In this chapter, we will be taking a look at the way in which the various elements of an animated film come together in order to create a coherent whole. We will take a look at the manner in which some aspects of preproduction and production, such as animating and editing, may impact and shape the acting and performance within animation.

The way in which a film narrative is devised and constructed, the manner in which it is divided and structured into separate sequences and scenes, and the way in which, in their turn, the individual shots are planned, staged, filmed, and then finally put together within the edit suite determine and establishe the nature of the overall storytelling. Not only that, but to a large degree it influences the manner in which an animated performance is approached and determines the type and range of animation/acting that is suitable for that particular narrative.

Given that the film’s structure has such far-reaching implications for all elements of the storytelling, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of good planning and communication between those individuals, directors, producers, and writers who have an overall vision for the story and those who have the responsibility within the production process. Much can be lost between concept and production. If the director is to get the performance, she requires from the characters it is necessary for the animators to understand fully the performance that is required of them. They need to be well informed and well prepared. This involves utilizing the skills and expertise of a range of individuals not just within the production crew but those involved in concept.

An animated performance begins long before the animator gets to work on the project and there are many stages within the production pipeline that need to be successfully concluded before a single frame of video is shot. Exactly where and when a performance begins is an interesting idea to explore. No doubt for some, perhaps for most films, this process begins with the script and will vary depending on the nature of the story. The composition of the story, through the script, will determine the manner in which it is ultimately played out on screen. I would like to suggest that while many changes will be made along the way, it is the script that provides the first composition of the story and the first tentative composition of the scenes.

For an animator having to deal with turning in a believable performance through their acting skills and with a range of characters, scene composition becomes of paramount importance. This element, along with many of the other creative and practical decisions regarding the film, will have already been made for them. However, it is the way in which a scene is composed; how it is lit and from which angle it is shot, the nature of the shot, and the cinematography that are critical in the telling of a story and to the acting. The way all the scene elements come together and are seen and heard in relationship to one another creates the mood, contextualizes the action, and creates the environment in which the performance can be built. It is not just the story, it is the manner in which the story is told through scene composition, which structures the story telling that forms the basis on which the performance is delivered. All of these present a very distinctive and highly creative “voice,” one that is often instantly recognizable as the work of a particular director. On the other hand, if this is not done well, the results may be rather prosaic and formulaic.

The ways in which stories are visualized vary a great deal, with different approaches to visualization being more appropriate for different kinds of stories and different genres of filmmaking; horror, comedy, westerns, drama, sci-fi, etc. The rather spectacular shots of bathing beauties in an escapist film such as Gold Digger’s of 1933 (1933) choreographed by Busby Berkeley, or the magnificent way in which John Ford depicted features of the great American wild west, such as Monument Valley, in a string of Westerns, is not only testament to the individuality of the creative voice but also the appropriateness of the visualization to these particular subjects. Many animators have developed their own distinctive voice that is reflected in the way in which they compose their films. The films of Jan Svankmajer possess a distinctiveness that is almost instantly recognizable in the way in which they are composed. His choice of shots, including the use of extreme close-ups, his use of editing, sound design, and even, to some degree, his use of animation timing make them unique.

Planning a Scene

The planning of a scene or a shot, particularly one that involves multiple characters, can be likened to choreography. The shot will have a dynamic of its own that reflects the nature of the narrative at that juncture on the timeline. Each shot sits next to its neighbors creating a time-based journey through the storyline; sometimes, this may be smooth flowing and sometimes it will be discordant and jarring, but it is this juxtaposition of shots and scenes that creates the structure and pacing of the film. The individual shot or scene needs to be planned if this overview of the narrative flow is to make its way through to the acting. Good planning through the storyboard, animatic, and layouts ensures that this happens and allows the animator to concentrate on the acting and performance and get the most out of a scene.

Planning a scene and its performance does not happen at a single specific moment within the production pipeline. It runs throughout the entire production process though naturally enough there are points within the process when planning a scene takes on a more significant role.

It would seem obvious that most of the answers to the performance and acting lie within the script. Obviously, the other production processes and stages within production pipeline build upon the script and preproduction development and little by little draw out the latent performance within the script.

Rather than feeling constrained by all of this planning, it should provide the animators with a structure for the sequence within which they can concentrate on the acting within an established context. The planning should provide information from which they can gain a very clear understanding of the things that happen, when they happen, who these things happen to, who is in the shot and who isn’t, who is speaking and to whom, what are they saying, and why they are saying it. Relying on this type of planning, the animator is liberated to concentrate on the issue in hand, acting.

The mechanics of scene composition and performance is achieved through a range of different processes and documents such as the storyboard, the animatic, layouts, dope sheets, and bar charts. We shall cover them here in brief, though for detailed information on their use you should look at the other relevant texts that cover production. There are plenty to choose from.

Storyboards

Storyboards are often the first point within the production process where the script takes on a visual life of its own. Yes, the storyboard will usually be preceded by the creation of concept art and often by character designs, but while both concept art and character designs explore the visual language of the film, it is the storyboard that concentrates on the story and the manner in which it is told. It is at this point that the script begins to come visually alive on its journey from the page onto the screen; it is at this point that the first glimmer of a performance and acting may be glimpsed.

A story can be told in a thousand different ways and a film can be shot in just as many ways, each one of them is likely to give the original story a particular spin or flavor. This is where the art of the director as storyteller comes to the fore, it is the point where the voice of the director can be heard and the eye of the cinematographer can be seen. Through the medium of the storyboard, the distinctive creative approach of the filmmaker becomes evident.

Storyboards may be usefully divided into three different categories or types, each with their own distinct purposes. These are thumbnail or rough storyboards, presentation storyboards, and working storyboards. Let’s take a look at each in turn.

Thumbnail or Rough Storyboards

Thumbnail storyboards are usually drawn up as a way of visualizing the action of the story in very quick order. The intention at this stage of production is to explore ideas and test various cinematic (and performance) options. If you allow yourself to get bogged down with making beautifully rendered drawings at this stage, you will never be able to keep up with the pace at which ideas can be generated. The nature of the rough board concentrates on the idea and not on the detailed drawings or the inclusion of technical information. There is also the possibility that the level of investment made in drawing beautifully detailed drawings for an initial storyboarding means one becomes reluctant to throw out bad ideas and unsuitable shots simply because too much time (as it seems) has been invested in making these drawings. Keeping the drawing simple at this stage means you are more likely to be open to the possibilities of making changes, altering the sequence, discarding bad ideas, and replacing inappropriate shots with more appropriate ones. It is vital to keep your ideas fresh and lively at this stage.

The storyboard will always be worked up from this point to a point where it is in a more presentable state for a client or producer and is of more practical use to a production crew. The thumbnail storyboard may be drawn up in a single color and I generally rough out my boards on A4 paper either using dark blue Col-erase animation pencils or I will use a pen (which stops me from being tempted to making alterations on top of the drawings). At this point, there may be little by way of technical information and I limit myself to arrows that denote any camera moves I intend. The use of post-it notes for individual storyboard panels is a good idea as they can be stuck onto a wall or flat surface and be moved around quickly to give alternative sequences of shots. Remember the rough storyboard is for your eyes only. Once you are happy with the way the sequences are working, you can then start to create other storyboards with more detail.

Presentation Storyboards

A presentation storyboard presents the visualization of the narrative for approval by a client, producer, or others with a vested interest in the production. They are created to show off the project at the preproduction stage, to gain approval for the ongoing development of the project, and to gain approval and clearance for progression to the next stage in production. Perhaps, the most important role the presentation board has to play in the production is to secure production funding to allow the production team to start their work. Naturally there is much still to develop in terms of performance but much can be gained at this point with the producers receiving useful feedback that more often than not ensures the ongoing creative development of the project. This may result in a much clearer idea of the storytelling aspect of the project, which in turn starts to shape the animation performances that will be undertaken a little further down the pipeline.

There is usually little technical information included at this presentation stage as the purpose is to check the validity of the visualization of the idea. It is presumed that most production details will be dealt with during the later stages of production. The script, in all likelihood, will have already received approval before the presentation of a storyboard, and this next stage in the process is simply to assess the creative viability and suitability of the project and gain an idea of what the finished thing will look like.

On a practical level, the number of panels used in a presentation storyboard may be rather limited at this stage as it is only a general impression that is sought and not a detailed breakdown of the actual content and movement within each of the shots. While the technical detail may be missing, the standard of the visuals is an important aspect of the presentation. It is often the visual element that will sell the idea. While the standard of drawing for thumbnail storyboards may have been of secondary importance, the standard of draughtsmanship and the quality of the images for presentation boards are much more important. Color is often a key factor at this stage, and while drawings are used to illustrate actions that may be undertaken by puppets, CG models, live action, or a combination of all three in the final animation, it is useful to create a presentation storyboard that is as close to the final film as possible. The clearer the idea of the finished item you can present the better for all concerned.

Animation is a very expensive and time-consuming process, and while it is not possible to eradicate all errors from the production process, it is vital that as many mistakes as possible are avoided before the animation begins. Client approval of the project at this stage by signing off the presentation storyboard is a key moment within the production pipeline. Once approval has been given, it may become an expensive and often painful process to make changes during production.

Working Storyboards

This is the term given to those storyboards that are used by members of the production team during the actual production of the film. These may also be known as production storyboards. Their purpose is to give all the members of the production crew the appropriate and correct information they need during production including technical information, direction, notes on sound, including dialogue and perhaps music, and they provide a visual representation of the action within the shots.

I would like to take this opportunity to sound a cautionary note here and encourage you to take great care when drawing up working storyboards and the way in which you compose a scene as any mistakes made at this stage can be rather costly further down the line. I have found this out to my own costs. Many years ago, I worked as a storyboard artist on a production of the then popular children’s TV series The Shoe People . The first series had been created within a single studio in south Wales and any errors within production were kept to a minimum because queries could be dealt with simply, quickly, and more importantly cheaply. However, for the second series, all the animation was done in China. My storyboards would be shipped to China along with the animatic and the other necessary elements of preproduction. A robust production pipeline was in place, and on the face of it, the process was all quite straightforward. However, the director and I had failed to take into account the cultural differences in the way in which storyboard images are read and the different traditions and experience in animation production.

One of the sequences I was storyboarding involved a character coming under attack by a swarm of very angry bees. I tried to explain the shot using a number of panels that I thought illustrated the scene quite well. In the first panel of the shot, the character could be seen standing in his garden simply enjoying the sunshine; the second panel showed the character reacting to a noise off shot and turning his head to look over his shoulder in the direction of this noise. The third panel illustrated the fear on the face of the character as he realized that this swarm of angry bees were heading his way. All well and good so far, it was on the final panel of the sequence where I made my mistake. What was intended was to illustrate the character flailing his arms over his head in an effort to ward off his attackers. In order to do this, in an efficient and what I mistakenly took to be an effective manner, I drew the character with his arms appearing in multiple forms in the air complete with whiz lines to indicate that he was waving his arms in a vigorous and rapid manner. It all looked good to me and incidentally to the director who checked it before shipping to China.

What we got back was not what either of us had expected. Instead of a frantic and panicked action of a character waving his two arms above his head, we were treated to a character with four additional arms (three on each side of his body complete with whiz lines) that suddenly appeared as if by magic and waved gently to and fro. It looked like a multiarmed Indian god. There was nothing else for it but to reanimate, repaint (this was in the days of acetate and paint and trace departments), and reshoot, a very expensive mistake.

The Animatic

While there can be little doubt about the importance of the storyboard within the production process, there is one aspect of the medium of film that they cannot fully represent; time. This is where the animatic, or as it is sometime referred to, the story reel, comes into its own. The role of the animatic has a vital role to play in the preproduction process of animation and goes a long way to further composing sequences and scenes and assisting animators to create a good performance. The animatic takes the entire process of story development one step further. In addition to the visual elements of the storyboard, the animatic gives the opportunity to add two other vital ingredients to the mix: time and sound. By the relatively straightforward process of placing the storyboard on a timeline and adding sound to the mix, the story can now be experienced for the first time as an audiovisual time-based project. The process gives the project pacing allowing the production team to gain a better idea of the flow of the narrative and the dramatic dynamic within it. It is this pacing of the film and the individual sequences and scenes within it that go to make up the film and will begin to bring it to life. The addition of sound in the form of dialogue, music, and sound effects also does a great deal to build and develop the narrative.

Timing

It may be worthwhile at this point to discuss in no great detail time, timing and the use of dynamics within the medium. I have found it helpful in the past for students to get a fuller understanding of the use of time as a creative material to be used by filmmakers and animators much in the same way as a painter uses paint. It helps if we consider the possible categorization of timing and the ways in which we can use these different categories of time: pacing, phrasing, and animation timing.

Each of them deal with timing in very different ways, we shall go through each of them briefly in turn before returning to the overall subject of the animatic.

Pacing

This describes the dynamic of a film in its totality and describes the interrelationship between the various sequences. The nature of a film is that its narrative dynamic is played out across many scenes from the very first frame to the very last. It is through pacing that the drama is developed, how tension is built and how mood is established. For the most part, films consist of slow sequences and fast sequences in the action they contain, the duration of the individual shots, the manner in which the shots have been edited, and in the use of sound. At certain points, the film will be loud while at others it will be quiet. It is in the juxtaposition of these elements that pacing is created. I am not a great believer in creating rules for the creative process, but in very general terms, one can perhaps appreciate that action is best delivered through faster pacing (shorter scenes containing faster movements), whereas emotions such as love and tenderness may be best delivered through slower pacing (longer scenes with slower movements). The way these elements are presented and changes between the different elements (sound, shot length, and action) will determine the nature of the storytelling. Put simply, pacing has everything to do with storytelling and has less to do with detailed performance within each shot. That is in the realm of phrasing.

Phrasing

This is a form of timing that can be used to describe the actions of characters and other elements within a single shot or scene. I liken the use of phrasing in animation to dance and similarly as all dance is determined by choreography that shapes it. Phrasing not only determines the variable movements and dynamics of figures but also how they move, how they are positioned within a shot or sequence of shots, and how they interact with another elements within the shot. Sometimes the figures will move quickly, sometimes they will move more slowly, and sometimes they will be at rest, not moving at all. Stillness is a vital element in creating an animated performance as movement. It is not the speed of the movement that determines a performance it is the variations between the speeds of the different movements that creates the performance. The shift of mood and temperament and the dramatic actions are planned for within the animatic and executed at the animation stage. In this way, movements come together in a meaningful way to create performance. I have written elsewhere that timing gives meaning to motion, perhaps I could extend this to say that phrasing creates performance from action. Not a very elegant term I know but I hope it gets the idea across.

Animation Timing

This is a term that may be used to describe the speed of individual animated actions either of characters or of objects. This applies equally to the movement of inanimate objects as well as the actions of animate beings. The manner in which a drop of water falls from a leaky tap, the action of wind on water, a bouncing ball, a waving flag, the throwing action of a figure, a figure standing up or sitting down, walking, running, and all of the thousands upon thousands of other actions that we see in an animated film from the most simplistic to the most elaborate and complex are created through animation timing. This is certainly not to suggest that this is simple to achieve or has no part to play in the creation of animated acting. Far from it, indeed it is the way in which the three types of timing, pacing, phrasing, and animation timing, are used that create the magic of animation.

For the moment we are discussing animatics and in doing this we are for the time being more concerned with the pacing of the film. The pacing of the film is a critically important aspect of filmic language. The duration of the individual shots, how they are cut together, the pacing of the narrative, and the relationship between sound and image come together in an edited form that forms the basis for the rest of the production. In live action, it is easy to shoot alternative takes, and different versions of individual shots, which often result in the ratio of footage shot to that which ends up on screen, can be as much as 10:1, if not more. With such a large amount of film footage at the director’s disposal, it makes the editing process an extremely creative and demanding one. However, animation is such an expensive process that editing begins at the storyboarding and animatic stage in order to ensure that the ratio is as close to 1:1 as possible. The last thing you want to be doing is making animation that doesn’t end up on the screen. In this regard, editing animation scenes at the postproduction becomes akin to assembling predetermined parts that when planned and executed well come together rather like a very finely crafted jigsaw puzzle, each part dropping into place.

There are very real advantages for the animator who can make the most of this process of preproduction editing. Having a comprehensive storyboard at your disposal provides a good visual indication of the story and viewing the animatic gives a very real sense of the pacing of the film and suggests the phrasing of the action within the sequence. Even at this early stage, the scene is composed ready for the animator to begin her work. With this information at her disposal, it becomes much easier for her to make the animation timing appropriate to the dynamic of the sequence. It not only takes out all of the guesswork, but it also allows the animator to concentrate on the performance.

By getting a sense of the dynamic of shots either side of the one on which the animator is currently working, she will be in a better position to gauge the dynamic of the shot before commencing animation.

Preparing the Shot—Layouts

The early pioneers of animation mostly worked solo, which often included camera work, and layouts would have been rather rudimentary. However, with rising popularity of the art form and increasing demand for product, the studio system was developed to meet the demand for large volume output. The production of animation was industrialized, and specialized roles within the production team were developed. The layout artist became a critical role within the production pipeline. Because of the specific skills required of the layout artist, many of them still come from a fine art or illustration background and share many of the skills of the storyboard artist and background artist. While the industry has come a long way since those early days of the animation studio, many of the skills remain the same. Layout artists still need to have a good understanding of spatial composition for screen-based work and a grounding in cinematography and the staging of action. This needs to be balanced with specialist technical knowledge of layout and animation production, and naturally enough, they need to have an ability to draw very well in a variety of styles and using a range of media.

Before an animator is finally turned loose on a shot, there is usually a fair degree of necessary preparation of the scene that is undertaken by different members of the production crew. Each of the shots will be set up in preparation for the animation through the use of layouts that provide more detailed information regarding the physical aspects of a scene than can be found within either the storyboard or the animatic. Originally, the term “layout” was coined to describe a process that applied to 2D classical animation though as animation has increasingly come to mean CGI this has shifted somewhat, and while the process of planning remains important, some of the tools may no longer be directly relevant to CG production. With the advent of digital 2D animation, much of what was originally undertaken using physical resources (drawings on animation paper), layouts, and scene plans is now being facilitated within the animation software itself. There are versions of digital ink and paint software available that all incorporate features that cover layouts, dope sheets, paint and paint affects, and camera facilities. While this allows for more ease of use and flexibility in how a scene is structured and shot, it does not do away with the need for planning and composition.

The source of information for creating the layouts is to be found within the storyboard and the animatic, and while the layout material for the individual scenes conforms to the visuals within both storyboard and animatic, they also contain far more detailed information for use by the animators and others within the production team. At first glance, the layout drawings resemble the panels of a storyboard, they reflect the same approach to cinematography in the way the shot is composed and framed though they give a more detailed breakdown of the separate elements within the shot and how each of them come together to form a coherent whole. This range of material will normally include a detailed layout drawing of the background rendered in great detail (usually in a single color, black or dark blue are the most likely) and illustrate the perspective and tonal values of the scenes environment. Separate elements that work as part of the scene such as overlays and underlays will also be included.

Overlays

Overlays are those, mostly nonanimated elements that form part of the environment, sometimes geographic features such as trees and rocks, sometimes manmade elements such as buildings, or if the shot is an interior one it may include furniture or some architectural feature that sits on top of the background and are dealt with independently from but in conjunction with the background. If camera moves are involved in the animation, these elements are often moved and timed independently from the background in order to create the illusion of depth including through parallax shift. This is the illusion created when one moves in relation to features within an environment that appear to move at different rates and different distances. Objects, that are closer to the observer appear to move further and faster than objects further away. The net result is that environmental features appear to shift their position in relation to one another and thereby create the illusion of screen depth.

Underlays

Underlays are those elements that appear behind the main background. This often includes such things as sky or space elements or very distant features that do not seem to shift (or have very minimal shift) when we move such as the moon or very distant mountains. Underlays may also include such images that may be viewed through gaps in the background such as the view seen through a window in an interior shot.

Field Guides

Part of the responsibility of the layout artist is to produce field guides. Field guides are made to work in conjunction with the layouts in order to define the screen space for that particular shot and indicate how the backgrounds and other elements are framed and seen by the audience. They indicate how the environment and the characters within it should be used by the animator for the duration of that shot. A field guide not only frames the shot but it also indicates any change in the framing that is required within the shot through camera moves such as zooms or pans. Put very simply, the layout drawings provide the composition of the shot and the field guide determines how the shot is framed and how the camera travels over or through the background or the environment.

The choice for a particular framing of a shot and the size at which the animation is produced may not only result in a more efficient production of animation but it may also determine the final results. The size of a shot is determined through the division of the screen in zones known as fields. These divisions of the screen space (either 4:3 or more commonly 16:9) are achieved through the use of a tool called a graticule. The graticule is a guide that divides the screen space into areas that conform to the same ratio as the screen size. These divisions are based on the positioning of the central point of the screen and extend outward from this point along diagonal lines to the four corners of the screen. The fields are set out in zones located at points that run along these diagonal lines and have upper and lower horizontal edges and left and right edges that run parallel to the edge of the screen. The fields themselves need not have their centers located at the center of the screen. They may appear anywhere within the screen to take advantage of a particular aspect of the background. These fields may also move and change size during the shot in order to create the necessary camera move. Figure 7.13 shows a sample field guide.

The choice of field size for any given shot is determined by both the aesthetic considerations of composition and cinematography and the practical constraints of production. Long shots or shots that contain a great deal of detail are generally composed on a large field size; not only will this allow for far more detail to be included in the shot but it makes the animators’ work a lot easier particularly if dealing with drawn animation. Close-ups are generally designed to be created in smaller field sizes. This is not only more economic in terms of the animation drawing, smaller drawings may be quicker to producer than larger ones, but it may also make the production of those drawings a lot easier.

There is yet another very important use for the layout drawing other than for creating animation. Background artists use the layout drawings to produce the on-screen artwork, which include the overlay and underlay elements as well as the backgrounds themselves. Animators and background artists will more often than not work independently from one another; it therefore becomes necessary for the backgrounds to be an exact transcription from layout to background as the animator will be using a layout as an accurate description of the environment and will match the animation to those layouts. Any discrepancy between the layout drawings and the finished backgrounds is likely to result in errors when the animation is shot. There is possibility that the animation may fail to sit properly within the shot. It is vital that the scene composition created by the layout artist is followed strictly by both the animator and the background artist if all of the elements are to come together seamlessly in the final shot. Layout drawings and field guides may also include notes on the direction that include light sources, lighting direction, and the quality of the lighting as this will impact on the type of shadows produced. The last thing you want is for the animation to have shadows that do not match with the background and environment lighting; unless of course that is the effect the director is seeking in which case this should also be indicated by the layout artist.

Naturally similar processes of scene composition are useful for both stopframe and CG animation though they do not necessarily entail the same technical drawings used for drawn animation. The point of the layout process remains the same, to stage the action and ensure that the animation fits within the environment. Set design and mock-up will still comply with the original vision as established in the storyboard. The important thing here is to recognize that scene composition that includes the staging of action within the scene environment is a key element of the design process that impacts directly on the animated performance. It not only sets up the physical aspects of the scene but sets a framework within which the animation performance will be played out.

These preproduction processes are undertaken by a number of individuals, the director, storyboard artist, art director, and production designer through to the layout artist, and are intended to do one thing, that is, assist the animator in creating animated performances.

Character Layouts

In addition to the environmental and background artwork layout, artists may also be responsible for creating character layouts. These are drawings that indicate how the character appears within the shot and how the character uses the screen space throughout the duration of the shot. Character layouts give the animator a good idea of how they move within and through the shot and at what point they interact with it. Used in conjunction with the layout, they are also useful in illustrating how the characters or other animated elements use the environment and how they relate to other characters and props within the shot. They demonstrate to the animator how a character may, for example, open a door and go through it, how they may climb over a fallen tree, or wade through a stream. This kind of thing provides the animator with an idea of the staging of the action and composition of the performance, what elements it entails, and how it seen by the audience. I have covered a little more on this below.

Whereas the layout drawings compose the environment and field guides compose the shot, the character layouts compose the action. You can probably see now that these are very useful tools in creating a performance. The entire process, completely unseen by the audience, is intended to plan out a scene or shot in line with the directors’ original vision and eradicate as much as possible any errors and all of this before even a single frame of animation has been made.

Bar Charts and Dope Sheets

Additional technical information that relates to the composition and planning of individual shot and how the performance is outlined by the director is to be found within bar charts and dope sheets.

The bar chart is a document that tracks the different elements of the film in its entirety frame by frame. The bar charts provide a shot-by-shot breakdown of the entire film. It identifies the start and end point of the separate shots. The director indicates instructions on action and directing notes and also provides the location of any dialogue on the timeline. A phonetic breakdown of the dialogue is also included. The bar chart is technical transcription of the animatic, the length of the individual shots that were established in the making of the animatic is now evident in the form of a frame accurate sequence. The information for the bar chart is taken from the animatic. The bar chart in its turn provides information to be used on the dope sheets.

Dope sheets (also called expose sheets) were initially created for use within 2D classical animation. They not only identify the same kind of production information that is present on the bar charts, such as production title, they also provide the animator with information specific to each of the individual shots. Shot and sequence number, the name of the animator and assistant animators, and shot length through a frame count are unique to each shot. As with the bar chart, dialogue is included and a phonetic breakdown of the dialogue provided. Direction notes on action and camera instructions are also included. Most importantly, dope sheets are used by the animator to annotate and track the animation drawings and the animation timing. Digital ink and paint software has a dope sheet facility that resembles the more traditional ones and as with those traditional dope sheets enables the timing of the animation to be shifted and changed along the time line. Other 3D and digital 2D animation software has a built-in timeline that serves much the same purpose as the traditional dope sheet, the frame-by-frame tracking of animation elements that sit alongside one another in layers on a timeline.

All of this information that is a result of careful planning and preparation and scene composition goes into each shot before the animator begins the task of creating a performance. Armed with the necessary material such as a storyboard and animatic that covers the relevant sequences, dope sheets, layout drawings, and field guides that cover the individual shots, the animator is all set to begin work.

Blocking Out Animation and Action

Before the finished animation is undertaken, there is yet another stage that assists in scene composition, blocking out the animation. Blocking is a term taken from theatrical stage direction and refers to a process where the positioning and movement of characters are planned and rehearsed well in advance of the actual performance of the play in order to create a coherent piece. Bringing together all the different elements, the actor’s position within the environment, the position of props, the lighting sources, and sound cues are very much like the choreography of dancers. The stage direction for this process is the responsibility of the director or perhaps the animation director or lead animator. It is important for the composition of the scene that the characters are positioned throughout the shot in such a manner that the audience is directed toward those aspects of the action and the elements of the shot the director deems to be of importance and that they are seen clearly without any distraction, and the shot is read by the audience with little ambiguity, or perhaps it would be truer to say with no unintended ambiguity. Blocking offers the opportunity to gain an insight into the dramatic effect of the performance before the animator has undertaken the final thing.

In its simplest form, blocking entails placing the character at particular places within the environment at various points on the timeline. Used in conjunction with any camera moves, it is then possible to ascertain almost exactly what the final outcome will be. It is particularly useful to see the blocked-out animation alongside the dialogue. This will help with the creation of body sync, the eye contact between characters, and the line of sight for the audience. This is very important at this stage to synchronize the movement of the characters to one another and to the movement of the camera and any lighting effects that you have in mind. The last thing you want is to create movement that obscures from the sight of your audience any element of the shot that is important. The movement of a number of characters in shot at the same time may, if not handled well, be very distracting.

A sequence in the film The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996) illustrates how a scene can remain clear and unconfused despite a multitude of elements appearing on screen together and regardless of how busy with activity the entire screen seems to be. A grand parade of fools is lead into the city square by the Harlequin figure. It is a scene alive with action of one sort or another and there is hardly a square centimeter where nothing is happening. The main focus of the scene is the Harlequin who dances and sings his way through the sequence under a veritable snowstorm of confetti. But at no point does the attention of the audience wander from the important elements of the scene. By categorizing the animated action, it is possible to analyze how the composition of all this action makes possible a scene that remains clear.

The primary action is of the Harlequin. The parade characters represent secondary animation and are smaller in shot though all of their actions are still quite visible. They have their acting roles to play though they are not the focus of attention, they are doing interesting things and have their own distinctive movements and they do demonstrate variable dynamics throughout the duration of the shots. The crowd is split into two distinct categories, one animated and one still. The animated members of the crowd provide tertiary animation; they wave little flags, they wave their arms and some of them seem to dance on the spot moving to and fro. All this is undertaken through cyclical movements that are relatively short and simple; however, because there are so many of them and the actions of each cycle varies from that of their neighbors, they give the illusion of full animation. They provide the necessary background action to the entire scene, they demonstrate life without acting. Behind the active members of the crowd and in the background, there are other members of the onlookers that don’t move at all, they simply provide volume. If all of the crowd had have remained still, they would have been noticeable in their stillness, by composing the action in this way the scene looks sufficiently lively without distracting from even the secondary action of the additional characters in the parade. The confetti snowstorm could also be considered as tertiary action. It falls in such volume and each piece flutters with such action as to be believable and to provide a sense of public celebration and jubilation without ever obscuring any of the action.

In 2D classical animation, the blocking of animation may be achieved through the use of key drawings to make what is termed a key pose test. A key pose test is a process in which the key drawings are made and then shot in accordance with the animation timing that is created at the same time as the key drawings. Using these timings, it is possible to place the drawings along with the background on the timeline at the very point they will appear in the finished animation. Naturally they will appear as a series of stills with no animated movement, but even at this stage, they will provide a good indication of the phrasing of the animation and the flow of action before any in between drawings are made. It is a most effective and efficient way of testing the performance before committing to the very time-consuming work of creating in-betweens and cleaning up the drawings for the final animation.

Blocking animation should be seen as one way of rehearsing for the final animation. As we have already seen rather like the stage directions in theatre, blocking-out animation will provide you with the bones of a performance, establish the phrasing of a sequence, and ensure that all is well before the creation of a character performance begins in earnest.

The huge advantage that blocking animation offers the animator is the ease and economy with which you can make any adjustments and changes to the animation at this stage rather than later on when it can become a rather costly exercise. Once the animation is blocked out to your satisfaction, it is with increased confidence that you can proceed to creating more polished and refined animation. The bottom line is that blocking can save you an awful lot of time and money.

Scene Dynamics and Screen Space

Even with all of this planning, there is still plenty of scope for the animator to create a distinctive and individual performance. The way in which scene dynamics and character interaction work together create the potential ; for performance, this is further determined by the capacity of the individual animated characters for performance and acting. This is interpreted by the animator. A performance may well start with the directions given to the animator, but it finishes with the acting that the animator provides the characters with.

Exactly how the spatial relationships work between characters and how they share the screen space may determine the performance dynamic. Making one character dominant over another may initially be shaped by the processes we have covered, but it is not constricted by them. The art of character-based animation is in the acting, and with all the preparation in the world, the final thing comes down to the acting skills of the animator. It is not a mechanical process with a set of prescribed rules. You will learn and develop your acting and performance skills through study and practice.

Part of this study will be to explore what the screen offers in terms of space. It has potential that extends well beyond the boundaries of the landscape format shape of the screen itself, regardless of its size. The creative use of this space and the way it is composited is not limited to a flat surface over which images move. While screen space offers us the potential for demonstrating extreme depth with objects and environments viewed over immense distances, naturally, many animators choose to work within the flat plane of the screen and some use the illusion of flatness and artificial depth to great effect. Size and aspect rations are also important. The IMAX cinemas depend on the use of the viewer’s peripheral vision in the creation of an immersive experience. This may be marvelous for showing off huge and spectacular subjects like the Grand Canyon or journeys in space but not so good for dealing with intimate shots involving close-ups of faces and the like. Similarly films created for projection in astronomical domes offer potential for immersion but as a medium for drama they are so well suited. At the other end of the scale, handheld devices cannot really do full justice to those vast landscape subjects.

Considering the screen as a single plane may also have its limitations. By fracturing the screen into different zones and using different shapes within the screen, it is possible to not only breaking free of the constraints of the single frame but also of the single viewpoint. Some of the short films of Zbigniev Rybczynski (Tango 1970) and Paul Driessen (On Land, at Sea and in the Air 1980) are perfect examples of how screen space can be used in an interesting way, to tell a story from different viewpoint simultaneously, to fracture a storyline, and to present alternative views. By using interiors, exteriors, intimate spaces, and wide shots and using different lenses, he has managed to create a rather unique cinematic experience a very distinctive voice.

The way in which the scene is performed is to a large degree determined by the choice of shot and how it is presented on screen, from what angle it is seen and from what distance it appears to be from the camera. This not only determines the way a story is being told but it can change completely the story itself. Seen from different viewpoints, the story may be changed to such a degree that it is possible to telling completely different narrative. Consider for a moment an incident such as a minor traffic accident. Looked at from the perspective of the different people involved, the event could be told in very different ways. There was a commercial for the Guardian newspaper that ran in 1986 that depicted a young, rather aggressive young man seemingly running to attack a business man in the street in a completely unprovoked manner. The sequence ran for a second time from a different angle and showed that far from attacking the businessman the youth pushed him out of the way of a falling object and thereby prevented serious injury. So far frombeing a young thug, he turned out to be something of a hero. Same event, different viewpoints, different stories.

The use of the close-up, the long shot, and the camera moves such as tracks and pans all contribute toward creating a specific mood within a narrative and will affect the nature of the performance and acting. A good example of how the choice of shot and camera angle helps create a narrative can be seen in the work of Bill Plympton. In his short film One of Those Days (1988), he uses the POV (point of view) to great effect in which all of the action is seen through the eyes of the main protagonist, effectively the audience becomes that character. The only time we get to see an alternative view of the character is when he (we) look in the shaving mirror.

Rehearsing Action for Performance

We have already looked at blocking animation and as we have seen it can prove to be a very effective process, but it is only one way of rehearsing a scene and composing a performance. We are all different and choose to work in different ways, so it is up to you to explore the different ways of rehearsing your animation though I would suggest that there is more than one process you can apply.

Certainly one of the simplest and quickest ways I know of is to create thumbnail drawings of the key elements of the shot. Drawing up alternative actions as very simple poses that fall within the constraints of the shot can be done quickly, easily, and very effectively in a number of ways. I always choose to do this with a pen on a single sheet of A4 paper. I keep the figures small and draw them up with little or no detail. Often they resemble nothing more elaborate than a stick figure. What I am looking for at this stage is body language, balance, and some kind of suggestion at movement. Many years ago, when I was working with the animators on the Walking With Dinosaurs series, I encouraged them to use this process to figure out the actions they were looking for. I would go into the studio to find little yellow post-it notes attached to practically all the desks space including the sides of the computer screens. They found it very helpful in rehearsing the actions they later achieved in CG. The beauty of this process is that you really don’t have to draw that well in order to do it.

However, I believe to get a better idea of the action, how it actually feels to undertake a certain action there is little to compare with going through the actions yourself. I was once charged with the task of animating a young, powerful, rather arrogant, and very deadly princess. I was none of those things, so in order to compose my performance for her, I first turned to the storyboard and then the animatic to get a sense of the flow of the sequence. At the same time, I was listening time and again to the voice track to get the correct intonation in speech and from that an insight into the movement. This was a key character acting out a pivotal moment within the story and if she was going to be at all believable I simply had to get this right. I felt I had little option other than becoming the character in both action and speech, so I would spend a time each day over a period of about a week rehearsed her actions in front of a mirror and delivered the dialogue as I played the voice track over and over again. I suppose I did this for around a week between animating other shots that weren’t so demanding until I had finally gained the necessary confidence in my performance to put pencil to paper. It paid off and I got out of the performance everything I wanted. It is perfectly possible to rehearse the performance of a character that is different in age, gender, and weight from that of your own, and with just a little imagination, it is even possible to rehearse the actions of a different species. One of the more bizarre examples of this was when a student of mine, now a highly experienced and very highly regarded director of animation, was in the position of having to animate an injured pterodactyl struggling along a beach. He rehearsed this very successfully by filming the action as he dragged himself along on crutches using these alone to support his full body weight while his legs trailed limply behind.

Summary

All of these processes and development tools are used to compose the scene before the animation begins. Much of the work carried out at this stage is never seen by the audience, unless of course the different stages such as storyboards, layouts, and backgrounds are included in the special features of the DVD or make their way onto web sites. They may be only of passing interest to the general public but they are a source of intense study for the practitioner and they do play a vital part in getting ideas onto the screen. Far from being an unseen and therefore unnecessary part of production, they make the production process effective, efficient, and most of all they make the entire thing more economic.

Most relevant to the reader is the way in which these processes enable the animator to take movement, regardless of how elegant it already is and transform and elevate it into a performance and that is the difference between making animation and making a performance.