSEX (in Ireland April–Sept. 1599), agreed another truce (7 Sept.–Jan. 1600), after which Tyrone campaigned in Munster (Feb.–March 1600).

After Lord MOUNTJOY arrived as chief governor (Feb. 1600), the English regained Munster and established forts in Ulster. When a Spanish army arrived (Sept. 1601), it was besieged in Kinsale (S Ireland), and Mountjoy defeated Tyrone nearby (24 Dec.; see KINSALE, BATTLE OF). During 1602 Mountjoy wasted Ulster, causing Tyrone to submit in March 1603 (see MELLIFONT, TREATY OF). Mountjoy's victory completed the English conquest of Ireland (see IRELAND, ENGLISH CONQUEST, 16TH CENTURY).

(fl. possibly in 6th century; d. in N Britain). According to BEDE, writing in 731, the British bishop ‘Nynia’ built a stone church, called the ‘White House' (Latin, Candida Casa), at WHITHORN in N Britain (in modern Dumfries and Galloway, SW Scotland), and also preached to the southern PICTS.

Some have doubted aspects of Bede’s account and even Ninian’s existence. Others have suggested that he should be identified with Uinniau (c.495–589), a British monk with whom the young COLUMBA studied in Ireland, and who founded a monastery at Moville (in modern Co. Down, Northern Ireland). A connection between Uinniau and GALLOWAY is suggested by church dedications (to St Finnian), but the religious site excavated at Whithorn is of a later date. See also POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; CONVERSION OF NORTH BRITONS, PICTS AND SCOTS.

Term for the élite stratum of historical SOCIAL STRUCTURES. Noble status usually reflected wealth, social authority and lifestyle. It was often conferred by kings and hereditary.

The earliest recorded nobilities (5th–8th centuries) were military élites who accompanied kings. In Ireland and Brittonic/Pictish N Britain they possibly originated from IRON AGE TRIBES. In southern Britain they emerged from Brittonic societies (5th century) and Anglo‐Saxon peoples (6th–7th centuries). Senior noblemen (EALDORMEN or EARLS), and others (usually ‘thegns’) were important in England’s GOVERNMENT (10th–11th centuries).

The NORMAN CONQUEST (1066–70s) replaced the English nobility with a Continental élite (170 BARONS, several thousand lesser noblemen, including KNIGHTS). Its members expanded into Wales (11th–12th centuries), Scotland and Ireland (12th–13th centuries). In Wales, indigenous nobles were displaced or descendants eventually became gentry. In Ireland, some Gaelic noble kindreds survived until the 17th century. In Scotland, indigenous and immigrant noble families coexisted.

Some noblemen became principal members of PARLIAMENTS in England, Ireland and Scotland (from 13th century). In the 14th–15th centuries they evolved into PEERAGES (bodies of established hereditary members, with various ranks); nobilities became equated with peers, and other noblemen lost noble status (16th–17th centuries). New peers were created by rulers.

From the RESTORATION (1660) noblemen became less involved in military activity. Peers lost political importance in Scotland and Ireland with termination of the countries’ Parliaments (respectively 1707, 1800). Nobles (or aristocrats), including Scottish and Irish ‘representative peers’, remained influential in the UK Parliament until 1911 (abolition of Lords’ veto). The decline of LANDED SOCIETY eroded other roles.

From 1922 CONSTITUTIONS for SOUTHERN IRELAND prohibited new noble titles. In the UK non‐judicial life peers were appointed from 1958, and few hereditary peers were created from 1964. Most hereditary peers were removed from Parliament in 1999. In 1995 hereditary peers had totalled: 746 English/British/UK, 43 Scottish, 70 Irish. See also POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; NORMANS, IMPACT ON IRELAND/SCOTLAND/WALES; MAGNATE; GENTRY; LAIRD; LORD LIEUTENANT; HONOURS SYSTEM.

‘Nonconformist’ was used from the early 17th century for someone who accepted the doctrines of the Church of ENGLAND, and remained within the Church, but refused to conform to practices required by the PRAYER BOOK (e.g., kneeling to receive Holy Communion). Puritans tended to be nonconformists and sought to change practices and Church government (see PURITANISM, ENGLAND/WALES). From the 1660s the term usually denoted someone who accepted the idea of an established Church but rejected conformity to the Church settlement imposed after the RESTORATION (episcopal government, 1662 Prayer Book), and often worshipped outside the Church (e.g., Richard BAXTER). The term ‘dissenter’ was used from the 1640s for people who disagreed with the idea of an established Church, or desired tolerance for Protestant ‘gathered churches’ outside the established Church.

Both nonconformists and dissenters were usually called dissenters in the later 17th and 18th centuries, and nonconformists from the 19th century. Catholics were sometimes called nonconformists, but more usually ‘recusants’ (late 16th–early 19th centuries). See also CHURCH, ENGLAND AND WALES, 1640S–50S; NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, ENGLAND/IRELAND/WALES; DISSENT, SCOTLAND.

Between the 1550s and 1640s, ‘nonconformist’ is applied primarily to adherents of the (Protestant) Church of ENGLAND who criticized ceremonies and episcopal Church government (effectively an alternative term to ‘Puritan’ or sometimes ‘presbyterian’; see PURITANISM, ENGLAND). There were also radical Protestants who rejected a corporate Church and founded independent ‘gathered congregations’ (including ones in the Dutch Republic and NEW ENGLAND). They were sometimes called ‘nonconformists’ but also variously ‘separatists’, ‘BROWNISTS’, ‘BAPTISTS’ or ‘Anabaptists’ (rejecters of infant baptism), and (from 1640s) ‘Independents’, ‘dissenters’. Separatism flourished during the 1640s–50s when religious uniformity collapsed (see ENGLISH REVOLUTION; QUAKERS).

After the RESTORATION, many Church of England nonconformists rejected the terms of reimposed religious uniformity and became separatists, notably 1760 clergy who left parish livings (1660–3; see CLARENDON CODE). Separatists were usually called ‘dissenters’. Though granted freedom of worship in 1689 (see TOLERATION ACT), they endured disabilities until the 19th century (see TEST AND CORPORATION ACTS). Dissenting congregations worshipped in houses or chapels, and founded schools and DISSENTING ACADEMIES. There were 300,000 dissenters by 1700, mostly Independents, presbyterians and Baptists, declining to 50,000 by 1740. A few ministers abandoned orthodox theology (see UNITARIANS).

Dissent re‐expanded from the late 18th century, influenced by EVANGELICALISM and augmented by Methodist denominations (see METHODISM). Dissenters founded MISSIONARY SOCIETIES from the 1790s, and denominations created associations (e.g., General Union of Particular Baptists, 1813). By 1851, a quarter of the population attended dissenting (or nonconformist) worship, mostly Methodist, CONGREGATIONALIST (i.e., Independent) or Baptist. Nonconformists became prominent in politics, especially through the LIBERAL PARTY. Congregations built grander chapels. Membership of the main denominations peaked in 1906–8 (in 1905, Methodist, Baptist and Congregationalist membership totalled about 1.3 million; attendance was larger). Decline through the 20th century, especially from the 1960s, greatly reduced adherence (to about 400,000 members in 2010 for Methodists, Baptists, United Reformed Church). See also NONCONFORMISTS, DISSENTERS; SACHEVERELL AFFAIR; PLYMOUTH BRETHREN; TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT, ENGLAND; UNIVERSITY REFORM, ENGLAND; NONCONFORMIST CONSCIENCE; SOPER, DONALD.

In the later 16th and early 17th centuries, CHIEF GOVERNORS and Church of IRELAND bishops were uninterested in outward conformity by clergy and laity (e.g., in dress, ceremonies). It was inconsequential for the Church’s theology (see CALVINISM); the primary concern was combating Catholicism. The Church accommodated Puritans (e.g., John CLOTWORTHY) and nonconformists, so unlike in England and Wales there was no coherent nonconformist or Puritan movement. Even presbyterian settlers from Scotland, concentrated in ULSTER (N Ireland), were initially accepted (e.g., with ministers holding Church livings). In the 1630s a campaign for greater discipline provoked opposition (see LAUDIANISM, IMPACT ON IRELAND). Separate presbyterian organization began in the 1640s (see PRESBYTERIANISM, IRELAND).

Apart from presbyterians, there were few dissenters until Independents (i.e., CONGREGATIONALISTS) and BAPTISTS arrived with the Parliamentary NEW MODEL ARMY in 1649. QUAKERS established a presence from 1654. Non‐presbyterian dissenters remained fairly strong in the 1650s–60s, especially in DUBLIN, then declined.

The imposition of uniformity in the Church of Ireland (1666), following the RESTORATION, caused presbyterianism to develop separately (see PRESBYTERIAN SOCIETY, IRELAND). Otherwise, by the early 18th century there were only 2000 Baptists, 6500 Quakers and a few Independent congregations. Like presbyterians, they were excluded from civil offices by an addition to the 1704 Popery Act, though worship was permitted from 1719 (see TOLERATION ACT, IRELAND).

From 1747 revivalist METHODISM developed alongside the Church of Ireland, becoming a denomination in the 19th century. After the legalization of Unitarianism (1813) a few congregations emerged. Except for presbyterianism, Protestant dissent was slight (e.g., 4% of population in 1871).

Following the PARTITION OF IRELAND (1921), presbyterianism remained strong in NORTHERN IRELAND (19% of population in 2011; other dissenters below 9%). In southern Ireland, dissenters (including presbyterians) were few (below 1.5% in 2011).

Protestant dissenting congregations, independent of the Church of England (which included Wales), were started from 1639 (developing from PURITANISM) and increased in number during the COMMONWEALTH AND PROTECTORATE (1649–60). More were founded after 118 clergy were ejected in 1660–2 (see CLARENDON CODE). In the 1670s there were 4000 dissenters, most in S Wales.

After the 1689 TOLERATION ACT dissenters built chapels and became organized. Principal denominations were CONGREGATIONALISTS (Independents), BAPTISTS, QUAKERS, and the newer PRESBYTERIANS (followed later by UNITARIANS). Numbers remained small until the 1780s, but many were prosperous (as farmers, craftsmen) and important locally. From the 1730s some growth was generated by copying Methodist evangelical methods (see METHODIST REVIVAL, WALES). In the 1790s radicals were usually nonconformists (e.g., Richard PRICE).

Expansion into new industrial areas (see INDUSTRY, WALES FROM 18TH CENTURY) and the Methodists' separation from the Church of England in 1811 (see CALVINISTIC METHODISTS) enhanced nonconformity's position. Rapid expansion followed: by 1850, 80% of churchgoers attended chapels, with Methodists and Congregationalists being the largest denominations. Late 19th‐century Welsh society, culture and politics were imbued with nonconformist values (see TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT, WALES; DISESTABLISHMENT, CHURCH OF ENGLAND IN WALES; LIBERAL PARTY, WALES).

Nonconformist church membership peaked at 550,000 in 1905 and then fell, hit by emigration in the 1920s and 1930s and later by increasing SECULARIZATION. By the 1990s nonconformity had lost its pre‐eminence. See also DISSENTING ACADEMIES, WALES; EDUCATION, WALES; CATHOLICS AND CATHOLIC CHURCH, WALES; WALES, CHURCH IN.

(b. 1473, possibly in Norfolk, England; d. 25 Aug. 1554 at Kenninghall, Norfolk, aged about 81). Thomas Howard, a courtier and soldier (prominent at FLODDEN, 1513), was created earl of Surrey in 1514 and succeeded as duke in 1524. He was TREASURER under King HENRY VIII 1522–46. Hostile in the 1520s to Cardinal Thomas WOLSEY, Norfolk was briefly a leading councillor after Wolsey’s fall (1529), but was eclipsed by Thomas CROMWELL (by 1533). He quelled the PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE (1536).

In the late 1530s Norfolk supported a conservative reaction in religion (see SIX ARTICLES) and helped to discredit Cromwell (deposed 1540). Henry appointed him to command military forces in Scotland (1542) and France (1544), but he was sidelined by the Seymour family. In 1546, following involvement by his son in a plot, Norfolk was arrested (12 Dec.). He was attainted (27 Jan. 1547) but escaped execution because of Henry’s death the next day.

Norfolk remained in prison during the reign of EDWARD VI (1547–53). He was released by MARY I (Aug. 1553) and the attainder was nullified. See also HOWARD FAMILY; SURREY EXPEDITION.

From early 1066 William II, duke of NORMANDY, prepared to seize the English kingship after his claim was disregarded (see WILLIAM I). He obtained expressions of support from the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor, built ships and recruited followers (by Aug.). His force sailed to England on 27–28 Sept., landing at Pevensey (Sussex). King HAROLD was in N England (see STAMFORD BRIDGE, BATTLE OF). He marched S, and was defeated and killed (14 Oct.) near HASTINGS (Sussex).

The Normans initially failed to capture LONDON (repulsed at London bridge). After marching W and N, they crossed the R. Thames at Wallingford (Berkshire). Leading Englishmen submitted at Berkhamsted (Hertfordshire), including Londoners and Edgar ætheling, the English claimant (see ÆTHELING). William was crowned on Christmas Day in WESTMINSTER Abbey.

The Normans had to suppress rebellions: in 1068 by the city of Exeter (Devon) and in the W Midlands; in 1069–70 in the W Midlands and N England (see HARRYING OF THE NORTH); in 1070 in NE England (see SWEIN ESTRITHSON); in 1070–1 in the FENS (E England). In 1072 William invaded Scotland (see ABERNETHY, TREATY OF). The last major revolt occurred in 1075 (see REVOLT OF THE EARLS). Rebels usually forfeited their lands.

By William's death (1087) England was profoundly changed. Most English nobles were replaced by Continental lords (about 170). Society became more rigidly hierarchical (or ‘feudal’), with major lords holding land from the king, and ‘subtenants' holding land from lords (see HONOUR). Both king and lords built CASTLES at important centres. English bishops and major abbots were replaced with Continental clergy, and merchants from Continental Europe settled in many towns. French became widely used. English forms of GOVERNMENT continued largely unchanged. See also NORMAN EMPIRE; NORMANS, IMPACT ON IRELAND/SCOTLAND/WALES; TENURES, ENGLAND FROM 1066.

A territory in N France, adjacent to the English Channel; it was created in the 10th century and powerful in the 11th and 12th centuries. It originated in 911 when the Frankish king Charles the Simple allegedly conceded the city of Rouen and surrounding land to Rollo (d. c.928), a VIKING and pagan, possibly to stem attacks by other Vikings. It was extended westwards by grants to Rollo and his successor William Longsword (924, 933). Longsword, a Christian (ruled c.928–42), called himself ‘count of Rouen’. He and his successors remained theoretically subordinate to the kings of France.

Vikings settled around Rouen in the early 10th century. By the time of Richard I (ruled 942–96) their descendants had become Christians and Frankish in culture. Important social changes occurred c.1000, following developments elsewhere. Powerful families adopted primogeniture (succession to property by eldest son, rather than control by a kindred). Nobles asserted status by building castles, founding towns and monasteries, and recruiting bands of horse‐mounted knights (see FEUDALISM).

Richard II (ruled 996–1026) was titled ‘duke’, and the territory was now called Normandy (Latin, Normannia), meaning ‘Land of the north men’, possibly to stress separateness from France. Richard was succeeded by Richard III (1026–7) and Robert I (1027–35). William II (1035–87) attacked neighbouring territories and conquered England (1066–70s), creating a NORMAN EMPIRE and spreading Norman culture. Other Normans settled in southern Italy and Sicily from c.1060.

From 1144 Normandy was part of the ANGEVIN EMPIRE. It was conquered by King Philip II of France in 1202–4. See also NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND; NORMAN KINGS.

Historians' term for lands amassed by William II, duke of NORMANDY (N France) 1035–87, namely Maine (held 1063–92) and England (invaded 1066; see WILLIAM I). Normandy and England became connected by a common ruler (who in England was king), and by landholders with estates in both territories. They retained their own governments.

Normandy and England had separate and rival rulers 1087–96, 1100–6, 1144–54, which created problems of loyalty for cross‐Channel landholders (see ROBERT CURTHOSE; WILLIAM II; HENRY I; STEPHEN). Normandy became part of the ANGEVIN EMPIRE in 1144, England in 1154. See also NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND; NORMAN KINGS.

Terms used for descendants in Ireland of the 12th‐century Anglo‐Norman invaders and associated settlers (see NORMANS, IMPACT ON IRELAND). Until the later 16th century they were described as English, then called ‘Old English’ to distinguish them from a recent new stream of English immigrants, the so‐called ‘NEW ENGLISH’.

During the REFORMATION (16th century) the Old English remained predominantly Catholic and were gradually excluded from power by the New English. This led to alliances between Old English and Gaelic Irish families, culminating in collaboration during the IRISH WARS of 1641–52. English, Old English, and New English were also styled ‘Anglo‐Irish’. See also IRELAND, ENGLISH COLONY IN, 13TH–15TH CENTURIES.

In 1169–70, over a century after the Norman invasion of England, LEINSTER (E Ireland) was invaded from Wales by mercenaries. They are conventionally called ‘Anglo‐Normans’, but sometimes ‘Cambro‐Normans' (Welsh Normans) because many had Norman and Welsh parents (see GERALDINES). Irish chroniclers usually called them ‘English’.

The invaders were brought to Ireland by Diarmait MAC MURCHADA who offered land in return for helping him regain the high‐kingship of Leinster. In 1171, during an expedition to Ireland, King HENRY II of England assumed the lordship of Ireland; he later granted away land outside Leinster. By c.1250 lordships held under the English Crown covered two‐thirds of Ireland (see IRELAND, ENGLISH CONQUEST, 12TH–13TH CENTURIES).

The Anglo‐Normans (or English) introduced military, social, economic and governmental institutions from England (themselves a combination of Norman and pre‐Norman institutions). Holders of lordships (e.g., STRONGBOW in Leinster) created ‘knights' fees' on which they settled followers (see MILITARY SERVICE, IRELAND BEFORE 17TH CENTURY). Major lords and knights built castles and organized their lands as MANORS containing villages with open fields. They settled English immigrants who practised arable‐based mixed farming. Anglo‐Normans also founded small towns and encouraged CHURCH REFORM, the formation of PARISHES, and reformed MONASTICISM. From the late 12th century a central government and legal institutions were developed. See also GOVERNMENT, IRELAND 12TH–MID 17TH CENTURIES.

Norman involvement comprised immigration and the import of features of Norman England, not conquest. King DAVID I (ruled 1124–53), a landholder in England, provided lordships particularly for landless younger sons of Norman (and other) families recently settled in England (see, e.g., STEWART FAMILY; BRUCE FAMILY). Settlement occurred initially in S Scotland except GALLOWAY (spreading the use of English) and in lowland MORAY (NE Scotland). It continued elsewhere into the 13th century. Immigrants founded many families which have been prominent throughout Scottish history.

David reorganized the court to resemble the Anglo‐Norman court and built royal castles. (He also introduced BURGHS, coinage and sheriffdoms, features of pre‐Norman England.)

Norman adventurers (such as ROBERT OF RHUDDLAN, William fitz Osbern and Roger of MONTGOMERY) moved from W and NW England into N WALES from the early 1070s, soon after the Norman invasion of England (1066). But only after the death of RHYS AP TEWDWR, king of DEHEUBARTH (SW Wales), in 1093 did Normans seize extensive territories further S (encouraged by Kings WILLIAM II and HENRY I of England), eventually creating the MARCH OF WALES. The Welsh regained territories during the reign of STEPHEN of England (1135–54) and in the early years of HENRY II's reign (to 1171).

The creation of Norman lordships (eventually about 40) meant the loss of native political control in the areas concerned. The March became partly non‐Welsh with the founding of towns, English immigration, and the introduction of English laws, customs and land tenures. The Normans' control of churches influenced the native Welsh Church, opening it to mainstream European movements such as Continental MONASTICISM, FRIARS, and the development of territorial structures (see CHURCH ORGANIZATION, WALES).

(b. 13 April 1732 at Piccadilly, Middlesex, England; d. 5 Aug. 1792 at London, England, aged 60). The son of a WHIG nobleman, Frederick North was known as Lord North from 1752 and became an MP in 1754. From 1759 to 1765 he was paymaster‐general in the ministries of the duke of NEWCASTLE, earl of BUTE, and George GRENVILLE. He took a leading role against John WILKES. In 1767 North replaced Charles TOWNSHEND as chancellor of the Exchequer under the duke of GRAFTON.

In 1770 North succeeded Grafton as PRIME MINISTER (first lord of the Treasury). Supported by King GEORGE III, he enacted legislation he disliked for the king (e.g., ROYAL MARRIAGES ACT, 1772). His reaction to the crisis and war (from 1775) with the American colonies was a confused mixture of coercion and conciliation. Depressed by defeats, and from 1777 desperate to resign, he continued at the king’s insistence. He resigned in March 1782 following the defeat of British forces.

North returned to government in 1783 (April–Dec.) in a coalition with Charles James FOX nominally led by the duke of PORTLAND, angering the king. North remained in opposition during the ensuing administration of William PITT the Younger. He succeeded as earl of Guilford in 1790. See also AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE; ROBINSON, JOHN.

Sailors from BRISTOL possibly reached N America during Atlantic voyages from 1480. The first known English‐sponsored crossing took place in 1497 (see CABOT, JOHN). Probably seeking Asia, it reached NEWFOUNDLAND.

In 1524 the Italian Giovanni Verrazzano discovered that the coastline between Florida and the Newfoundland area was continuous. This prompted Englishmen to seek a route to Asia farther N, the NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. But after John Rut’s voyage (1527), activity largely ceased, though the Frenchman Jacques Cartier discovered the St Lawrence gulf and river (in modern Canada) in the 1530s–40s.

English exploration for the passage was resumed in the 1570s by Martin FROBISHER, who discovered Baffin Island, Frobisher Bay and the Hudson Strait (later names). Francis DRAKE sought the passage from the Pacific (1579). Voyages by John Davis (1585–7) worked out the relationship of Greenland to NE America, and explored the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay.

From the 1560s English curiosity was also motivated by colonization ambitions. In 1584 the area off modern N Carolina was surveyed for Walter RALEGH to facilitate colonization (see ROANOKE SETTLEMENTS). War with Spain then deterred activity, and c.1600 the French became active in the St Lawrence Gulf area. Renewed English interest concentrated on an area S of the French (named NEW ENGLAND in 1614) and on Chesapeake Bay (modern Virginia). Voyages to New England in 1602–5, and to Chesapeake Bay in 1602–3, encouraged merchants to found the VIRGINIA COMPANY (1606). It started the first successful colony in 1607 (see VIRGINIA). Chesapeake Bay was further explored by John Smith (1607) who also mapped New England (1614).

After ventures in the 1580s (see GILBERT, HUMPHREY; ROANOKE SETTLEMENTS), English colonization concentrated on two regions. One was around and S of Chesapeake Bay: VIRGINIA was founded in 1607, and later MARYLAND (1632) and NORTH and SOUTH CAROLINA (1663). The other, farther N, was ‘NEW ENGLAND’, where ‘separatist’ PURITANS were influential. Colonies included PLYMOUTH PLANTATION (1620), MASSACHUSETTS (1629), and later CONNECTICUT, RHODE ISLAND, and NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Dutch and Swedes were active in the intervening ‘middle’ region until the English seized ‘New Netherland’ in 1664, thereby linking New England and the Chesapeake. It was reorganized as NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA and DELAWARE. GEORGIA, below South Carolina, was added in 1732.

Relations with indigenous ‘Indians’ ranged from co‐operation to warfare. The largest conflict was King Philip’s War (1675–6) in New England. From the mid 17th century England developed a ‘colonial economic system’, requiring its American and West Indies colonies to trade within the Empire and use English or colonial ships (see NAVIGATION ACTS; MERCANTILISM). Most Americans were farmers, with tobacco being an important staple in Virginia and Maryland. Slaves were imported from Africa, in large numbers from the 1680s.

In the 18th century, population increased from 275,000 to over 2 million by the 1760s (including 350,000 slaves). Immigrants included Europeans of various origins (e.g., Germans and so‐called Scotch‐Irish from N Ireland). Although there were established churches in nine colonies, no denomination predominated. A religious revival, the ‘Great Awakening’, began in the 1720s (encouraged by George WHITEFIELD), albeit dividing churches. European ENLIGHTENMENT ideas also became popular. Several colonies wanted to expand westwards but were impeded by French territory E of the Mississippi River. It was acquired by Great Britain after the SEVEN YEARS WAR (1754–63). But defence costs generated friction, leading eventually to the AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775–81) and creation of the USA (1776). See also NORTH AMERICA, ENGLISH EXPLORATION; NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES, GOVERNMENTS OF; NEW ENGLAND, DOMINION OF; CANADA.

Starting from the early 17th century, governments were mostly established by the corporations or personal proprietors who founded or administered colonies under authority from the English monarch. (For exceptions, see PLYMOUTH PLANTATION, CONNECTICUT.) They usually appointed a governor and council, and allowed an elected assembly.

Governors commanded militias, appointed some officials, summoned assemblies, and could initiate and veto legislation. Councils usually acted as advisers to governors, as judges, and as the ‘upper’ part of the legislature. Elected assemblies voted taxes and could initiate legislation. Tripartite colonial legislatures therefore partly resembled the English Parliament. But assemblies became more representative than England’s House of Commons, with 50–80% of adult white males being entitled to vote, though voting qualifications varied. Legislation required approval from the English or British PRIVY COUNCIL (normally granted).

For varying reasons, seven colonies eventually became CROWN COLONIES, with the monarch appointing the governor, and usually the governor appointing the council (see THIRTEEN COLONIES). The English or British Parliament provided a framework for trade through the NAVIGATION ACTS, but was otherwise little involved before the 1760s. Colonies dealt with the Privy Council, lords of trade and plantations (from 1675), or Board of TRADE (from 1696).

Arrangements for local government varied. In NEW ENGLAND, township meetings were important (e.g., to elect officers). In southern colonies, with scattered settlement, counties were primary territories and many officers were appointed. See also NEW ENGLAND, DOMINION OF; AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.

This alliance for common defence, often called ‘NATO’, was established by the North Atlantic Treaty of 4 April 1949. It allied the USA and Canada with ten W European countries, including the UK, primarily against the USSR.

Following WORLD WAR II, and with the development of the COLD WAR (from 1947), the British had strongly encouraged continuing US commitment to the defence of Western Europe. The USA had based strategic bombers in Britain from 1948, and Ernest BEVIN, the British foreign secretary, had arranged the Brussels Pact (17 March 1948) to facilitate the North Atlantic Treaty.

NATO had an integrated defence force under US command from Dec. 1950. Britain kept four Army divisions (55,000 men) in West Germany, and the Royal NAVY guarded Atlantic sea‐lanes. Britain supported nuclear deterrence and resisted any loosening of the alliance – as was evident in the support for intermediate‐range nuclear weapons in the 1980s by Margaret THATCHER (see ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS).

The alliance expanded after its foundation, and following the dissolution of the USSR (1991) it was joined by countries in E Europe. By 2009 NATO had 29 members.

A former English colony in N America (British from 1707). The earliest English settlements in America were made on an island in later North Carolina (see ROANOKE SETTLEMENTS). The term ‘Carolana’, referring to King CHARLES I, was applied to land S of VIRGINIA in 1629 when Charles granted a patent for colonization to Sir Robert Heath, a lawyer. Little happened. Some Virginians settled in the territory in the 1650s.

In 1663 King CHARLES II made a substitute grant to eight proprietors, who created two counties. The northern one was named Albemarle after the duke of Albemarle (George MONCK), a proprietor. It was given a governor and council (appointed by the proprietors) and elected assembly. By 1689 Albemarle was called North Carolina. It was ruled 1691–1712 by a deputy of the SOUTH CAROLINA governor, then by its own governor. In 1729 GEORGE II bought out seven owners, making North Carolina a CROWN COLONY. It grew slowly until the 1740s–50s when immigration accelerated. Est. population 1770: 230,000.

North Carolina protested against the Stamp Act (1765) and ‘Townshend duties’ (1767). The governor’s flight in 1775 ended royal rule. In 1776 North Carolina’s assembly advocated AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE (April; declared July) and became a State of the USA. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES.

Recommendations for reform of the British CIVIL SERVICE, finalised in Nov. 1853 and published in 1854 (as Report on the Organisation of the Permanent Civil Service). The report was prepared by Sir Stafford NORTHCOTE, a member of commissions investigating Civil Service costs, and Charles TREVELYAN, assistant secretary (administrative head) of the British Treasury. It had been requested by the chancellor of the Exchequer, W.E. GLADSTONE.

Recommendations included abolition of PATRONAGE as a basis for appointments; entry to the service (rather than recruitment to a specific department); entrance by examination; promotion by merit; division of work into ‘mechanical’ and ‘intellectual’. Although implementation took 20 years, the recommendations fundamentally changed the character of the Civil Service, notably through promoting coherence, impartiality and professionalism.

A province of six counties in the island of IRELAND which are part of the UK; it was constituted on 3 May 1921 (population 1.2 million). Northern Ireland was created for ‘Unionists' within ULSTER who opposed inclusion in a self‐governing all‐Ireland jurisdiction (see GOVERNMENT OF IRELAND ACT, 1920). It comprised, deliberately, a Protestant Unionist majority and ‘nationalist' minority (mainly Catholic). The latter suffered discrimination, and many desired reunification with southern Ireland. Principal economic activities were AGRICULTURE, LINEN manufacturing and SHIP BUILDING.

Northern Ireland was self‐governing from 7 June 1921, and dominated until 1972 by the ULSTER UNIONIST PARTY. Its first government, led by James CRAIG, suppressed resistance by the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA), and during the 1920s strengthened Unionist control (e.g., abolition of proportional representation in local government, 1922). Industry, depressed during the 1930s, was reinvigorated by war‐time demand (1939–45). From 1946 the British WELFARE STATE was replicated, though the government of Basil BROOKE largely ignored nationalists' concerns.

From the mid 1960s the government of Terence O'NEILL was challenged by the CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT. Protests in 1968–9 escalated into sectarian violence, the so‐called TROUBLES, which required long‐term deployment of British troops. An attempt to suppress disorder with ‘internment' (detention of suspected troublemakers, 1971–5) failed. After ‘BLOODY SUNDAY' (30 Jan. 1972) the British government replaced the province’s government and Parliament with ‘direct rule' (24 March), during which legislation consisted of orders in Council (issued by the UK Privy Council under enabling Acts).

Great Britain sought a new inclusive governmental arrangement, but a power‐sharing Executive (1974) was destroyed by the ULSTER WORKERS' STRIKE (see FAULKNER, BRIAN). The Republic of Ireland was granted involvement under the HILLSBOROUGH AGREEMENT (1985). In the 1990s a PEACE PROCESS resulted in ceasefires by PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS and the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998). A new Assembly was established, and an Executive of Unionists and nationalists (including republicans) operated 1999–2002, 2007–17, and from Jan. 2020. Peaceful conditions encouraged economic expansion. See also ORANGE ORDER, IRELAND.

A political organization, including Catholics, republicans and liberal Protestants, which sought an end to sectarian discrimination in NORTHERN IRELAND. It was inaugurated on 9 April 1967; active 1967–8. Its principal aims were fair allocation of public housing; ‘one man, one vote' in council elections; replacement of ‘gerrymandered' electoral boundaries.

The Association's march in LONDONDERRY on 5 Oct. 1968, held despite a ban, ended in confrontation with police. Violent scenes were televised worldwide, and are considered the beginning of the TROUBLES. See also O'NEILL, TERENCE; PEOPLE'S DEMOCRACY.

Initially an attempt by some English noblemen to settle the uncertain succession to the English throne, 1569, given the unwillingness of Queen ELIZABETH I to marry or agree a successor. The plotters planned to marry MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, the principal claimant, to the (4th) duke of Norfolk (Thomas Howard, d. 1572).

When the plot was discovered, Norfolk was imprisoned (Nov. 1569). His main accomplices, the Catholic earls of Westmorland and Cumberland, were called to court. Panicking, they rebelled, raised support in northern England, and occupied DURHAM (14 Nov.) and other places. The rebellion collapsed when the rebels were challenged by a royal army (Dec.). Over 500 rebels were executed. Westmorland escaped abroad, Northumberland was executed. See also CATHOLIC PLOTS, ENGLAND; HOWARD FAMILY.

A former British territory in S‐C Africa. The BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY of Cecil RHODES negotiated treaties with local chiefs from 1890 and created two PROTECTORATES, North‐Western Rhodesia (1899), North‐Eastern Rhodesia (1900), which it administered. They were amalgamated as Northern Rhodesia in 1911, which became a Crown protectorate in 1924.

Copper extraction dominated the economy from the 1920s. Racial tension mounted in new mining towns, and the North Rhodesian African Congress (founded 1948) unsuccessfully opposed the inclusion of Northern Rhodesia in the FEDERATION OF RHODESIA AND NYASALAND (1953–63). In Jan. 1964 the United National Independence Party won a general election, and Northern Rhodesia became independent as the Republic of Zambia (Oct.). Approx. population in 1921, 983,000 (of whom 3600 were white); in 1963, 3,490,000. See also SOUTHERN RHODESIA.

In the early 1960s surveying indicated plentiful energy resources below the North Sea. The British government placed exploration under State regulation with the 1964 Continental Shelf Act. Gas was discovered from 1965 and brought ashore from 1967; oil followed in 1969 and 1975. Great Britain became a net exporter of oil by the early 1980s, of gas by the mid 1990s. The Yarmouth–Lowestoft area (England) and ABERDEEN (Scotland) became leading centres of the industry. Production was marred by the Piper Alpha disaster (1988), a gas‐rig explosion that killed 167 men. Gas and oil output peaked in 1999, declining by 2013 to 62% of UK oil consumption, 50% of gas. Gas output began to rise in 2014, oil in 2015.

North Sea energy improved the UK’s trade balance, increased government revenues and generated employment, but inflated sterling’s value. It also became a political issue, in that campaigners for Scottish independence demanded appropriation of tax revenues for Scotland (e.g., in referendum campaign, 2014). See also GAS INDUSTRY, GREAT BRITAIN; OIL INDUSTRY; GAS AND OIL INDUSTRIES, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND.

(b. 1504 at London, England; d. 22 Aug. 1553 at London, aged about 49). A courtier, soldier and naval commander under King HENRY VIII, John Dudley (knighted 1523) was created Viscount Lisle in 1542. After the accession of the EDWARD VI, a minor (Jan. 1547), Lisle supported the protector, Edward, duke of SOMERSET. He was created earl of Warwick (Feb.). In Sept. he helped to defeat the Scots at Pinkie. In Aug. 1549 he suppressed KETT’S REBELLION.

In Oct. 1549 Warwick conspired to oust Somerset and became effectively England’s ruler. In 1550 he made peace with France and withdrew forces from Scotland. He was created duke of Northumberland (Oct. 1551) and became president of the PRIVY COUNCIL (Feb. 1552). He supported continuing reform in the Church.

In 1553 Northumberland’s position was threatened by the prospect of Edward’s death. In June he allegedly forced Edward to nominate his own Protestant daughter‐in‐law as successor (see GREY, JANE). But after Edward’s death (July), the Catholic claimant, MARY, rallied support. Lady Jane was deposed, and Northumberland’s supporters deserted him. He was arrested (23 July) and executed for TREASON. See also DUDLEY, EDMUND; PAULET, WILLIAM; REFORMATION, ENGLAND.

A Germanic‐ruled kingdom (7th–10th centuries) which was formed when King EGFRITH of BERNICIA annexed DEIRA (679). It extended from the R. Humber N to the R. Forth (modern N England and SE Scotland). Egfrith (king 670–85) probably also absorbed ELMET and RHEGED to the W. Northumbria competed mainly with MERCIA for influence over other kingdoms.

Following defeat by the PICTS in 685, Northumbria was weakened internally by violent rivalry between branches of the royal kindred. Several kings were killed after short reigns. (Eadbert exceptionally ruled 737–58.) In the 9th century Northumbria was raided by VIKINGS, who in 867 conquered the southern part (see YORK, VIKING KINGDOM OF).

The northern part (essentially the former Bernicia) remained under English rule. In 927 its king, Ealdred, submitted to ATHELSTAN, king of the Anglo‐Saxons. Ealdred died possibly in 933. His successors were known as ealdormen of Bamburgh. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; ENGLAND, FORMATION OF.

A hypothetical sea route westwards from Europe to China and the East Indies, going N of America. It engaged Englishmen (especially merchants) from the 16th century because it would avoid Spanish and Portuguese routes and territories.

Sebastian Cabot (son of John CABOT), based in BRISTOL, possibly searched for the passage in 1508–9; John Rut sought it in 1527. In the 1560s Humphrey GILBERT urged investigation. Voyages were led by Martin FROBISHER (1576–8), Francis DRAKE (1579, from Pacific), John Davis (1585–7) and others. Henry HUDSON discovered Hudson Bay (1610). The North‐west Passage Company sponsored voyages from 1612. In 1616 William Baffin explored Baffin Bay, but concluded (incorrectly) that there was no outlet. Further voyages, until 1632 and from the early 18th century, mainly explored the Hudson Bay area. In 1778 James COOK, commissioned by the British Admiralty, investigated the passage’s western end: his navigation through the Bering Strait showed that N America was separated from Asia.

In 1817 a report of melting Arctic ice stimulated John Barrow of the Admiralty, an advocate for British seapower, to organize expeditions (1818): one commanded by David Buchan sailed northwards past Spitsbergen until blocked by ice; a second, commanded by John Ross, rediscovered Baffin Bay and affirmed Baffin’s conclusion. In 1819–20, however, Edward Parry sailed from Baffin Bay through Lancaster Sound to Melville Island. (Parry also commanded official voyages in 1821–3, 1824–5; Ross led a private expedition in 1829–33.) Another Admiralty expedition in 1845, commanded by Sir John Franklin, disappeared.

The passage was discovered in 1850 by Robert McClure while searching for Franklin: he sailed round Alaska to Banks Island from which he observed Melville Island; he then completed a transit (1854), partly by land. Franklin was later credited with the discovery (in 1848). Sailings through the passage were achieved from 1905 by other countries. See also NORTH AMERICA, ENGLISH EXPLORATION.

A city in E England, by the R. Wensum; centre of Norfolk.

Norwich probably originated c.700 as an international trading centre. (Its name means ‘North wic’; see WIC.) It was an important centre of pottery production in the 10th–11th centuries.

Following the Norman invasion (1066) a castle was built, and the episcopal see for East Anglia was moved to Norwich from Thetford (1095). In the 12th–19th centuries Norwich was a cloth‐manufacturing centre, and by c.1500 the wealthiest city after London, retaining its position until the 18th century (replaced by BRISTOL). Numerous Protestant refugees settled in the 1560s–70s, creating England’s second largest immigrant community (a third of Norwich’s population), and again after 1685 (see HUGUENOTS).

Although Norwich’s population increased in the 19th and 20th centuries, the rate was far exceeded in other cities. The University of East Anglia was founded at Norwich in 1963; in 2013 a college was upgraded as Norwich University of the Arts. See also ETHNIC AND NATIONAL MINORITIES, ENGLAND.

Est. popn: 1086, 6500; 1300, 12,000; 1600, 15,000; 1800, 36,000; 1900, 110,000; 2000, 120,000.

(b. 2 July 1647 at London, England; d. 1 Jan. 1730 at Burley, Rutland, England, aged 82). Daniel Finch, an MP from 1673, opposed the exclusion of James, duke of York, from the succession (see EXCLUSION CRISIS). He succeeded as earl in 1682. After York became king (1685), Nottingham opposed his pro‐Catholic policies (see JAMES VII/II).

Though a TORY, Nottingham accepted replacement of James by WILLIAM III and MARY II (1688–9). As a SECRETARY OF STATE from March 1689, he promoted Bills for inclusion of moderate NONCONFORMISTS within the Church of England and toleration for some other Protestants. The former failed, but the latter became the 1689 TOLERATION ACT. He was dismissed in Nov. 1693 when William appointed more WHIG ministers.

Under Queen ANNE, Nottingham served as secretary of state from 1702, resigning in 1704 when Lord GODOLPHIN and the duke of MARLBOROUGH refused to dismiss WHIG ministers, and then supported attempted outlawing of OCCASIONAL CONFORMITY. In 1711 his opposition to Tory terms for ending the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION won Whig support for action against Occasional Conformity. Nottingham supported the accession of GEORGE I (1714) and served as president of the Council 1714–16. He succeeded as earl of Winchilsea in 1729.

In Great Britain, a major racial episode when each evening from Saturday 30 Aug. to Wednesday 5 Sept. 1958, 300–400 white people invaded the poor, overcrowded Notting Hill area of W LONDON, attacking the homes of West Indian immigrants and shops. (The events were allegedly sparked by a public argument on 29 Aug. between a white Swedish woman and her black Jamaican husband. They did not strictly constitute riots.) Afterwards, 72 white and 36 black people were charged with offences.

Policing was deemed inadequate, and the experience encouraged West Indian protests against prejudicial treatment. The ‘riots’ also strengthened anxieties about large‐scale immigration, encouraging the eventual introduction of controls. From 1965 a Caribbean street festival (Notting Hill Carnival) sought to promote a more positive view of the area. See also AFRICAN CARIBBEANS IN GREAT BRITAIN; IMMIGRATION AND ASYLUM LEGISLATION, UNITED KINGDOM BEFORE 1973.

A form of literature in prose consisting of a sustained fictional narrative with the appearance of reality. The term is derived from Italian novella, meaning ‘short story’, which itself comes from Latin novus, meaning ‘new’. Novels were originally distinguished by featuring new rather than traditional stories.

The form developed in Continental Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, and became established in England in the early 18th century. Leading novelists have included: (England) Daniel DEFOE, Jane AUSTEN, Charles DICKENS, George ELIOT, D.H. LAWRENCE; (Ireland) Jonathan SWIFT; (Scotland) Sir Walter SCOTT; (Wales) Daniel Owen, T. Rowland Hughes.