(b. 2 Oct. 1852 at Mallow, Co. Cork, Ireland; d. 25 Feb. 1928 at London, England, aged 75). From 1881 O'Brien, a (Catholic) journalist, was an agitator for Irish land reform and HOME RULE, and supporter of C.S. PARNELL. He sat in the UK Parliament 1883–95, 1900–9, 1910–18.

In 1886, after the House of Commons rejected Home Rule, O’Brien developed the PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. When the IRISH PARLIAMENTARY PARTY (IPP) split in 1890 O'Brien joined the anti‐Parnellite side. His UNITED IRISH LEAGUE (founded 1898) helped to reunite the Party (1900). From c.1900 O’Brien sought a final transfer of landownership in Ireland to tenants. This provoked other parties to take action (see LAND CONFERENCE). In 1903 O’Brien broke with John REDMOND, leader of the IPP, because Redmond failed to restrain strongly nationalist MPs. He later founded the small, inclusive ‘All for Ireland League’ of MPs (1909). O’Brien strongly opposed partition of Ireland. He retired in 1918. See also LAND AGITATION AND REFORM, IRELAND.

(b. 17 Oct. 1803 at Dromoland Castle, Co. Clare, Ireland; d. 18 June 1864 at Bangor, Caernarfonshire, Wales, aged 60). A (Protestant) Irish landowner, O'Brien sat in the UK Parliament from 1828. He initially opposed repeal of the UNION OF IRELAND AND GREAT BRITAIN. In 1843, disillusioned by anti‐reform attitudes in Parliament, he joined the REPEAL ASSOCIATION, but seceded with other members of the YOUNG IRELAND MOVEMENT in July 1846.

In July 1848, partly in response to the GREAT FAMINE, O'Brien led a rebellion (see REBELLION OF 1848). He was convicted of treason and transported. He was pardoned in 1854 and returned to Ireland in 1856.

An Irish family (Irish, Ua/Ó Briain) whose members were kings in S Ireland. They were descendants of BRIAN BÓRUMA (d. 1014), who was high‐king of the Dál Cais dynastic federation and of Munster and Ireland (see MUNSTER). They adopted Brian's name as a surname in the late 11th century and were high‐kings of Munster until it was partitioned in 1118. They then ruled Thomond (N Munster).

Parts of Thomond were seized after 1185 by Anglo‐Normans and later by members of the English CLARE FAMILY (1277–1318). The O'Brien kings survived with a ‘rump' kingdom (modern Co. Clare). In 1543 it was surrendered by Murrough O'Brien (king 1539–51) to HENRY VIII, king of England and Ireland, and granted back with the titles earl of Thomond and Baron Inchiquin (see SURRENDER AND REGRANT). Murrough also accepted the REFORMATION. The titles descended in separate lines (the earldom until 1741). Unlike most Irish noble families, the titled O'Briens were usually Protestants.

The practice from the 1670s whereby Protestant dissenters circumvented a prohibition on holding government offices in England and Wales by taking Holy Communion in the Church of ENGLAND once a year (see TEST AND CORPORATION ACTS). From the later 17th century TORIES campaigned against occasional conformity.

Three Bills to prevent office‐holding by occasional conformity were passed by the House of Commons in 1702–4 but rejected by the Lords. An Occasional Conformity Act was passed in 1711 through a deal between Tories and WHIGS. It provided for civil and military officers found in dissenting CONVENTICLES to lose their positions. The Act was repealed by Whigs in 1719 to conciliate dissenters. See also NOTTINGHAM, 2ND EARL OF; NONCONFORMITY AND DISSENT, ENGLAND.

(b. 6 Aug. 1775 near Cahirciveen, Co. Kerry, Ireland; d. 15 May 1847 at Genoa, Kingdom of Sardinia, aged 71). A (Catholic) lawyer, O'Connell opposed the UNION OF IRELAND AND GREAT BRITAIN (1801). From 1803 he nevertheless participated in campaigns for Catholic Emancipation (principally admission of Catholics to the UK Parliament). Following the death of Henry GRATTAN (1820), he founded the CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION OF IRELAND to campaign for Emancipation (1823), developing it as a mass organization. When O'Connell was elected an MP in 1828, despite his ineligibility, the British government was forced to concede Emancipation (see COUNTY CLARE BY-ELECTION).

As an MP, O'Connell in Feb. 1835 joined the LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT (to defeat Robert PEEL’s Conservative government) in return for reforms in Ireland (implemented by the WHIGS). But by 1838 he feared loss of popular support and revived opposition to the union, founding the REPEAL ASSOCIATION (1840). When Robert Peel again became prime minister (1841), O'Connell anticipated an end to reforms. He campaigned in Ireland, demanding repeal (1843), until compelled to cancel the CLONTARF MEETING (Oct.). He was arrested, convicted of conspiracy, and imprisoned (May–Sept. 1844). Afterwards he disputed strategies with younger nationalists (see YOUNG IRELAND MOVEMENT). See also CATHOLIC RELIEF AND EMANCIPATION, IRELAND; UNION REPEAL MOVEMENT, IRELAND.

(b. 18 July 1796 at Connorville, Co. Cork, Ireland; d. 30 Aug. 1855 at Notting Hill, Middlesex, England, aged 59). Chartist leader. Of Irish nationalist antecedents, O’Connor was a Radical MP (1832–5, 1847–52). Unseated for lacking the property qualification in 1835, he denounced FACTORIES and the new poor law at mass meetings throughout N England (see POOR LAW AMENDMENT ACT, 1834).

From 1838 O’Connor campaigned for the People’s Charter with passionate oratory and his popular journal the Northern Star. Identified with ‘physical force’ and imprisoned for seditious libel (1840–1), O’Connor became Chartism’s figurehead, but the National Land Company (1846), his scheme to acquire smallholdings for ex‐factory workers, collapsed. Erratic and egocentric, O’Connor was certified insane in 1852. See also CHARTISM, ENGLAND.

An Irish family (Irish, Ua/Ó Conchobair) whose members were kings in CONNACHT (W Ireland). They were descendants of Conchobar mac Taidg, who was high‐king of both the Uí Briúin Aí dynasty and Connacht (967–73). Ua Conchobair kings monopolized the high‐kingships from Conchobar's reign onwards and adopted his name as their surname by the 11th century. Toirrdelbach (d. 1156) and Ruaidrí UA CONCHOBAIR (king 1156–83) were also high‐kings of Ireland. Ruaidrí allowed Anglo‐Normans to establish themselves in E Ireland, though he retained his high‐kingships (see NORMANS, IMPACT ON IRELAND).

In 1226 the English confiscated Connacht from Áed Ua Conchobair. O'Connor kings endured but could not re‐establish extensive authority, even as English authority declined (14th century). They were weakened by rapid succession of kings (13 kings, 1274–1315) and disputes between two branches (1384–1461). Thereafter the kingship was not claimed though the family continued.

Irish family (Irish, Ó Domhnaill) whose members were kings of Tyrconnell, NW Ireland (Irish, Tír Conaill; modern Co. Donegal and adjacent lands), from the early 13th century. They were a branch of the Cenél Conaill (see UÍ NÉILL, NORTHERN), named (from the early 11th century) after a 10th‐century ancestor.

The last inaugurated king (1592) was Hugh O'Donnell (‘Red Hugh’, 1572–1602), who was defeated by the English at KINSALE (1601) and fled to Spain. His brother and nominated successor, Rory O'Donnell (1575–1608), submitted and was created earl of Tyrconnell (1603), but fled in the FLIGHT OF THE EARLS (1607). Tyrconnell was then seized for plantation. See also ULSTER; ULSTER PLANTATION.

(b. c.1030 in Normandy; d. 6 Jan. 1097 at Palermo, Sicily, Italy, aged about 66). A half‐brother of William II, duke of Normandy, Odo became bishop of Bayeux in 1049 or 1050. In 1066 he participated in his half‐brother’s invasion of England (see NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND). His rewards included the earldom of Kent. He helped to suppress revolts and often acted as William's deputy. But in 1082 or 1083 Odo was imprisoned in Normandy, possibly because he was scheming to become Pope (released Sept. 1087).

In 1088 Odo unsuccessfully led a revolt in England against King WILLIAM II, in favour of ROBERT CURTHOSE. He was exiled to Normandy. Odo died on CRUSADE. See also BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

(b. 28 Oct. 1890 at Cargaghdoo, Co. Monaghan, Ireland; d. 30 Nov. 1944 at Dublin, southern Ireland, aged 54). A member of the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA), O'Duffy supported the 1921 ANGLO‐IRISH TREATY, which created the Irish Free State. During the ensuing IRISH CIVIL WAR he was initially a commander in the National Army, fighting the IRA.

In Aug. 1922 O'Duffy was appointed commissioner (head) of the recently founded police force, Gárda Síochána. He vigorously repressed anti‐treaty republicans. But in Feb. 1933 the new prime minister, Éamon DE VALERA, dismissed him. O'Duffy then (July) became leader of the ARMY COMRADES' ASSOCIATION (so‐called ‘Blueshirts’), and first leader of FINE GAEL (Sept.; resigned Aug. 1934). He later fought for the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF; POLICE, SOUTHERN IRELAND.

(fl. from 757 in Mercia; d. 29 July 796 in Mercia). In 757 Offa became king of MERCIA (C England) by driving out Beornred, successor of ÆTHELBALD (Offa's remote cousin). He greatly extended Mercian territory. By 764 he had authority in KENT (lost 776–mid 780s). He invaded SUSSEX in 771 and subordinated its king. Around 780 he terminated the ruling dynasty of the HWICCE. By 789 his son‐in‐law Beorhtric was king in WESSEX. In the 790s Offa was exercising some authority in EAST ANGLIA.

Offa also strengthened authority within Mercia. He issued high‐quality silver coins, and possibly founded towns. He commanded the labour that built OFFA'S DYKE. Offa undermined the archbishopric of CANTERBURY by obtaining the elevation of Lichfield into an archbishopric (787). He corresponded with the Frankish emperor Charlemagne.

In 787 Offa arranged the unprecedented consecration of his son and intended successor Egfrith as king. But Egfrith died soon after his father. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; CENWULF.

(b. 1513 in London, England; d. 3 Feb. 1537 at London, aged 23 or 24). Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Offaly, was heir to the 9th earl of KILDARE. He was appointed acting governor (vice‐deputy) of Ireland by his father before Kildare left for England in Feb. 1534. After Offaly was himself summoned (May), he denounced Henry VIII's policies to the Irish COUNCIL and resigned (11 June). When Henry imprisoned Kildare (29 June), Offaly initiated a rising (see KILDARE REBELLION). He surrendered in Aug. 1535 and was executed with five uncles in 1537.

It remains unclear whether Offaly caused trouble in May 1534 to challenge Henry or intended rebellion. He succeeded briefly as 10th earl (Sept. 1534 until forfeiture on 1 May 1536). He was called ‘Silken Thomas' from the silk helmet fringes worn by supporters. See also KILDARE ASCENDANCY; HENRY VIII AND IRELAND.

(b. 7 June 1892 at Stradbally, Queen's County, Ireland; d. 10 July 1927 at Booterstown, Co. Dublin, Irish Free State, aged 35). A member of SINN FÉIN, and of the self‐proclaimed republican Dáil Éireann (‘Assembly of Ireland’; formed Jan. 1919), O’Higgins became minister for local government in the Dáil government (Aug. 1921). He supported the ANGLO‐IRISH TREATY (Dec. 1921) which created the Irish Free State (IFS). He was minister for economic affairs (from Jan. 1922) in both the Dáil government and IFS provisional government. From Aug. 1922 O'Higgins served as minister for home affairs, retaining office after inauguration of the IFS (6 Dec. 1922; post redesignated minister for justice 1924). He was a leading member of CUMANN NA N GAEDHEAL.

After the IRISH CIVIL WAR, O'Higgins suppressed the ARMY MUTINY (1924) and implemented Public Safety Acts against unrest and crime. At the Imperial Conference of 1926 he helped to formulate the principle of equality between the UK and DOMINIONS (including the IFS). O'Higgins was murdered by republican gunmen. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF; POLICE, SOUTHERN IRELAND.

Oil was produced in Scotland from cannel coal (1851–1880s) and oilshale (1860s–1962), initially for lighting and lubricants. Two major international businesses were also developed from Great Britain, which mainly supplied petrol and diesel.

In 1892 Marcus Samuel (1853–1927) began shipping oil from Russian C Asia to Europe via the SUEZ CANAL. Renamed Shell Transport and Trading in 1897, his company explored new sources from 1903 in collaboration with a Dutch company. In 1907 they formed Royal Dutch Shell Group, with Dutch and British holding companies. By 1930 it was a world leader, involved in production, shipping, refining and distribution. Its later new oil sources included the Gulf of Mexico (1949), Nigeria (1958), Oman (1960s), and the North Sea (1970s). From 2005 Shell had a single holding company, incorporated in Britain with headquarters in the Netherlands.

In 1901 financier William Knox D’Arcy (1849–1917) obtained a 60‐year oil concession covering much of Persia (modern Iran). After discovering oil (1908), he created the Anglo‐Persian Oil Company (1909), thereby starting the Middle East oil business. Britain’s government bought a majority stake in 1914 to safeguard supplies for the NAVY. In 1917 Anglo‐Persian acquired distribution facilities in Britain formerly owned by ‘British Petroleum’. (Anglo‐Persian was renamed ‘Anglo‐Iranian’ in 1935.) Following nationalization of Iranian oil assets in 1951, the company resumed operations under a new arrangement (1954), and was renamed ‘British Petroleum’ (1954). BP’s other Middle East oil assets were extensively nationalized in the 1970s, forcing reliance on oil mainly from Alaska and the North Sea. The company was damaged in 2010 by the explosion of its ‘Deepwater Horizon’ oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico, which caused the largest ever oil spill.

The development of North Sea oil in the 1970s enabled the UK to be self‐sufficient in oil from 1981 to c.2010. See also KUWAIT; NORTH SEA GAS AND OIL INDUSTRIES.

After the revival of the ancient Olympic Games in 1896, LONDON was the only city in the world to host the games three times (on behalf of the UK). The 1908 games were relocated from Rome (Italy) when allocated funds were diverted (for reconstruction after the 1906 eruption of Mt Vesuvius). The 1948 games were awarded to London following cancellation of planned games there in 1944 (because of WORLD WAR II). Valued for raising national morale, they were organized at minimal cost using existing facilities due to austere post‐war conditions. Games held in 2012 were used to regenerate part of E London and improve transport facilities.

The separate jurisdictions within the UK and Irish nationalism complicated involvement in the Olympic Games from the British Isles. Before 1922 some Irish participants resented designation as British. In 1908, as a concession, the UK team was called ‘Great Britain/Ireland’, and Irish teams were permitted in hockey and polo. After the foundation of the IRISH FREE STATE (1922), the varying organization of sports within Ireland created difficulties (see SPORT, IRELAND), and even the name used for southern Ireland was contentious. Athletes from NORTHERN IRELAND joined British or southern Irish teams. Between 1896 and 2016, Great Britain won the third largest numbers of medals and gold medals (summer and winter games combined).

(b. c.1550 in Tyrone lordship, N Ireland; d. 20 July 1616 at Rome, Italy, aged about 66). Irish chieftain. In 1559 O'Neill was prevented from succeeding his grandfather (Conn Bacach O'Neill) as lord of Tyrone by his uncle Shane O'NEILL (d. 1567). He grew up in Anglo‐Irish and English households. In 1585 the English styled him (2nd) earl of Tyrone (confirmed 1587) and supported him against Shane's successor, Turlough Luineach O'Neill. By 1593 he effectively controlled Tyrone.

The English expected Tyrone to assist their extension of government into ULSTER (N Ireland). But he feared loss of local support or English confiscation of Tyrone. In 1595 he joined resistance to English advances (May), and on Turlough Luineach's death (Sept.) was elected chieftain (‘The O'Neill’). Tyrone's rebellion, which expanded across Ireland, was defeated at KINSALE (Dec. 1601). He submitted in 1603 (see MELLIFONT, TREATY OF) and quit Ireland in 1607 (see FLIGHT OF THE EARLS). See also O'NEILL FAMILIES; NINE YEARS WAR; IRELAND, ENGLISH CONQUEST, 16TH CENTURY.

(b. 1583 at Loughall, NE Ireland; d. 6 Nov. 1649 at Cloughoughter Castle, Co. Cavan, Ireland, aged about 66). O'Neill returned to Ireland from Spanish service (July 1642) to join Catholic rebels (see IRISH WARS, 1641–52). He was appointed commander of the CATHOLIC CONFEDERATION's Ulster army (Aug. 1642).

In 1645–8 O'Neill backed the uncompromising stance of Archbishop RINUCCINI, defeated Robert Monro's Scottish army (at Benburb, 5 June 1646) and threatened Governor ORMOND (1647). In 1648 he supported Rinuccini's excommunication of Catholics who favoured the truce with Lord INCHIQUIN (a Protestant). The Confederation declared O'Neill a traitor (30 Sept.).

After Rinuccini departed (Feb. 1649), Ormond sought O'Neill's participation in a Royalist coalition against Parliamentary forces. O'Neill resisted until Parliament's armies had conquered much of Ireland. Terms were agreed (20 Oct.) but O'Neill died.

(b. c.1530 in Ireland; d. 2 June 1567 at Cushendun, Antrim, N Ireland, aged about 37). Irish chieftain. In 1559, on the death of his father Conn Bacach O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, Shane O'Neill obtained the chieftainship of the O'Neills, and the lordship of Tyrone (N Ireland), by Irish succession custom. He thereby ignored his father's intended successor by primogeniture (Hugh O'NEILL). Shane sought dominance in ULSTER, and English acknowledgement as earl of Tyrone. His alleged usurpation and intrigues with Scots and French threatened English authority.

In 1561 O'Neill survived a military campaign led by the English chief governor SUSSEX, and in 1562 (Jan.–May) attended the English court when Queen ELIZABETH I recognized him as ‘captain' of Tyrone. He survived further campaigns (1563), before submitting to Sussex (11 Sept. 1563).

From Sept. 1566 the new chief governor, Henry SIDNEY, sought to suppress O'Neill. On 8 May 1567 O'Neill attacked an Irish rival, Hugh O'Donnell of Tyrconnell, at Farsetmore, only to be defeated. He fled to the Scottish settlements of the MacDonnells in Antrim, where he was killed. See also O'NEILL FAMILIES; IRELAND, ENGLISH CONQUEST, 16TH CENTURY.

(b. 10 Sept. 1914 at London, England; d. 12 June 1990 at Lymington, Hampshire, England, aged 75). An ULSTER UNIONIST PARTY member of Northern Ireland's Parliament from 1946, and minister from 1956, O'Neill succeeded Basil BROOKE as prime minister on 25 March 1963. He sought better relations with the Republic of Ireland and welcomed its taoiseach (premier), Seán LEMASS, to Northern Ireland (14 Jan. 1965). He also encouraged public spending on infrastructure development, but was unable to halt the decline of staple industries (textiles, ship building).

After the CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT led to violent clashes from Oct. 1968, followed by resurgent IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY activity, O'Neill offered reforms (‘five‐point programme’, 22 Nov.), but failed to quell discontent. Though he won an election (24 Feb. 1969), Unionist criticism compelled him to resign (28 April; succeeded by James Chichester‐Clark). He was created Lord O'Neill (1970). See also NORTHERN IRELAND.

Irish families (Irish, Ua/Ó Néill) whose members were kings in N Ireland. The first family were descendants of NIALL GLÚNDUB (d. 919), who were high‐kings of the Cenél nEógain and of the broader Northern UÍ NÉILL federation. Their territory was called Tír Eógain (English, Tyrone). They adopted Niall's name as a surname in the early 11th century. Around 1033 they were replaced as high‐kings by their Mac Lochlainn kinsmen.

Ua Néill rule was apparently restored in 1167 when Tír Eógain was partitioned by the high‐king of Ireland, Toirrdelbach UA CONCHOBAIR, and half was granted to Áed Ua Néill (d. 1177). In 1241 his descendant Brian Ó Néill (king 1238–60) killed Domnall Mac Lochlainn and took the remainder of Tír Eógain; in 1258 he claimed the high‐kingship of Ireland. Domnall O'Neill (king 1283–1325, with interruptions) supported the BRUCE INVASION. Henry O'Neill (king 1455–83; d. 1484) achieved overlordship over most of N Ireland.

In 1542 the O'Neill lands were surrendered by Conn Bacach O'Neill (king 1519–59) to HENRY VIII, king of England and Ireland, and were regranted with the title earl of Tyrone (see SURRENDER AND REGRANT). The last inaugurated ruler (1593) was Hugh O'NEILL, who left Ireland in the FLIGHT OF THE EARLS (1607). Tyrone was confiscated and used for plantation. See also ULSTER; O'NEILL, SHANE; ULSTER PLANTATION.

(fl. from 728; d. 761, probably in N Britain). Onuist’s base was probably Dunnottar, in the northernmost part of southern Pictland (in modern NE Scotland). In 728–9 he removed the kings who had replaced NAITON SON OF DER‐ILEI (Elphin in the S, Drest in the N), and restored Naiton’s kingship. After Naiton died (732), Onuist became king of all Pictland (the title ‘king of FORTRIU’ lapsed).

Onuist was soon challenged by Naiton’s half‐brother, with support from DÁL RIATA; but a Dál Riatan lord delivered the half‐brother to Onuist, who had him drowned. Then, between 736 and 741, Onuist conquered Dál Riata, and in 744 fought Britons of Clyde Rock (later STRATHCLYDE). Also, from 740 he was allied with King ÆTHELBALD of Mercia (d. 757) which enabled dual campaigns against NORTHUMBRIA and even WESSEX; together they dominated Britain. In 750, however, Onuist’s brother was defeated and killed by Clyde Rock Britons, and Wessex successfully rebelled. But Onuist’s power was only partly diminished, and in 756 (now in alliance with Eadbert of Northumbria), he forced the Clyde Rock Britons to submit. Onuist is also the most likely founder of the abbey at Cennrígmonaid (later ST ANDREWS; first recorded 747). His long reign was the most successful in Pictish history. See also KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.

Investigations of public attitudes and voting intentions by analysis of data drawn from small representative samples. Polling began in Great Britain in 1937 and proliferated in the 1960s. Polls have guided politicians in the selection of policies and election dates, but their influence is hard to measure.

Harold WILSON (Labour Party leader 1963–76) paid assiduous attention to polls; Margaret THATCHER (Conservative leader 1975–90) professed to ignore them. If poll findings encouraged ABORTION law reform (1967), public support for capital punishment did not prevent its abolition (1969). Frequent opinion polls can affect party morale during general election campaigns, but failure to predict the correct outcomes in 1970, 1992, 2015 and 2017 cast recurrent doubt on their reliability. The development of the Internet from the 1990s enabled larger groups of people to be polled frequently.

A Protestant men's social, religious and political organization (with associated women's order), based in NORTHERN IRELAND. It was started for self‐defence and preservation of the PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY, and named in honour of King WILLIAM III (William of Orange), whose victory over the Catholic JAMES VII/II in 1688–91 was the basis of the Ascendancy (see WILLIAMITE WAR).

The Order was founded at Loughgall (Co. Armagh) on 21 September 1795 by ex‐VOLUNTEERS after they had defeated (Catholic) DEFENDERS in the ‘battle of the Diamond’. A central Grand Lodge was founded in DUBLIN in 1798 which established rules (e.g., regarding ritual) and created a hierarchy of local lodges. It adopted 12 July as its day of celebration, the anniversary (after a calendar change) of the battle of the BOYNE (1690). The Order included men from all Protestant denominations and social classes. Lodges celebrated ‘The Twelfth’ with ‘walks' (marches).

The Order was viewed suspiciously by British governments in the 19th century and was twice dissolved (1825–8, 1836–45). It expanded considerably in the N from the 1880s in response to agitation by the LAND LEAGUE, IRISH NATIONAL LEAGUE, and HOME RULE MOVEMENT, and mounted protests against Home Rule (1880s–c.1920). In 1905 the Order was allocated 50 seats on the ULSTER UNIONIST COUNCIL.

Following the PARTITION OF IRELAND (1921), the Grand Lodge moved to Belfast (1922). About one‐third of Northern Ireland's male Protestant population were members (about 100,000), including most Unionist politicians. In southern Ireland the Order declined and many Orange halls were destroyed in 1920–3. Lodges were founded in Great Britain and elsewhere. See also ORANGE ORDER, SCOTLAND; KNIGHTS OF COLUMBANUS; ANCIENT ORDER OF HIBERNIANS.

The first lodge was established at Maybole (Ayrshire) c.1800; by the 1830s there were many lodges among Protestant Irish immigrants (often unskilled textile workers) in the SW (Ayrshire) and Glasgow region (W‐C Scotland), which remained the heartland. New skilled immigrants (metalworkers, shipbuilders) joined from the 1850s. By 1900 the Order was a large working‐class movement, often involved in sectarian conflict with CATHOLICS. In 1900–14 it developed links with the CONSERVATIVE PARTY to resist Irish HOME RULE.

By the late 20th century lodges were primarily sectarian social clubs (total membership in 2000, about 50,000). In 2012, concerned about the possibility of Scottish independence, the Order established the organization ‘British Together’ which campaigned against independence in the referendum of 2014. See also ORANGE ORDER, IRELAND.

(b. 2 or 3 Jan. 1598 in Co. Dublin, Ireland; d. March 1669 at Saumur, France, aged 71). A Catholic priest, O’Reilly became vicar‐general of the archbishop of DUBLIN by 1641 (effectively diocesan leader). During the IRISH WARS (from 1641), he supported the papal nuncio Archbishop RINUCCINI against other Catholics (1645–9; see CATHOLIC CONFEDERATION), and in 1649 negotiated with the Parliamentarian Michael JONES on behalf of Owen Roe O’NEILL. During the English conquest (1649–52) he participated in resistance in the Wicklow Mountains (see CROMWELL, OLIVER, AND IRELAND). O’Reilly was arrested in 1652, convicted of supporting murders (1653), and deported (1655).

Created archbishop of ARMAGH in 1657, O’Reilly lived again in Ireland 1658–61, and returned to oppose the LOYAL REMONSTRANCE (1666). See also CATHOLICS AND CATHOLIC CHURCH, IRELAND FROM 16TH CENTURY.

(b. 1652 at Chiswick, Middlesex, England; d. 26 Nov. 1727 at Chippenham, Cambridgeshire, England, aged about 75). A naval officer from 1666 (in the reign of King CHARLES II), Edward Russell resigned his command after the RYE HOUSE PLOT (1683) when a cousin was executed. Opposed to the pro‐Catholic policies of King JAMES VII/II, in June 1688 he signed the letter inviting William of Orange to England (see GLORIOUS REVOLUTION).

Russell was treasurer of the NAVY 1689–99. In 1692, as admiral of the fleet, he defeated the French at La Hogue, preventing an invasion (see GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE). A member of the WHIG JUNTO, he became first lord of the Admiralty in 1694 and commanded a Mediterranean fleet in 1694–5. He left active service in 1695 and was created earl of Orford in 1697. Although forced to resign as treasurer and first lord in 1699, he served again as first lord 1709–17. From 1705 his protégés included Robert WALPOLE.

An archipelago within the BRITISH ISLES, about 10 mi (16 km) off NE BRITAIN; part of SCOTLAND within the UNITED KINGDOM. There are about 70 islands and skerries (small, rocky islands), of which 20 are permanently inhabited. ‘Mainland’ is the principal island, Kirkwall the capital. Est. popn in 2015: 21,000 (75% on Mainland). (The Orkney Islands and SHETLAND ISLANDS are called the Northern Isles.)

The Orkney Islands retain considerable remains from PREHISTORY (e.g., SKARA BRAE village). The ‘Ork’ element, recorded in the 1st century AD (in Latin, Orcades), may have referred to a young pig. Possibly from the 3rd century the islands’ inhabitants were among the so‐called PICTS. They became Christian by the 8th century, just before the islands were taken into the VIKING world: after suffering raids, they were settled by Norse (9th century), and ruled by Norse jarls (earls) under kings of Norway and Denmark. A variant of Norse, Norn, became the principal language. Although replacement by Scots began in the 14th century, Norn was spoken until the 17th century. The Norse called the islands Orkneyjar, meaning ‘Seal islands’. From the 1360s the Scottish Sinclair family became associated with the islands (through marriage); Henry Sinclair was created earl of Orkney with lands and rights (1379).

In 1468 Christian I, king of Denmark‐Norway, pledged the islands towards the dowry for the marriage of his daughter Margaret to King JAMES III of Scotland. James compelled Earl William (Sinclair) to surrender his earldom (1470), and annexed the islands (1472, with the SHETLAND ISLANDS).

The islands’ economy has mainly consisted of agriculture and fishing. Population peaked in 1861 at 32,200 before declining to 17,000 in 1971. Scapa Flow anchorage was used as a naval base 1914–57, and a major oil terminal was opened in 1977 (see NORTH SEA GAS AND OIL INDUSTRIES).

(b. 29 April 1665 at Dublin, Ireland; d. 5 Nov. 1745 at Avignon, France, aged 80). James Butler was a grandson of the 1st duke of Ormond, whom he succeeded in July 1688 (see ORMOND, 12TH EARL OF). He supported King JAMES VII/II in England (e.g., in suppressing MONMOUTH’S REBELLION), until Nov. 1688 when he defected to William of Orange (see WILLIAM III). Though a TORY, he fought in William’s armies in Ireland and Continental Europe (see WILLIAMITE WAR; GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE). Under Queen ANNE (from 1702), Ormond fought in Spain (1702) and was lord lieutenant of Ireland (1703–7, 1710–13). He succeeded the duke of MARLBOROUGH as captain‐general in 1711 (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE).

In 1714 Ormond seemingly supported the new Hanoverian king GEORGE I, but was suspected of Jacobite sympathies. In Aug. 1715 he fled to France. He tried to land in SW England in Sept. (to support the JACOBITE REBELLION) and was nominal commander of the 1719 rebellion. Thereafter he lived in Continental Europe. See also JACOBITISM, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.

(b. 19 Oct. 1610 at Clerkenwell, Middlesex, England; d. 21 July 1688 at Kingston Lacy, Dorset, England, aged 77). James Butler, of the Irish Catholic BUTLER FAMILY, was raised as a Protestant and succeeded as earl in 1633. As commander of government troops in the IRISH WARS (appointed Nov. 1641) he defeated Catholics at Kilrush, Co. Clare (15 April 1642). He was raised to marquess of Ormond (Aug.).

In April 1643 King CHARLES I ordered Ormond to negotiate with the CATHOLIC CONFEDERATION. Ormond achieved a ‘CESSATION’ (15 Sept.), and was appointed chief governor (king's lieutenant, 13 Nov.). But his treaty (March 1646) was blocked by RINUCCINI (Aug.). With Charles now captive, Ormond surrendered DUBLIN to England's Parliament (June 1647) and left Ireland (28 July).

Ormond returned in Oct. 1648 to win Ireland for Charles through a Protestant–Catholic coalition. The Confederation supported him (Jan. 1649), but Owen Roe O'NEILL resisted (until Oct.). Ormond failed to halt Oliver CROMWELL's conquest and withdrew (11 Dec. 1650).

After the RESTORATION (1660) Ormond was created duke of Ormond. He served as governor (lord lieutenant) 1662–9, 1677–85, favouring reconciliation of Catholics. He supported the Act of Explanation (1665), which recovered land for Catholics, but rejected the revised LOYAL REMONSTRANCE (1666). See also GLAMORGAN TREATIES; ORMOND TREATIES; JONES, MICHAEL; WALSH, PETER; PLUNKETT AFFAIR.

Two treaties made between the marquess of Ormond, chief governor of Ireland (for King CHARLES I), and leaders of the CATHOLIC CONFEDERATION. The first, agreed 28 March 1646 and proclaimed in DUBLIN on 30 July, granted Catholics an unspecific place in public life. The papal nuncio Archbishop RINUCCINI contrived its rejection (at Synod of Waterford, 12 Aug.).

A second treaty, agreed 17 Jan. 1649, recognized the Catholic Church and Catholic worship pending consideration of the issue by a free Parliament. Rinuccini's opposition was ignored. The treaty created a Protestant–Catholic Royalist coalition; but it proved unable to defeat the Parliamentarian invasion of Aug. 1649. See also IRISH WARS, 1641–52.

(b. 25 June 1903 at Motihari, Bengal, India; d. 21 Jan. 1950 at London, England, aged 46). Pseudonym of Eric Blair. Resident in England from c.1906, Blair returned to India to serve in the Burma Police (1921–7). He then concentrated on writing while intermittently taking employment. Alongside journalism, he published reportage (e.g., The Road to Wigan Pier, 1937), and novels (e.g., Burmese Days, 1934, a critical portrayal of British colonialism). Experiences in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR were recounted in Homage to Catalonia (1938).

During WORLD WAR II Blair was a producer for the BRITISH BROADCASTING COMPANY (1941–3) and literary editor for the left‐wing newspaper Tribune (1943–4). His novel Animal Farm (1944), a parody of Stalinism, won international acclaim, and his attack on totalitarianism in the novel Nineteen Eighty‐four (1949) was enduringly influential. See also ENGLISH LITERATURE, ENGLAND.

A kingdom in SE Ireland, between LEINSTER (E Ireland) and MUNSTER (S Ireland), based around the Nore Valley. It existed by the 7th century when it was ruled by the Corcu Loígde dynasty, who were superseded by the Dál mBirn. In the late 10th and early 11th centuries its ruling dynasty, now called Mac Gilla Pátraic (English, MacGillapatrick), sometimes seized part of Leinster (e.g., Donnchad Mac Gilla Pátraic, 1033–9). Osraige was constituted a diocese in 1111.

In 1171 Domnall Mac Gilla Pátraic (d. 1185) gave allegiance to King HENRY II of England and afterwards aided the Anglo‐Normans. His descendants were allowed to survive, but Osraige was absorbed into Leinster. In 1541 Barnaby MacGillapatrick was created Lord Fitzpatrick of Upper Ossory (see SURRENDER AND REGRANT).

(b. 603 or 604; d. 5 Aug. 642 at ‘Maserfelth’, Mercia, aged 38). In 616 Oswald (from Bernicia) escaped into exile when his father, Æthelfrith, king of Bernicia and Deira (NE England), was killed by EDWIN (from Deira). He lived in (Scottish) DÁL RIATA (modern W Scotland), where he accepted Christianity.

In 634 Oswald killed CADWALLON AP CADFAN (of Gwynedd), who had seized Bernicia and Deira (633), and became king. He requested a bishop from the monastery of IONA (in Dál Riata): they sent AIDAN (635). Oswald claimed to be overking of the Anglo‐Saxons, Britons, PICTS, and SCOTS. By 638 he conquered GODODDIN, extending Bernicia N to the R. Forth. He was killed by PENDA of MERCIA at ‘Maserfelth' (probably Oswestry in W Mercia), and was afterwards venerated as a saint. Succeeded by OSWIU. See also CONVERSION OF ANGLO‐SAXONS; KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.

(b. 611 or 612; d. 15 Feb. 670, aged 58). In Aug. 642 Oswiu (a Bernician) succeeded his brother OSWALD as king of BERNICIA and DEIRA (NE England/SE modern Scotland). Deira resisted his rule. Oswiu attempted to rule through subkings, but probably removed them for defiance: Oswine of Deira (ruled from 644; murdered 651); Oswald's son Œthelwald (651–5); his own son Alhfrith (655–64). Oswiu also married a Deiran (c.643, Eanflæd, daughter of King EDWIN).

At his accession Oswiu was subordinate to PENDA, king of MERCIA. He killed Penda in 655, ruled Mercia until 658 (see WULFHERE), and spread Christianity there. He was acknowledged as overking of southern Anglo‐Saxons. In 664 Oswiu held a synod to resolve religious differences (see WHITBY, SYNOD OF). He died, unusually for a 7th‐century king, from illness. Succeeded by EGFRITH. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.

Starting with the foundation of the Turkey Company in 1581, English relations with the Ottoman Empire (areas of C and SE Europe, the Middle East and N Africa under the rule of Muslim Ottoman emperors from Istanbul) were tangential. In the 17th and 18th centuries, England (Great Britain from 1707) regretted that the HABSBURG EMPIRE was distracted by Turkish wars from opposing FRANCE.

The emergence in the 1780s of the EASTERN QUESTION led Britain to take a close interest in the Ottoman Empire in the BALKANS, Levant (eastern Mediterranean) and PERSIAN GULF. It generally supported the contraction of Ottoman rule in the Balkans (e.g., GREECE in the 1820s, ROMANIA in 1878). Support for the Empire in the CRIMEAN WAR (1854–6) was followed by a conditional guarantee of its Asiatic possessions at the Congress of BERLIN (1878). Estrangement followed, especially after the ARMENIAN MASSACRES (1896), and EGYPT became the focus of British regional strategy. The Ottoman Empire allied itself to GERMANY in WORLD WAR I (1914–18). Military campaigns in PALESTINE and Mesopotamia resulted in a major role for Britain in the post‐war partition of the Empire (1918–23).

Britain was initially hostile to the new nationalist‐ruled Turkey (see CHANAK CRISIS), but developed wary co‐operation against the USSR (Turkey joined the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION in 1952). From the 1950s, Britain’s handling of CYPRUS was a sensitive issue, as was Turkey’s desire from the 1980s to join the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY. See also SYKES–PICOT AGREEMENT; IRAQ, BRITISH MANDATE; SAUDI ARABIA, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.

Exploration from Europe was pioneered in the 14th–15th centuries by Portugal and Spain (Castile): Spanish ships reached the Americas in 1492; Portuguese reached India in 1498. Englishmen sought lands in the Atlantic Ocean possibly from 1480 (from BRISTOL), with John CABOT finding NEWFOUNDLAND (1497).

Until the 1630s the English invested mostly in searches for a northern trade route to E Asia, avoiding Portuguese and Spanish routes (see ARCTIC, ENGLISH AND BRITISH EXPLORATION). From the 1570s the Atlantic coastal area of N America was also explored for colonization (see NORTH AMERICA, ENGLISH EXPLORATION). CIRCUMNAVIGATIONS were also made (1570s–80s), and voyages to India (from 1591–4). The Dutch started exploration of the Australian and New Zealand coasts and looked for a southern continent (17th century).

Between the mid 17th and early 18th centuries, English exploration was less assertive. The buccaneer William Dampier visited Australia (1686) and commanded an Admiralty expedition (1699–1701) which discovered New Britain (now in Papua New Guinea). The Hudson Bay area (N America) was explored (partly for the NORTH‐WEST PASSAGE).

New British activity from the 1760s, motivated partly by scientific curiosity, often concerned new areas. James COOK explored the Pacific region (1760s–70s), including parts of NEW ZEALAND and AUSTRALIA. Renewed interest in the North‐west Passage produced Cook’s discovery (1778) that Asia was separated from America. The NW coast of N America was surveyed (1792–4) by George Vancouver. Investigation of Africa’s interior was developed by James Bruce (1768–73) and by expeditions sponsored by the African Association (1788–1831).

In the 19th century searches for the North‐west Passage succeeded. Research was undertaken in ARCTIC and ANTARCTIC areas, including Antarctica (from 1890s). Africa and Asia were further explored (e.g., Africa by David LIVINGSTONE, 1840s–70s; Asia by Francis YOUNGHUSBAND, from 1880s). By 1914, European awareness of the world was extensive. See also BRITISH EMPIRE.

Mercantile companies were prominent in English FOREIGN TRADE in the 14th–19th centuries. They obtained privileges from the Crown to regulate trade, reduce competition and benefit profitability. Most companies were ‘regulated’ associations of individual traders; a few were joint‐stock companies (see BUSINESS ORGANIZATION).

The earliest company was the Fellowship of the Staple, an association of wool and hide exporters created in 1363 when the wool STAPLE (compulsory export market) was established at CALAIS (English‐held town in NE France). ‘Staplers’ controlled four‐fifths of wool exports until wool exporting was prohibited in 1614. After the loss of Calais (1558) staplers were increasingly involved in the domestic wool trade. The company survived until 1928 (s ee WOOL TRADE, ENGLAND).

A company of merchants who exported cloth to the Low Countries developed during the 15th century. Known as ‘merchant adventurers’, they were granted privileges by King HENRY IV in 1407, and were recognized as a fellowship by the corporation of London in 1486. They included merchants from various English towns but Londoners predominated. The Crown suspended their monopoly 1624–34; their privileges were terminated in 1689. Exports went mainly to Antwerp until 1564, and from 1611 also through Hamburg where the company survived until 1806.

As merchants started trade with new places in the 16th century, the Crown authorized new monopolistic companies: the Andalusia Company, 1531, trading to Spain; the Muscovy Company, 1555, trading to Russia; the Eastland Company, 1579, trading to the Baltic and Poland; the Turkey Company, 1581, and the Venice Company, 1583 (merged 1592 as the Levant Company); the Barbary Company, 1585, trading to Morocco; the Africa Company, 1588. Merchants traded on their own account but operated collectively. Most companies declined in the late 17th century and often lost their privileges (e.g., Eastland Company, 1673; ROYAL AFRICAN COMPANY, 1697). The important survivor was the EAST INDIA COMPANY, founded 1600 (a joint‐stock company).

(b. c.1354; d. between 5 July 1415 and 24 Feb. 1416, aged about 61). Descendant of former rulers of POWYS (C Wales) and DEHEUBARTH (SW Wales); leader of the 1400–10 Welsh revolt, which recovered most of Wales from English control by 1404.

The revolt arose probably from a dispute between Owain (lord of Glyndyfrdwy and Cynllaith, both NE Wales) and Reginald, Lord Grey of Ruthin (NE Wales), but was fuelled by Welsh leaders' resentment of English rule (see WALES, ENGLISH CONQUEST OF). Owain received support partly because of his distinguished ancestry.

On 16 Sept. 1400 Owain was proclaimed PRINCE OF WALES at Glyndyfrdwy; Ruthin castle was besieged; and an uprising occurred on ANGLESEY (NW Wales). Despite initial setbacks, the rebels gained ground, helped by the independent revolt of Henry Percy against HENRY IV in England. The Welsh revolt culminated in 1404 with a Welsh PARLIAMENT at Machynlleth (Powys), an alliance with Charles VI of France (14 July 1404), and an agreement with leaders of the English revolt.

The tide then turned. Owain suffered defeats and loss of French and some Welsh support (1405–6). His family was captured in 1408, and many Welsh leaders were killed or imprisoned during fighting in 1410. Owain then disappeared; he is last recorded as alive in 1415. The revolt provoked PENAL LAWS and caused economic decline.

(b. c.1110; d. 23 Nov. 1170, aged about 60). King of GWYNEDD (NW WALES) 1137–70; dominant Welsh ruler in the 1160s. Owain succeeded his father GRUFFUDD AP CYNAN, but struggled against his brother Cadwaladr (exiled 1152).

From the late 1140s Owain advanced into NE Wales and POWYS (C Wales), especially after the death of MADOG AP MAREDUDD in 1160 (expansion only halted briefly by HENRY II of England's invasion in 1157). Owain assumed the title ‘prince of the Welsh' and leadership (with RHYS AP GRUFFUDD) of the Welsh revolt against Henry in 1164–5. More gains followed in 1166–7, though Owain was excommunicated by the archbishop of CANTERBURY mainly for an illegal marriage. See also ANGLO‐WELSH RELATIONS, 6TH–13TH CENTURIES.

A city in C England, at the confluence of the Rivers Thames and Cherwell; centre of Oxfordshire.

Oxford originated by the early 8th century as a double monastery (governed by the Mercian royal abbess Frideswide) and settlement. They stood near routeways from the south‐west and north, the former including the ford across a channel of the R. Thames from which the city’s name is derived (Oxford means ‘Ford used by oxen’). In the late 9th century a BURH (fortified centre) was added (the central part of the modern city). A cloth‐making industry operated in the 11th–16th centuries.

A university (England’s first) was started by the late 12th century. Most students lived in halls (lodging houses run by university masters): by 1310 there were over 120. From the 1260s there were also endowed colleges. Town and university populations declined from the late 14th century, though more colleges were founded. By 1513 only 18 halls survived. From the 16th century colleges dominated the university. Both university and town expanded from the late 16th century. In 2019 there were 39 colleges. Oxford became a Church of England see in 1542.

From 1912 William Morris developed car manufacturing (see NUFFIELD, LORD). Book‐publishing and science‐based companies also expanded from the late 20th century. A polytechnic received university status in 1992 as Oxford Brookes University. See also UNIVERSITIES, ENGLAND.

Est. popn: 1086, 3200; 1300, 6000; 1600, 7000; 1800, 12,000; 1900, 52,000; 2000, 130,000.

A movement in the 19th and 20th centuries which promoted a view of the Church of ENGLAND as a divinely instituted body which should resist State control partly by following the example of the early Church (1st–4th centuries). It was inspired by the ‘assize sermon’ preached at OXFORD University in 1833 by John KEBLE. Its leaders, notably J.H. NEWMAN and E.B. PUSEY, spread their ideas through Tracts for the Times, causing supporters to be nicknamed ‘Tractarians’. They claimed that the Church of England stood between Protestantism and Catholicism. The Tracts ended in 1841 when Oxford University and bishops condemned Newman’s Tract 90 for claiming that the Church’s Thirty‐nine Articles could be interpreted in a Catholic sense (see ARTICLES OF RELIGION). Newman converted to Roman Catholicism in 1845.

The movement influenced theology, liturgy, Church architecture and music until the late 20th century (see ECCLESIOLOGISTS). From the 1840s the revival of pre‐REFORMATION practices (e.g., incense, eucharistic vestments) and adoption of Roman Catholic usages generated controversy and was called RITUALISM.