Index
A
absolute category-rating (ACR) test 415
absorption: coefficients as function of frequency 316; decay time and 338–40; effect on early reflections 293–4; position, for reflection-free zones 398; for reflection-free zones 397; and reverberation time calculations for treated living room 321–2; and reverberation time calculations for untreated living room 318–19
absorption materials 345–51; Helmholtz 349; porous 345–7; resonant 347–9; summary of 350–1; wideband 349–50, 351
a cappella (unaccompanied) singing, tuning in 231–4
acoustic cues, timbre perception and 251–9
acoustic impedance 20
acoustic instrument, components of 172
acoustic models see musical instruments
acoustic reflex 77
acoustics of enclosed spaces see enclosed spaces, acoustics of
acoustics of timbre 239–49; described 239–40; note envelope 240–2; note onset 243–5; steady state 245–9
acoustic spatial filtering 493–4
acoustic systems, time responses of 67, 68
active noise cancellation 439, 440
Ahnert, W. 439
air conduction audiometry 407–8
air resonance 182
all-pass filters 65
ambience 373
American National Standards Institute 135, 238
amplitude 14, 19–20, 28–9, 59, 62, 64, 140, 198, 221; critical bands and 84; sound intensity and 22–6; and sound interference 46–7; uncorrelated sounds and 30–3
amplitude modulation 246
amplitude reflection gratings 355–6
anechoic rooms 117, 172–3, 340–1, 386
Angus, J. A. S. 355
anvil 74
aperiodic waveform 135
applications, acoustics/psychoacoustics combined; see also individual applications: audio coding systems 442–57; cochlea implants 457–9; critical listening room design 390–405; filtering/equalization 418–26; mosquito units 440–1; noise-reducing headphones 439–40; overview of 372–3; psychoacoustic testing 413–17; public-address systems 426–39; pure-tone and speech audiometry 406–13; sonification 459–62; spatial/3D audio reproduction 373–89; teen buzz ringtones 440–1
archetypical audio coder 443–4; diagram of 443; entropy coding stage 444; psychoacoustic quantization stage 443–4; signal redundancy removal stage 443
arithmetic coding 451
array loudspeakers 432, 492–4; acoustic spatial filtering and 493–4
articulation, defined 438
articulation index (AI) 438
audio coding systems 442–57; archetypical audio coder 443–4; entropy coding 447, 450–1; information, indicators of 444–5; information, measuring 447–8; lossless 442; lossy 442–3; overview of 442–3; psychoacoustic noise shaping 455–6; psychoacoustic quantization 452, 456–7; quantization/adaptive quantization 452–5; signal redundancy removal stage 445–7; total information, measuring 449–50
audiometric notch 104
auditory canal 73
axial room modes: decay time of 337–8; standing waves and 331–2
B
Babinsky, H. 206
backward adaptive quantizers 454
band-pass filters 62
band-reject filters 62
Barney, H. E. 227
bars/panels, waves in 10–14; bending (flexural) waves 11, 12–14; quasi-longitudinal waves 10–11; transverse shear waves 11–12
bass drum 216
beamwidth: minimum frequency as function of size 497–8; mouth/array, size effect on 496–8
Bech, S. 417
Benade, A. H. 174, 195, 200–2, 208, 212, 214, 223–4
bending (flexural) waves 11, 12–14
binaural stereo 387–9; listening 120, 122
“Black Box” model of musical instruments 172–4
Blauert, J. 122
bone conduction audiometry 407, 408–9
bores, musically useful 201
Bosi, M. 457
bowed string, sound source from 180–1
Bracewell, R. N. 58
C
center dialogue speaker 379
cents 167, 169; converting between frequency ratios and 477–8; defined 477
chiff 188
cilia hairs 81
circle of confusion 116
circumaural headphones 408
closed phase, vibration cycle 224
close miking with directional microphone 422–3
closing phase, vibration cycle 224
comb filtering 47
comma free code 451
comparison category-rating (CCR) test 415, 416; rating scale/descriptions for 417
complex sounds, loudness of 100–2
compression 3
concha 73
cone of confusion 116
consonant 158, 159, 160–1, 161–2
constant beamwidth theory (CBT) arrays 494–5
constant directivity horns 432, 435, 436–7, 494–6
contemporary theory of pitch perception 151–3
continuous spectrum 135
controlled experimentation 413
controlled-reflection rooms 395, 396
controlled-reflection technique 395
convolution theorem 192, 470, 489
correlated sounds 26, 27, 28–9; addition of 27; described 26; level when, add 28–9, 31–2
critical bands 72, 83–9; defined 85; filter center frequency and 85–8; measuring 86; timbre and 250–1
critical distance: calculating 303–4; defined 298
critical frequency 340–5; calculating 342–5; defined 341, 344; large room frequency and 342; room modes and 340–2
critical listening room design 390–405; diffuse-reflection room 401–5; energy-time considerations 392–3; IEC listening rooms 391–2; loudspeaker arrangements 390–1; nonenvironment rooms 398–401; overview of 390; reflection-controlled rooms 393–6; reflection-free zones, absorption level for 397; reflection-free zones, absorption position for 398
crossed figure-of-eight microphones 378
cut-up, adjusting 188
cycle 126
cymbals 219
D
damping 358
dBHL (hearing level) scale 406
decay time: of axial modes 337–8; early 324–5; of other mode types 338–40
decibels: adding, together 33–5; defined 33
degradation category-rating (DCR) test 415–16
degradation mean opinion score (DMOS) 416
delay stereo listening 119, 120
dendrites 82
density: for common materials 8; defined 5
diagnostic rhyme test (DRT) 416–17
difference limen (DL) 142
difference tone 266
diffuse field assumption 301
diffuse field frequency region 341
diffuser designs 492
diffuse-reflection room 392, 401–5
diffusion materials 351–6; amplitude reflection gratings and 355–6; bump patterns and 352–3; construction/performance of 352–3, 354; overview of 351–2; sequences used for 353
direct sound 287–9, 426, 427; balance of, to reverberant sound 297–8; defined 287
discreet Fourier transform 472–3
dispersive shear waves 13
displacement antinodes 176
displacement nodes 176
dissonance 156–8, 160–1, 161–2
dynamic range 91
E
ear, deceiving 265–82; auditory illusions 281–2; masking sounds 268–71; note grouping illusions 271–7; pitch illusions 277–81; pure tones, perception of 265–7
ear canal-insert earphones 408
eardrum 73
early reflections 289–93; absorption effect on 293–4; defined 289; focusing surface and 290–1; from loudspeaker 291–2; performer support and 327–9
edgetone 187
eight-foot (8’) rank 260
Ellis, A. 255
enclosed spaces, acoustics of 287–330; absorption effect on early reflections 293–4; air absorption and 329–30; critical distance, calculating 303–4; decay time 324–5; direct sound 287–9; early reflections 289–93; lateral reflections 325–7; performer support, early reflections and 327–9; reverberant sound 294–302; reverberation time 307–24; source directivity effects on reverberant sound 304–7
enclosure diffraction effects, reducing 364–8
energy-time considerations, for critical listening room design 392–3
enharmonics 164
entropy 449
environment sound levels 92
epilarynx tube 230
equalization, tone controls and 421–2
equivalent open window area 317
ERB equation, solving 475
Escher, M. 277
eternal accelerando 281
even functions, Fourier transform 467
F
filtering/equalization 418–26; filter shape and 418–19; frequency response faults, correcting 422–3; overview of 418–21; sound balance in mixes, altering 424–6; timbre modification of sound sources 423–4; time domain effects and 419–20; tone controls and 421–2
filters: all-pass 65; band-pass 62; band-reject 62; effects of 64–6; high-pass 62; low-pass 62; types of 62–3
first harmonic 177
first-order mode 52
Fletcher, H. 93
flow-controlled valve 195
flue: defined 185; elements of 186; parts of 186; sound source mechanism in 187
flutter echoes 314
foldback 327
formants 226; in Hz for men, women, children 228
forward adaptive predictor 446
forward adaptive quantizers 454
Fourier series 466
Fourier synthesis 466
Fourier theory: described 57–8; Fourier transform pair 58; nonperiodic sound waves, spectrum of 61–2; periodic sound waves, spectrum of 58–60; phase, effect of 60–1
Fourier transform 465–73; amplitude reflection grating and 355; complex Fourier series 468; convolution theorem 470; diffuser sequences and 353; discreet 472–3; Fourier analysis 467; Fourier’s theorem 465–6; frequency spectrum and 466–7; inverse discrete 473; nonperiodic signals, frequency analysis of 468–70; odd/even functions 467; single pulse example of 470–2
free field 173
frequency: vs. phase velocity 14; of sine wave 15; vs. wavenumber 17
frequency domain 136; processing 446–7; representation 59
frequency modulation 246
frequency ranges, hearing system 89–92; environment sound levels 92
frequency ratios and cents, converting between 477–8
G
Glasberg, B. R. 85
glottal airflow 224
Goldstein, E. B. 82
golf ball-and-spring model: of sine wave propagating in a material 15; of sound-propagating material 3; of sound pulse propagating in a material 4; of sound reflection due to bounded-unbounded transition 45; of sound reflection from hard boundaries 44; superposition of sound wave in 40
Golomb-Rice codes 451
good continuation, grouping by 272
good speech intelligibility 431
graphic equalizer 422
grouping effects 272
group velocity 12
H
hair cells, function of inner ear 81
Hall, D. E. 174, 182, 185, 212, 217–18, 251
hammer 74
hard boundaries: golf ball-and-spring model of sound reflection from 44; reflection from 43–4; standing waves at 49–51
hard reed 198
harmonics: defined 131; frequency ratios of, series 130; intervals between 131–5; musical notes and 128–31
harmonic sinusoids 466
head movement effects, pinnae and 114–17
head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) 116–17, 387–8
hearing loss: degrees of 409–11; protection from 106, 108
hearing musical notes 155–63; consonance/dissonance and 156–8; and musical intervals 158–63; Western harmony and, development of 155–6
hearing sensitivity, loss of 102
hearing system 72–122; see also pitch perception; anatomy of 72–83; beyond ear 81–3; critical bands 83–9; frequency ranges 89–92; inner ear function 73, 77–81; loudness perception 92–102; middle ear function 73–7; noise-induced hearing loss 102–8; outer ear function 72–3; overview of 72; pressure sensitivity ranges 89–92; sound source direction, perception of 108–22
helicotrema 77
Helmholtz resonance absorbers 349–50
highly dissonant 158, 159, 160–1, 161–2
high-pass filters 62
Houtsma, A. J. M. 271, 272, 278
Howard, D. M. 147, 224, 231, 234, 255, 256
hum 219
human pitch perception model 152
Hutchins, C. M. 174
I
ideal reverberation time characteristics 322–4
idiophones 212
IID see interaural intensity difference (IID)
independent partitions, sound isolation and 359–60
Indian temple bell 221
in-ear monitoring 327
information: described 444–5; measuring 447–8
information measuring total 449–50
inner ear, function of 73, 77–81
input, sound source as 172
input/system/output model 172–3; see also speaking/singing voice; for stringed instruments 175
integrated noise dose 105–6, 107; defined 106
intelligibility: consonants importance to 428; good speech, requirements for 431; multiple loudspeakers effect on 428–9; noise effect on 429–31; reverberation effect on 427–8
intensity stereo listening 119, 121
interaural intensity difference (IID) 82–3, 113–14, 115; Hass effect and 118–19; interaural time difference versus 117–18
interaural time difference (ITD) 82–3, 108–13; Hass effect and 118–19; versus interaural intensity difference trading 117–18
international radiotelephony-spelling alphabet 431
interspike interval histogram 149–50
inverse discrete Fourier transform 473
inverse square law 35–8; boundaries and 38–9; honey-and-balloon model of 35–6
ITD see interaural time difference (ITD)
L
languid height, adjusting 188
large room frequency 342; see also critical frequency
larynx 222
larynx closed quotient (CQ) 224–5
law of sines 377
Leq (L E Q) measurement 96, 106
Levelt, W. J. M. 157
linearity, superposition and 40–1, 488
listener fatigue 414
live end dead end (LEDE) 394
logatom testing 417
longitudinal wave 3
long-term average spectra (LTAS) 239–40, 241
lossless audio coding systems 442
lossy audio coding systems 442–3, 457
loudness: aspects of 98; changes in, methods to explore 98–9; defined 238; measuring 95–6; of simple sounds 96–100; sone scale and 98–9; tone bandwidth effect on 101; tone duration and 100
loudness perception 92–102; complex sounds, loudness of 100–2; equal loudness contours for human ear and 93, 94; measuring loudness 95–6; outer ear features and 93; overview of 92–5; phon scale and 94; simple sounds, loudness of 96–100
loudspeaker and delays, multiple 437–8
loudspeaker arrangements, for critical listening 390–1
loudspeaker output, room boundaries and 362–4
low masks high 269
low-pass filters 62
M
major whole tone 167
maskee 268
masking 86; nonsimultaneous 270–1; simultaneous 270, 271; sounds 267, 268–71; upward spread of 269
mean opinion score (MOS) 415
medial geniculate nucleus 82, 83
membranophones 212
microphone directional characteristics, compensating for 423
Millington-Sette equation 317, 485
milliwatt 37
minor whole tone 167
mixture stops 265
modal frequencies 330
modal frequency region 341
modified rhyme test (MRT) 416
mole (mol) 6
molecular mass of gas 6
Moore, B. C. J. 85, 149, 151, 152, 270–1
m-sequence 356
Munson, W. 93
musical instruments; see also individual headings: “black box” model of 172–4; percussion 211–21; speaking/singing voice as 221–34; stringed 174–85; wind 185–211
musical instruments, waveforms from 57
musical intervals, hearing 158–63
musical notes 126–35; see also hearing musical notes; fundamental frequency and 126–8; harmonics and 128–31; hearing 155–63; intervals between harmonics and 131–5; overview of 126
musical tones, Helmholtz rule of 254
music hearing, in different environments; see also individual headings: absorption materials 345–51; diffusion materials 351–6; enclosed spaces, acoustics of 287–330; enclosure diffraction effects, reducing 364–8; room boundaries, loudspeaker output and 362–4; room modes, standing waves and 330–45; sound isolation 356–61
N
nerve firings 77, 80, 149–50, 151
neural synapse 82
Newell, P. 405
newton (N), defined 5
nicking 188
noise, intelligibility and 429–31
noise-induced hearing loss 102–8; forms of 102–3; integrated noise dose and 105–6, 107; noise exposure and, levels of 104–5; overview of 102–5; protection from 106, 108; tinnitus and 103
noise-reducing headphones 439–40
noise shaping, psychoacoustic 455–6
nondispersive shear waves 13
nonenvironment rooms 392, 398–401
non-nasalized vowel 226
nonperiodic sound waves, spectrum of 61–2
nonuniform quantization 455
Norman, H. 188
Norman, H. J. 188
Norris-Eyring reverberation formula 308–9, 311, 317, 481–2, 483–5
note offset 241
O
oblique room modes, standing waves and 333–4
odd functions, Fourier transform 467
On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music (Helmholtz) 254–5
open-holes lattice cutoff frequency 201–2
opening phase, vibration cycle 224
orchestral gong 221
organ flue pipes: sound modifiers in 189–95; sound source in 185–8
organ reed pipes: sound modifiers in 199–200; sound source in 197–9
organum 156
output 172
overblown mode 188
overtones 130
P
panel absorbers 348
pan pots 377
Parkin, P. H. 154
partials, waveform 59
passive noise cancellation 439, 440
%ALcons (articulation loss; consonants) 417, 428
perceptual coders 271
percussion instruments 211–21; overview of 211–12; sound modifiers in 212–21; sound source in 212
perfectly consonant 158, 159, 160–1, 161–2
perilymph 77
periodic sound waves, spectrum of 58–60
perturbation theory 226
Peterson, G. E. 227
phantom images 373
phase locking 149
phase reflection gratings 353
phase velocity 12; vs. frequency 14
the phenomenon of the missing fundamental 138
phon scale 94
pinna 73
pinnae, head movement effects and 114–17
pipe organ, as timbral synthesizer 260–5
pitch: defined 238; illusions 277–81; of the residue 141
pitch perception 135–55; contemporary theory of 151–3; defined 135; just-noticeable difference for 142; measurement of 135–6; overview of 135–7; place theory of 137–47; secondary aspects of 153–5; spectrum and 136–7; temporal theory of 147–51; waveforms and 136–7
place mechanism 81
place theory of pitch perception 137–47; problems with 141–7
Plomp, R. 157
plucked string, sound source from 176–7
point sources, array of 487–91; progressive phase shift and, effect of 491; sampling and, effect of 490–1; visible region and 489–90
Poisson ratio, defined 11
polar pattern, surface size/illumination effect on 487–98; array loudspeakers application 492–4; beamwidth, mouth/array 496–8; constant-directivity horns application 494–6; diffuser design application 492; point sources, array of 487–91
popping frequency 208
precedence effect 118
pressure, defined 6
pressure-controlled valve, of woodwind reed instruments 200
pressure sensitivity ranges, hearing system 89–92
pressure waves, sound transmission and 2–20
pressure zone frequency region 341
primitive root sequences 353
progressive phase shift 491
proximity, grouping by 272
psychoacoustic fatigue 424
psychoacoustic noise shaping 455–6
psychoacoustic quantization 452, 456–7
psychoacoustics: defined 72; experimental design issues 414; rating scales 414–16
psychoacoustics of timbre 249–59; critical bands and 250–1; cues and, perception 251–9; overview of 249
psychoacoustic testing 413–17; experimental design issues 414; overview of 413–14; rating scales 414–16; speech intelligibility 416–17
public-address systems 426–39; design example 433–7; good speech intelligibility requirements 431; intelligibility, effect of multiple loudspeakers on 428–9; intelligibility, effect of noise on 429–31; intelligibility, effect of reverberation on 427–8; multiple loudspeaker and delays 437–8; reverberation and 426–7; speaker directivity, achieving 431–3; speech quality, methods of measuring 438–9
pure-tone audiometry 406–11; air conduction test signals 407–8; bone conduction test signals 407, 408–9; controls 406–7; dBHL scale 406–7; described 406; discrimination of sounds and 411; hearing loss, degrees of 409–11
Q
quadratic residue sequences 353
quantization: adaptive quantization and 452–5; defined 452; psychoacoustic 456–7
R
radian, defined 17
Rayleigh, L. 363
reflection-controlled rooms 392, 393–6
reflection-free zone (RFZ) 395; absorption level for 397; absorption position for 398
residue pitch 141
resonant modes 50, 330; see also room modes, standing waves and
reverberant field frequency characteristics, compensating for 423
reverberant sound 294–302, 426–7; balance of, to direct sound 297–8; buildup of reverberant field level and 296; decay of reverberant field level and 296; field, behavior of 296–7; leaky bucket model of 299; level of, in steady state 298–302; in a room 294, 295; source directivity effects on 304–7; steady-state level and 296
reverberation: defined 295; distance 298; effect of, on intelligibility 427–8; faults 312–15; public-address systems and 426–7
reverberation time 307–12; calculating/predicting 307–9; calculation, with mixed surfaces 317–20; characteristics 322–4; defined 307; design 320–2; equation 310–12; faults 312–15; room size and 309–10; short, problem of 310; variation, with frequency 315–16
reverberation time equation: deriving 479–82; for different frequencies and surfaces 483–5
ring 230
Risset, J. C. 281
room boundaries, loudspeaker output and 362–4
room modes, standing waves and 330–45; axial 331–2; behavior of 337; Bonello criteria 335–6; critical frequency 340–5; cyclic reflection paths and 331; decay times 337–40; oblique 333–4; overview of 330–1; tangential 332–3; universal frequency equation for 334–5
S
Sabine reverberation formula 310–11, 312, 317, 483–4
Salomon, D. 451
scala media 77
scala tympani 77
scala vestibuli 77
Scharf, B. 85
Scholes, P. A. 238
Schroeder frequency 342; see also critical frequency
secondary aspects of pitch perception 153–5
second-order difference tone 266
shear displacement, defined 10
shear modulus 11
Shepard, R. N. 277
short reverberation time 310
signal redundancy removal stage 445–7
signal-to-masking ratio (SMR) 457
similarity, grouping by 272
simple sounds, loudness of 96–100
simple tones, Helmholtz rule of 254
singer’s formant 230
singer’s formant cluster 230
singing voice see speaking/singing voice
sinusoidal excitation 14
sixteen-foot (16’) rank 260
6th Symphony (Tchaikovsky) 273, 275
soft reed 198
sonic mg (acronym) 82
Sonification Handbook (Hermann) 460
sound absorption 42–3; vs. sound transmission 357
sound balance in mixes, altering 424–6
sound intensity level (SIL) 21–2, 39–40; defined 21
sound interactions 39–56; absorption and 42–3; diffraction and 53–6; interference 46–8; overview of 39–40; reflection from bounded to unbounded boundaries 44–6; reflection from hard boundaries 43–4; refraction and 41–2, 43; scattering and 56; standing waves at hard boundaries 49–51; standing waves at other boundaries 51–3, 54; superposition and 40–1
sound isolation 356–61; achieving 357–9; flanking paths and 360–1; independent partitions and 359–60; mass and 358, 359; overview of 356–7; stiffness and 358, 359
sound levels, environment 92
sound modifiers: in organ flue pipes 189–95; in organ reed pipes 199–200; in percussion instruments 212–21; in singing voice 226–31; in stringed instruments 181–5
sound power level (SWL) 22, 23
sound pressure 23
sound pressure level (SPL) 22–6; defined 23; measuring 433–7, 437–8
sound reflection: from bounded to unbounded boundaries 44–6; from hard boundaries 43–4
sound(s): adding, together 26–35 (see also decibels; sound source(s)); altering balance of, in mixes 424–6; deceiving ear (see ear, deceiving); inverse square law and 35–8; masking 268–71; spectrum of 62 (see also spectra, analyzing); speed of, for common materials 8; time/frequency representations of 67–70; velocity of, in air 5–8
sound scattering 56
sound source direction, perception of 108–22; Hass effect 118–19; head movement effects, pinnae and 114–17; interaural intensity difference 113–14, 115; interaural time difference 108–13; ITD/IID trading and 117–18; stereophonic listening and 119–22
sound source(s): from bowed string 180–1; correlated 26, 27, 28–9, 31–2; in organ flue pipes 185–8; in organ reed pipes 197–9; in percussion instruments 212; from plucked string 176–7; in singing voice 222–5; from struck string 177–80; timbre modification of 423–4; uncorrelated 26–7, 32–3
sound transmission, pressure waves and 2–20; see also sound waves; in bars/panels 10–14; overview of 2; sound in air, velocity of 5–8; sound waves and 3–5, 14–20; transverse waves 9–10
sound transmission vs. absorption 357
sound waves 3–5; golf ball-and-spring model of 3; nature of 3; nonperiodic, spectrum of 61–2; periodic, spectrum of 58–60; pressure, velocity and impedance relationship in 18–20; sound transmission, pressure waves and 3–5, 14–20; velocity of 3–5; wavelength/frequency of 14–16; wavenumber of 17–18
source directivity, reverberant sound and 304–7
spatial/3D audio reproduction 373–89; ambisonics 381–4; binaural stereo 387–9; 5.1 surround systems 378–80; overview of 373; stereo 373–8; three-dimensional surround systems 381, 382; wavefield synthesis 384–6
speaker directivity, achieving 431–3
speaking/singing voice 221–34; a cappella, tuning in 231–4; overview of 221–2; sound modifiers in 226–31; sound source in 222–5
spectra, analyzing 62–70; acoustic systems and, time responses of 67, 68; filter bank for 63; filters/filter types and 62–3; filter time responses and 63–6; time/frequency characteristics and 67–70
spectrum: of nonperiodic sound waves 61–2; of periodic sound waves 58–60; pitch perception and 136–7; of waveforms 59
speech discrimination score (SDS) 411
speech intelligibility, psychoacoustic testing and 416–17
speech intelligibility index (SII) 438
speech quality, methods of measuring 438–9
speech reception threshold (SRT) 411
speech transmission index (STI) 439
square root symbol 5
standing waves: in acoustic context 52; defined 49; at hard boundaries 49–51; lowest-frequency 52; at other boundaries 51–3, 54; room modes and (see room modes, standing waves and); two-dimensional 54
Stapleton, H. 441
steady state 240–1, 245–9; reverberant sound and 296; reverberant sound level in 298–302
Steffen, F. 439
stereocilia hairs 81
stereophonic listening 119–22; binaural stereo 120, 122; delay stereo 119, 120; intensity stereo 119, 121
stereophonic reproduction 373–8; both speakers driven equally 375, 376; both speakers driven with different amplitudes 376; crossed figure-of-eight microphones for 378; law of sines and 377; one speaker driven 374–5, 376
stiffness-based instruments 219
stiffness-controlled isolation region 358
stirrup 74
stopped end, of woodwind reed instruments 200
Stowell, D. 281
streaming effects 272
stretched/nonstretched instruments 219
striations 256
stringed instruments 174–85; bowed string sound source 180–1; described 174; input/system/output model for 175; overview of 174–6; playing fundamental frequency (f0) ranges of 174; plucked string sound source 176–7; sound modifiers in 181–5; struck string sound source 177–80
struck string, sound source from 177–80
superior olivary nucleus 82, 83
supra-aural headphones 408
surround speakers 379
T
tangential room modes, standing waves and 332–3
Taylor, C. A. 201
tectorial membrane 81
temporal mechanism 81
temporal theory of pitch perception 147–51; problems with 151
terminal button 82
third-order difference tone 266
3-bit binary code symbols 447–8; source entropies for 449–50
three-dimensional surround systems 381, 382
tierce 219
timbre: acoustics of 239–49 (see also acoustics of timbre); critical bands and 250–1; defined 238–9; descriptors 238; ear and, deceiving 265–82 (see also ear, deceiving); modification, of sound sources 423–4; perception, acoustic cues and 251–9; pipe organ as timbral synthesizer 260–5; psychoacoustics of 249–59
timbre-to-sound quality descriptions 238
time, frequency domains and 57–62; Fourier theory and 57–8; nonperiodic sound waves and, spectrum of 61–2; periodic sound waves and, spectrum of 58–60; phase, effect of 60–1
time domain 136; prediction 446; representation 59
timpani 217
tinnitus, noise-induced 103
tone controls, equalization and 421–2
tone duration, loudness and 100
tone-hole lattice 201
tonotopic organization 81
top resonance 182
total information, measuring 449–50
transverse waves 9–10; defined 9; velocity of 9–10
tuning systems 163–70; equal tempered tuning 169–70; just tuning 166–9; Pythagorean tuning 163–6
U
uncorrelated sounds 26–7, 30–1, 33; described 26–7; level when, add 30–1, 33
unequal temperament 169
universal modal frequency equation 334–5
upward spread of masking 269
V
velocity (c): of sound in air 5–8; of sound waves 3–5; of transverse waves 9–10
velocity antinodes 176
velocity nodes 175
virtual pitch 141
vocal fold adduction 207
vocal fold vibration 224
volley firing principle 149
volume velocity 24
von Békésy, G. 80
W
Walker, R. 335
Waterhouse, R. V. 363
wavefield synthesis 384–6; Huygens-Fresnel Principle and 384–5; limitations to 385–6
waveforms: aperiodic 135; from musical instruments 57; period of 126–7; pitch perception and 136–7; sawtooth 182; spectrum of 59; time domain representation 59
wavenumber 48; vs. frequency 17; of sound waves 17–18
Western harmony, development of 155–6
Wever, E. G. 149
white noise 269
wideband absorbers 349–50, 351
Wiener-Khinchin theorem 489, 492
wind instruments 185–211; brass 205–11; organ flue pipes sound modifiers 189–95; organ flue pipes sound source 185–8; organ reed pipes sound modifiers 199–200; organ reed pipes sound source 197–9; overview of 185; woodwind flue 195–7; woodwind reed 200–5