acceptance A risk response that chooses to accept the risk within the project without creating a strategy to counteract the risk event. Acceptance is often used with small risks.

action items Actions or assignments that team members are to complete, usually determined in a project meeting.

activity-on-the-arrow project network diagram Origin of the arrow is the “begin activity” sign, and the end of the arrow is the “end activity” sign. Also commonly referred to as the Arrow Diagraming Method (ADM).

activity-on-the-node project network diagram A project network diagramming method that allows the project manager to map relationships between activities. With the activity-on-the-node (AON) method, the focus is on the project activities rather than on the start and end of activities. AON illustrates the sequencing of activities from the start of the project through the end of the project.

actual costs (AC) Used in earned value management (EVM) and represents the actual cost of the work performed.

ad hoc reporting Impromptu reports on schedule, cost, scope, or other key performance indicators (KPIs) as requested by stakeholders with enough authority to cause the project manager to create the report.

add/move/change projects Generally smaller projects that, as the name implies, add, move, or change some element within an organization. Approximately 10 percent of the project time is allotted to planning.

adjourning Finality of project calls for the team to disperse, or adjourn, to other projects and join different project teams. The project team, like the project, is not a permanent fixture in the organization.

administrative closure When the customer or project sponsor documents and accepts the project results; also needed if a project is terminated.

agile project management A change-driven approach to project management, where the project team moves through iterations, or sprints, of planning and executing. Requirements are prioritized for each iteration with the project manager, sometimes called the scrum master, and the product owner.

analogous estimating A form of expert judgment that relies on historical information to predict estimates for current projects. Also known as top-down estimating.

architect A role that creates the high-level plan or solution for the project scope. Architects generally create the software, network, database, or communication structure for the project scope solution.

as late as possible (ALAP) constraint When you specify a task as ALAP, Microsoft Project will schedule the task to occur as late as possible without delaying dependent tasks. This is the default for all new tasks when scheduling tasks from the end date. This constraint is flexible.

as soon as possible (ASAP) constraint When you specify a task as ASAP, Microsoft Project will schedule the task to occur as soon as it can. This is the default for all new tasks when assigning tasks from the start date. This constraint is flexible.

assumptions Beliefs considered to be true, real, or certain for the sake of planning. All project assumptions should be evaluated later in planning to determine their risk for the project should the assumptions prove untrue.

assumptions log You often have to make assumptions in planning, and these assumptions are documented in the assumptions log.

asynchronous communication Any communication that doesn’t happen in real time, such as e-mail, text, or project management information system (PMIS) solutions.

avoidance One response to a risk event. The risk is avoided by planning a different technique to remove the risk from the project.

backlog The list of things to complete in the project, such as defect resolution, added features, or documentation. The product backlog is a prioritized list of features the development team is to create in a scrum project.

benchmarking The process of using prior projects within, or external to, the performing organization to compare and set quality standards for processes and results.

benefit measurement methods A method used to compare the value of one project against the value, or benefits, of another. It’s often used in project selection models.

benefit-cost analysis See cost-benefit analysis.

bid A document from the seller to the buyer, used when price is the determining factor in the decision-making process.

bidder conference A meeting with prospective sellers to ensure that all sellers have a clear understanding of the product or service to be procured. Bidder conferences allow sellers to query the buyer on the details of the product to help ensure that the proposal the seller creates is adequate and appropriate for the proposed agreement. Also called a contractor conference or vendor conference.

bottom-up cost estimating The process of creating a detailed estimate for each work component (labor and materials) and accounting for each varying cost burden. These estimates are based on the WBS and the WBS dictionary, as these documents define each element of the project deliverables.

brainstorming An approach that encourages participants to generate ideas about an opportunity or business problem. Brainstorming at the research stage is useful to determine different types of outcomes for the project. The project manager should encourage the participants to come up with as many ideas as possible, and then these ideas can be sorted and researched more in-depth after the session.

branding restrictions Organizational rules regarding logos, colors, trademarks, and other branding materials that the project must adhere to in order to be in organizational compliance.

budget The finances allotted for the completion of a project.

budget at completion (BAC) The sum of the budget for each phase of your project; the estimated grand total of your project.

budget burndown chart Shows the amount of funds the project has spent on the overall project budget to reach a specific point in the project. The funds spent are represented in a declining line from left to right, where left represents the start of the project and right represents the target project end date.

budget estimate This estimate is somewhat broad and is used early in the planning processes and also in top-down estimates. The range of variance for the estimate can be, for example, −10 percent to +25 percent.

burn rate The rate of consumption of resources, budget, and tasks. A burn rate can describe how quickly the project is “burning” through the project funds, but often is associated with the number of tasks to be completed in the project and the rate of how many tasks per day, week, or month the project team is able to complete.

burndown chart Shows the estimated effort remaining needed to complete the project or phase of the project. The burndown chart shows the diminishing number of tasks left to complete the project work. Burn charts are often used in agile project management.

burnup chart Shows the effort spent completing users stories in an agile project. A burnup chart shows the accumulation of tasks toward the project completion.

business analyst A role that is responsible for eliciting, documenting, and supporting the product requirements of the project.

business case A document that helps the organization determine if it can justify the cost of the project in proportion to the return on investment. The business case links the value of the project’s solution to the organization.

business cycles A time of the business productivity when activities are very high or low. For example, an accounting firm may experience a busy business cycle during tax season.

business partners The sellers, vendors, and contractors that may be involved in a project through a contractual relationship. Business partners can provide goods and services such as hardware and software, and subject matter experts like developers, technical writers, and software testers that the project manager might need on the project.

business rules analysis If the project outcome will likely affect the way the organization does business, the business rules should be studied. Business rules define the internal processes to make decisions; provide definitions for operations; define organizational boundaries; and afford governance for projects, employees, and operations.

capital expenses (CapEx) Any purchase by an organization to provide future benefits; examples include new computer hardware, buildings, and property. These are usually long-term acquisitions, can be costly, and are seen as an investment in the organizational business value.

capital resources Money or financing to charter new projects, purchase equipment, contract labor, or other physical resources.

cause-and-effect diagrams Diagrams that are used for root cause analyses of what factors are creating the risks within the project. The goal is to identify and treat the root of the problem, not the symptom. Also called Ishikawa diagrams and fishbone diagrams.

centralized contracting All contracts for all projects need to be approved through a central contracting unit within the performing organization.

champion The individual who defends the project, ensures resources for the project work, and has authority over the project resources. The champion works with the project manager and project team to ensure that the project is successful in the environment. This person is often the project sponsor but could also be the project customer.

change control board (CCB) Determines the validity and need for project change requests and approves or denies them.

change control system (CCS) An internal process the project manager can use to block anyone, including management, from changing the deliverables of a project without proper justification. Change control requires the requestor to have an excellent reason to attempt a change, and then it evaluates the proposed change’s impact on all facets of the project.

change impact statement A formal response from the project manager to the originator of a Project Change Request form. It is a summary of the project manager’s proposed plan to incorporate the changes. Usually this is a listing of the paths and trade-offs the project manager is willing to implement.

change log A document that records all proposed changes in the project, the effect of each change, the change request status, and relevant information about each change request.

chart of accounts A coding system used by the performing organization’s accounting system to assign the cost for project work. This is a predefined table of costs for project or organization use for commonly completed activities. For example, a programmer’s time is worth $150 per hour regardless of which programmer is assigned to the project.

checklist A list of activities that workers check to ensure the work has been completed consistently. Checklists are used in quality control.

closing The period when a project or phase moves through formal acceptance to bring the project or phase to an orderly conclusion.

cloud-based solutions vs. on-premises solutions Cloud-based solutions are technical solutions that are provided via web technologies, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) or Google Cloud. On-premises solutions are also technical solutions but are provided via local hardware and solutions on the organization’s private network.

code of accounts A numbering system that shows the different levels of WBS components and identifies which components belong to which parts of the WBS.

coercive power The type of power that comes with the authority to discipline the project team members. Also known as penalty power. It is generally used to describe the power structure when the team is afraid of the project manager.

collective bargaining agreements Contractual agreements initiated by employee groups, unions, or other labor organizations. They may act as a constraint on the project.

communication channel formula A formula to predict the number of communication channels within a project; the formula is N (N − 1)/2, where N represents the number of stakeholders.

communications management plan A plan that documents and organizes stakeholder needs for communication. This plan covers the communications system, its documentation, the flow of communication, modalities of communication, schedules for communications, information retrieval, and any other stakeholder requirements for communications. The plan may also address communications for virtual teams and consider time zone differences, language differences, and cultural norms in each location where the project exists.

compromising A conflict resolution method that requires both parties to give up something. The decision ultimately made is a blend of both sides of the argument. Because neither party completely wins, it is considered a lose-lose solution.

conferencing platforms Web conferencing software, such as Zoom, that allows organizations to collaborate online without the need to be co-located to have the meeting.

configuration management Activities focusing on controlling the characteristics of a product or service. A documented process of controlling the features, attributes, and technical configuration of any product or service. It is sometimes considered a rigorous change control system.

constrained optimization methods Complex mathematical formulas and algorithms that are used to predict the success of projects, variables within projects, and tendencies to move forward with selected project investments. Examples include linear programming, integer algorithms, and multi-objective programming.

consultative decision-making process Occurs when the project team meets with the project manager, and together they may arrive at several viable solutions. The project manager can then take the proposed solutions and make a decision based on what they think is best for the project.

contingency plan A predetermined decision that will be enacted should the project go awry.

contingency reserve A time or dollar amount allotted as a response to risk events that may occur within a project.

contingency/fallback plans Plans often used in technical projects to fall back or roll back to the last known good status of the environment should something go awry when the solution is implemented into production.

continuous quality improvement The theory that all practices within an organization are processes and that processes can be infinitely improved.

contract A legal, binding agreement, preferably written, between a buyer and seller detailing the requirements and obligations of both parties. It must include an offer, an acceptance, and a consideration.

contract administration The process of ensuring that the buyer and the seller both perform to the specifications within the contract.

contract change control system A system that defines the procedures for how contracts may be changed. Includes the paperwork, tracking, conditions, dispute resolution procedures, and the procedures for getting the changes approved within the performing organization.

contract closeout A process for confirming that the obligations of the contract have been met as expected. The project manager, customer, key stakeholder, and, in some instances, seller complete the product verification together to confirm the contract has been completed.

contract file A complete indexed set of records of the procurement process incorporated into the administrative closure process. These records include financial information as well as information on the performance and acceptance of the procured work.

control account plans A control tool within the project that represents the integration of the project scope, project schedule, and budget. It allows management to measure the progress of a project.

control charts Charts that illustrate the performance of a project over time. They map the results of inspections against a chart. Control charts are typically used in projects or operations that have repetitive activities such as manufacturing, test series, or help desk functions. Upper and lower control limits indicate whether values are within control or out of control.

controlling The project is controlled and managed. The project manager controls the project scope and changes, and monitors changes to the project budget, schedule, and scope by comparing plans to actual results and taking corrective action as necessary.

cost baseline Shows what the project is expected to spend. It’s usually shown in an S-curve and allows the project manager and management to predict when the project will be spending monies and over what duration. The purpose of the cost baseline is to measure and predict project performance.

cost budgeting A process of aggregating the assigned cost to arrive at a budget for the entire project. This process shows costs over the execution of the project. The cost budget results in an S-curve that becomes the cost baseline for the project.

cost change control Part of the integrated change control system that documents the procedures to request, approve, and incorporate changes to project costs.

cost control An active process to control causes of cost change, document cost changes, and monitor cost fluctuations within the project. When approved changes occur, the cost baseline must be updated. Unapproved changes are usually seen as a variance from the cost baseline.

cost estimating The process of calculating the costs, by category, of the identified resources to complete the project work.

cost management plan A plan that details how changes to costs within the project will be estimated, planned, and controlled and what procedure will be used to report and document cost changes.

cost of conformance The cost of completing the project work to satisfy the project scope and the expected level of quality. Examples include training, safety measures, and quality management activities.

cost of nonconformance The cost of completing the project work without meeting the quality standards. The biggest issue here is the money lost by having to redo the project work; it’s always more cost effective to do the work right the first time. Other nonconformance costs are loss of sales, loss of customers, downtime, and corrective actions to fix problems caused by the incorrect work.

cost performance index (CPI) A ratio of the amount of actual cumulative dollars spent on a project’s work and how closely that value is to the predicted budgeted amount. The CPI formula is earned value/actual costs.

cost variance The difference in the amount of budgeted expense and actual expense. A negative variance means that more money was spent on the service or goods than was budgeted for it. The cost variance formula is earned value – actual costs.

cost-benefit analysis The ratio of the number of costs (not just financial) and the number of benefits to help an organization decide on the value of an implementation or solution. These are sometimes called cost-benefit ratios (CBR).

cost-plus contract A contract that represents a set fee for the procured work plus a fee for the actual cost of the work. Some unscrupulous vendors try to use a cost plus a percentage of costs contract where they expect the project manager to pay for the cost of the materials plus a percentage fee for the materials. Cost-plus contracts are risky for buyers, as the vendor can drive the price up by actually wasting materials. There are some cost-plus contracts that include incentives and penalties if the vendor finishes early or late—though the project manager can add these terms to a fixed-fee contract.

crashing The addition of more resources to activities on the critical path in order to complete the project earlier. Crashing results in higher project costs.

critical path Shows the latest finish and the early finish for the project activities. The critical path will reveal the project duration. The critical path is represented in a project network diagram as one or more paths that equate to the longest duration of sequenced activities to reach the completion of all activities in the project.

critical path method (CPM) The most common approach to calculating when a project may finish. It uses “forward” and “backward” paths to reveal which activities are considered critical and which contain float. If activities on the critical path are delayed, the project end date will be delayed.

customers and end-user stakeholders These stakeholders could be internal to the organization or quite literally customers that purchase the deliverable the project creates.

daily standup A daily 15-minute timeboxed meeting, called a standup as the participants should stand, if able, rather than sit during the meeting to keep conversations brief and to the point.

date constraints There are three types of date constraints:

•   No earlier than This constraint specifies that a task may happen any time after a specific date, but not earlier than the given date.

•   No later than This constraint is deadline oriented. The task must be completed or must start by this date or else.

•   On this date This constraint is the most time oriented. There is no margin for adjustment, as the task must be completed or must start on this date, no sooner or later.

decision tree analysis A type of analysis that determines which of two decisions is best. The decision tree assists in calculating the value of the decision and determining which decision costs the least.

decoder A part of the communications model, a decoder is the inverse of the encoder. If a message is encoded, a decoder translates it back to a usable format.

defect log Escaped defects are any defects that leave the project environment and make it into production. Defects are documented in the defect log for resolution and tracked for their priority, ownership, and date of resolution.

definitive estimate This estimate is one of the most accurate. It is used late in the planning process and is associated with bottom-up estimates. The range of variance for the estimate can be −5 percent to +10 percent.

Delphi Technique A method to query experts anonymously on foreseeable risks and other factors within the project, phase, or component of the project. The results of the survey are analyzed and organized and then circulated to the experts. There can be several rounds of anonymous discussions with the Delphi Technique. The goal is to gain consensus on a given topic, and the anonymous nature of the process ensures that no one expert’s advice overtly influences the opinion of another participant.

demotivators An element of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory that employees are motivated or demotivated by effects within an organization. The hygiene factors are the expected benefits a company has to offer, such as insurance, vacation time, and other benefits. The presence of these elements is expected by the motivation seekers, and the absence of these elements has a negative impact.

design of experiments An approach that relies on statistical “what-if” scenarios to determine which variables within a project will result in the best outcome. It can also be used to eliminate a defect. The design of experiments approach is most often used on the product of the project, rather than on the project itself.

detailed variance report A detailed explanation of any quality, scope, cost, or schedule variance within the project.

DevOps A software development approach that combines the project of software development with the day-to-day operations of supporting existing software.

DevSecOps A software development approach similar to DevOps that combines software development, security, and day-to-day operational duties.

directive decision-making process The project manager makes the decision with little or no input from the project team. Directive decision-making is acceptable, and needed, in some instances, but it isolates the project manager from the project team.

discretionary dependencies The preferred order of activities. Project managers should adhere to the order at their discretion and should document the logic behind the ordering. Discretionary dependencies have activities happen in a preferred order because of best practices, conditions unique to the project work, or external events. Discretionary dependencies are also known as soft logic.

earned value (EV) The value of the work that has been completed and the budget for that work: EV = % Complete × BAC.

earned value management (EVM) Integrates scope, schedule, and cost to give an objective, scalable, point-in-time assessment of the project. EVM calculates the performance of the project and compares current performance against the plan. EVM can also be a harbinger of things to come. Results early in the project can predict the likelihood of the project’s success or failure.

effective listening The receiver is involved in the listening experience by paying attention to the speaker’s visual clues and paralingual intentions and by asking relevant questions.

encoder As part of the communications model, an encoder is the device or technology that packages the message to travel over the medium.

end-of-life (EOL) software When software is to be entirely replaced by a new version or new software, it is considered to be at its end-of-life stage.

enhance A positive risk response that tries to make the conditions just right for a positive risk to happen. For example, suppose the project manager could save a tremendous amount of time and project costs if the project manager were able to finish a particular milestone by a given date. To reach the milestone, the project manager adds extra resources to help the effort-driven work so that the team can complete the milestone by the specific date.

enterprise environmental factors Factors that describe the rules, policies, and governance the project manager must adhere to within the organization. The rules and policies of the organization may require the project manager to deal with a risk management department, follow particular risk analysis rules, or complete risk assessment forms. Always follow the rules of the organization.

enterprise resource planning (ERP) Software used to manage business activities, such as project management, procurement, accounting, and risk management.

epic A large user story in an agile project that can be broken down into smaller components and is too large to be wholly completed within one defined iteration of an agile project.

estimate at completion (EAC) A hypothesis of what the total cost of the project will be. Before the project begins, the project manager completes an estimate for the project deliverables based on the WBS. As the project progresses, there will likely be some variances between what the cost estimate was and what the actual cost is. The EAC is calculated to predict what the new estimate at completion will be.

estimate to complete (ETC) Represents how much more money is needed to complete the project work: ETC = EAC − AC.

evaluation criteria Criteria used to rate and score proposals from sellers. In some instances, such as a bid or quote, the evaluation criterion is focused just on the price the seller offers. In other instances, such as a proposal, the evaluation criteria can be multiple values: experience, references, certifications, and more.

executing The project plans are carried out, or executed; the project manager coordinates people and other resources to complete the plan.

expectancy theory Theory that people will behave on the basis of what they expect as a result of their behavior. In other words, people will work in relation to the expected reward for the work. This is also known as Vroom’s expectancy theory.

expert power A type of power in which the authority of the project manager comes from experience in the area that the project focuses on.

exploit A positive risk response that aims to take advantage of a positive risk. It aims to increase the probability of the risk event to 100 percent. Imagine, for example, that the IT project creates a by-product that could be sold to help offset the project costs. Or perhaps the project manager and the project team could take advantage of a slow business cycle to work on a project uninterrupted.

eXtreme Programming (XP) An agile project management approach that aims for high quality in software development. It has specific rules and ceremonies for its approach.

fast tracking Performing project phases in parallel that are normally done sequentially.

feasibility study A documented expression of what the research has told the project manager. This plan is written to help determine the validity of a proposed project, of a section of a project, or the scope of a given project. The feasibility study is divided into eight sections: executive summary, defined business problem or opportunity, requirements and purpose of the study, description of the options assessed, assumptions used in the study, audience impacted, financial obligations, and recommended action.

final project report The collection of all of the cumulative reports may serve as a final record of each phase’s work, with a few additions. It includes the project vision statement, the project proposal, the project plan, the WBS, the PND, meeting minutes, any Project Change Requests forms, all written notices relevant to the project deliverables, the client acceptance agreement, and the post-project audit.

finish no earlier than (FNET) constraint Semiflexible constraint that requires that a task be completed on or after a specified date.

finish no later than (FNLT) constraint Semiflexible constraint that requires that a task be completed on or before a specified date.

finish-to-finish (FF) tasks A finish-to-finish relationship specifies that the successor tasks cannot finish until the predecessor task finishes. An example is rolling out a new software package while users are in software training sessions. The new software should be installed and configured on their workstations by the time the training sessions end.

finish-to-start (FS) tasks These tasks are successors and cannot begin until the predecessor task is completed. An example is installing network cards before connecting PCs to the Internet.

fishbone/Ishikawa diagrams A cause analysis tool that shows the causal factors and the effect to be solved. The diagram looks somewhat like a fishbone, hence the name. Ishikawa, a Japanese quality engineer, is known for popularizing the chart.

fixed-fee contract A contract that provides a set price for the work defined in the statement of work and in the contract. Fixed fee contracts are generally a low-risk solution for the buyer, as any cost overruns go back to the vendor. Also known as a fixed-priced contract.

flexible constraints Constraints that do not have dates assigned to their activities and are bound only by their predecessor and successor activities. Use flexible constraints as much as possible.

flexible deadline A deadline that doesn’t assign an exact time for completion.

float The amount of time a task can be delayed without delaying the project completion. Technically, there are three different types of float: Free float is the total time a single activity can be delayed without delaying the early start of any successor activities. Total float is the total time an activity can be delayed without delaying project completion. Project float is the total time the project can be delayed without passing the customer’s expected completion date. Float is also known as slack.

flowchart A chart that illustrates how the parts of a system occur in sequence.

focus groups A type of stakeholder analysis that aims to gather requirements for the project. Stakeholders are led through a discussion about the opportunity or problem by an impartial moderator. A scribe or recorder keeps the minutes in the meeting, and then the results are analyzed. An average focus group has six to twelve participants. The participants can be considered homogenous if they all share the same characteristics, such as all salespeople. Or the project manager can use a heterogeneous group, where the participants are stakeholders with different backgrounds, such as users of a software application from different departments within the organization.

force majeure Often a clause in contracts to release the parties from obligations in the case of a powerful and unexpected event, such as a hurricane or other disaster.

forcing A decision-making approach in which the person with the power makes the decision. The decision made may not be the best decision for the project, but it’s fast. As expected, this autocratic approach does little for team development and is a win-lose solution. Used when the stakes are high and time is of the essence or if relationships are not important.

forecasting An educated estimate of how long the project will take to complete. It can also refer to how much the project may cost to complete.

formal acceptance The formal acceptance of a project’s deliverables is a process that is completed by the client of the project and the appropriate members of the project team. These acceptances are contingent on a project acceptance agreement.

formal power The type of power in which the project manager has been assigned by senior management to be in charge of the project.

forming This stage of team development allows the project team to come together and learn about each other. Project team members feel each other out, find out who’s who, and learn about other team members.

fully burdened workload The amount of work, in hours, required by the staff to complete each phase of the project.

functional decomposition This method simply takes a large problem and breaks it down into smaller, manageable components. While it sounds easy, it’s tricky. The project manager will break down the problem into as small of subcomponents as possible, so that each “subproblem” can be managed independent of the other problems. The project manager needs to link the components together so that one solution to a subproblem doesn’t adversely affect the solutions to other components in the decomposition.

functional structure An organizational structure that groups staff members according to their area of expertise (sales, marketing, construction, and so on). Functional structures require the project team members to report directly to the functional manager. In this type of structure, the project manager’s authority and decision-making ability is less than the functional manager’s.

future value A formula to calculate the future value of present money. The future value formula is PV × (1 + i)ⁿ, where i is the interest rate and n is the number of time periods.

Gantt chart A chart that allows a project manager to see the intersection of dates until completion and the tasks within a project. Henry Gantt, an engineer and social scientist, invented this method of tracking deliverables in 1917.

Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT) Conditional advancement, branching, and looping of activities based on probabilistic estimates. Activities within GERT are dependent on the results of other upstream activities.

hard logic The logical relationship between activities based on the type of work. For example, the foundation of a house must be created before the frame of the house can be built. This is also known as mandatory dependency.

hardware decommissioning When hardware has become old, outdated, or no longer serves a purpose in an organization, it is taken out of production and considered to be no longer viable.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Posits that there are two catalysts for workers: hygiene agents and motivating agents. Hygiene agents do nothing to motivate workers, but their absence demotivates them. Hygiene agents are the expectations all workers have: job security, paychecks, clean and safe working conditions, a sense of belonging, civil working relationships, and other basic attributes associated with employment. Motivating agents are components such as rewards, recognition, promotions, and other values that encourage individuals to succeed.

histogram A bar chart that shows the distribution of data; for example, the number of defects found per month, cost of different contractors, or the number of laptops in each region.

historical information Information the project may use from previous projects.

hygiene seekers An element of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory that employees are motivated or demotivated by effects within an organization. A hygiene seeker takes comfort in salary, management, and job security.

implementation tracking As tasks are completed on time or over time, the number of time units used can accurately display the impact on dependent tasks within the project.

indirect costs Costs attributed to the cost of doing business. Examples include utilities, office space, and other overhead costs.

inflexible constraints Constraints that have date values associated with them but are very rigid. Constraints that are inflexible require that activities happen on a specific date. Use these constraints very sparingly.

influence diagram A diagram that charts out a decision situation. It identifies all of the elements, variables, decisions, and objectives and how each factor may influence another.

informal acceptance The informal acceptance does not include a sign-off of the completion or even the acknowledgment of the deliverables. An example is a project that ends on deadline whether or not the deliverables are finished—such as a project to organize and build an application for a tradeshow demo. The tradeshow will happen regardless of the completion of the project.

initiating The process group that begins the project. The business needs are identified, and a product description is created. The project charter is written, and the project manager is selected.

integrated change control A project-wide method of researching and documenting the effect of change on the entire project. It reviews the effect of change in scope, schedule, costs, quality, human resources, communication, and procurement. When a scope change request is being considered, there should be communication between the project manager and the appropriate stakeholders.

integration phase The phase of the project when the project plan is put into action.

intellectual property Ownership of an approach, system, or idea that an individual or organization retains; examples include the approach taken in a software development project, software code, manuscripts, and inventions.

internal audience The stakeholders targeted within an organization that will utilize, see, support, or otherwise interact with a project solution. These individuals can see the solution from the customers’ perspective, notice problems or issues before the customers, or otherwise support the solution the project creates.

interview questions, closed Questions that must be answered with specific information. For example, “Have you ever created a batch file?” Or “What’s your birthday?”

interview questions, essay Questions that allow the candidate to tell the project manager information, and allow the project manager to listen and observe. For example, “Why are you interested in working on this project?”

interview questions, experience Questions that allow the project manager to see how a candidate has acted in past situations to predict how they may act in future situations that are similar. For example, “How did you react when a teammate did not complete a task on a past project and you had to do their work for them in order to complete your own? How was the situation resolved?”

interview questions, reactionary Questions that evolve from the candidate’s answers. When the project manager notices a gap or an inconsistency in an answer, use a follow-up question that focuses on the inconsistency without directly calling it a lie. This gives the candidate the opportunity to provide a better explanation or leaves the candidate floundering for an explanation. Reactionary questions also allow the project manager to learn more information that may be helpful on the project. For example, “You mentioned you had experience with Visual Basic. Do you also have a grasp on VBScript?”

interviewing Interviewing subject matter experts and project stakeholders is an approach to identify project requirements and risks on the current project based on the interviewees’ experience.

invitation for bid (IFB) A document from the buyer to the seller that requests the seller to provide a price for the procured product or service.

Ishikawa diagram See fishbone/Ishikawa diagram.

ISO 9000 An international standard that helps organizations follow their own quality procedures. ISO 9000 is not a quality system, but a method of following procedures created by an organization.

issue log All issues are documented in the issue log. The issue log requires the issue definition, date discovered, an assigned issue owner, updates, a deadline for resolution, and the actual date the issue was resolved.

issues Decisions that have yet to be made, in which there may be opposing sides and opinions. Issues are recorded in the issue log, where the issue owner is recorded and a date for resolution is determined.

IT project management The ability to balance the love for and implementation of technology while leading and inspiring the team members. This domain of project management focuses on technical solutions and includes the waterfall and agile approaches to completing projects.

job description Details the activities of a team role, the scope of the position, the responsibilities, and the working requirements of the team member who fills the role. A job description should be clear, concise, and easily summed up.

joint application development/joint application review sessions A project management approach that heavily involves the customer or end user in the software development approach through a series of workshops. The customers review the work completed and offer input and suggestions to the application development team.

Kanban Kanban means signboard and shows each task, usually on a sticky note, as it moves through each phase of the project to completion. This approach is often used in agile project management.

key performance indicators (KPIs) Objectives of the project; common KPIs are time, cost, and scope. These elements are measured for project performance and provide an overall picture of how well the project is performing.

lag The scheduled time between project tasks, or the amount of time a project task must wait before it can begin.

law of diminishing returns A law of economics, sometimes called the law of variable proportions, which grew from Thomas Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population, published in 1798. The law states that if one factor of production is increased while other factors remain constant, the overall returns will eventually decrease after a certain point.

lead The negative time added to a task to bring it closer to the project start date. The lead is calculated by subtracting time between activities.

lessons learned An ongoing documentation of things the project manager and project team have learned throughout the project. Lessons learned are supplied to other project teams and project managers to apply to their ongoing projects. Lessons learned are documented throughout the project, not just at the end of the project.

licensing, per connection A license is required for each workstation-to-server connection. This scheme allows a maximum number of connections to a server.

licensing, per station A license that covers the software application at the workstation where it is installed. Think of Microsoft Office installed on each workstation within an organization.

licensing, per station (server-based) This licensing method allows an unlimited number of connections to a server covered by the licensing plan. Each additional server would require its own licensing to allow connections to that server.

licensing, per usage This licensing plan allows a user to run an application for a preset number of days or a preset number of times, or charges the user a fee for each instance that the application is used.

macro project A project that takes more than 2,000 hours of implementation and/or more than $250,000 to complete. Thirty percent of the project time is allotted to project planning.

management by projects This approach characterizes organizations that manage their operations as projects. These project-centric entities can manage any level of their work as a project. They apply general business skills to each project to determine its value, efficiency, and, ultimately, return on investment.

management by walking around A method to manage quality and to allow yourself to be seen. Get out of the office and get into the working environment. The project manager doesn’t have to hover around the team members, but let them know the project manager is available, present, and interested in their work.

management reserve An artificial task that is added at the end of the project. The time allotted to the reserve is typically 10 to 15 percent of the total amount of time to complete all the tasks in a project. When a task runs over its allotted time, the overrun is applied to the management reserve at the end of the critical path rather than to each lagging task.

management summary reports Detail the overall status of the project, changes from the original plan, change in execution, or cost variances within the budget. These reports are created on an as-needed basis and are ideal for upper management.

managerial constraints Dependency relationships imposed because of a decision by management, which includes the project manager.

mandatory dependency The logical relationship between activities based on the type of work. For example, the foundation of a house must be created before the frame of the house can be built. This is also known as hard logic.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs A theory that states that there are five layers of needs for all humans: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and, the crowning jewel, self-actualization.

master service agreement An agreement between two parties that serves as a framework of what the overall terms and conditions will be. This allows the parties to get to work and quickly create contracts for future endeavors under the master service agreement. It is a type of umbrella agreement that provides the terms and conditions for future work.

matrix structures A type of organizational structure. There are three matrix structures: weak, balanced, and strong. The different structures are reflective of the project manager’s authority in relation to the functional manager’s authority.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs David McClelland developed his acquired-needs theory based on his belief that a person’s needs are acquired and develop over time. People’s needs are shaped by life experiences and circumstances. This theory is also known as the Three Needs Theory, because there are just three needs for each individual and one need is considered the driving motivation behind the actions people take. Depending on the person’s experiences, the order and magnitude of each need shifts the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y This theory states that X people are lazy, don’t want to work, and need to be micromanaged, whereas Y people are self-led, motivated, and strive to succeed.

medium As part of the communications model, this is the path the message takes from the sender to the receiver. The modality in which the communication travels typically refers to an electronic model, such as e-mail or a cell phone.

meeting coordinator An individual who runs the business of a meeting to keep the topics on schedule and according to the agenda.

meeting minutes A document that represents a record of a meeting, the problems and situations that were discussed, and documentation of the project as it progresses. Meeting minutes are an excellent method for keeping the team aware of what has already been discussed and settled, resolutions of problems, and proof of the attendees in the meeting.

metrics A standard of project measurement; often applied to cost, schedule, scope, quality, and performance.

micro project A project that takes fewer than 2,000 hours of implementation and/or less than $250,000 to complete. Approximately 25 percent of the project time is allotted to planning the project.

micromanage The negative approach to managing a subordinate’s work in a meddlesome, counterproductive manner.

milestones Represent the completion of significant tasks within a project’s schedule.

minimally viable product (MVP) A software product that has the smallest amount of features to satisfy the customer requirements, for use in production. MVP answers what is the fastest route to satisfy the requirements of the project for the customers to receive business value from the solution.

mitigation Reducing the probability or impact of a risk.

Monte Carlo analysis Process that predicts how scenarios may work out given any number of variables. It doesn’t actually create a specific answer, but offers a range of possible ones. When Monte Carlo is applied to a schedule, it can present, for example, the optimistic completion date, the pessimistic completion date, and the most likely completion date for each activity in the project.

motivation seekers An element of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory that states that employees are motivated or demotivated by effects within an organization. The effects a motivation seeker takes comfort in are achievement, recognition, the work, responsibility, and advancement.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory See Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory.

multifactor authentication Requires additional security measures, such as texting or e-mailing the user a one-time use code, facial recognition, or other challenges to prove their authenticity as a legitimate user.

must finish on (MFO) constraint An inflexible constraint that requires that a deadline-oriented task be completed on a specific date.

must start on (MSO) constraint An inflexible constraint that requires that a task begin on a specific date.

national security information As its name implies, this is secretive information governed by the country where the software is developed or released that may not be shared with certain parties or users. For example, U.S. government projects often include requirements for data security, security clearance, and audits of how the data in the software is stored, accessed, and continually secured.

need-to-know basis Not all information in a project is available to all users, such as pay rates, contract fees, human resource records, and other information. There is an ethical requirement of IT users to not access certain data, just because they may have the technical authority to access the data.

nondisclosure agreements (NDAs) Often part of the contractual terms between the buyer and seller, NDAs forbid the seller from discussing the details of the contracted work with others outside of the project or procurement engagement.

nonverbal communication Facial expressions, hand gestures, and body language that contribute to the message. Approximately 55 percent of communication is nonverbal.

norming A stage of team developement. Once control on the project team has been established, the project team’s focus shifts toward the project work. This is where people learn to work together.

on-premises solutions See cloud-based solutions vs. on-premises solutions.

operational definitions The quantifiable terms and values used to measure a process, activity, or work result. Operational definitions are also known as metrics.

operational expenses (OpEx) The normal day-to-day costs of doing business, such as rent, leases, payroll, utilities, and other business expenses. These are sometimes called indirect project expenses as they can’t be assigned directly to the cost of completing a project.

operational handoff At various stages of a project, the completed portions of the project scope leave the project and are entered into production. In some projects, operational handoff may happen throughout the project, while other projects may not have the operational transfer until all project scope components are completed.

operations management Managers of the core business area such as design, manufacturing, and product development. Operations managers oversee and direct the salable goods and services of the organization.

organizational constraints Within the organization, there may be multiple projects that are loosely related. The completion of another project may be a key milestone for your own project to continue.

organizational process assets Historical information, templates, software, and other project management support materials that are provided to the project manager to help plan and manage the current project.

Ouchi’s Theory Z Posits that workers are motivated by a sense of commitment, opportunity, and advancement. Workers will work if they are challenged and motivated.

paired programming Used in XP and calls for one person to program and the other person to watch the development for errors. The two programmers change roles periodically.

paralingual Relating to the pitch, tone, and inflections in the sender’s voice that affect the message being sent.

parametric modeling A mathematical model based on known parameters used to predict the cost and time required for a project. The parameters in the model can vary based on the type of work being done. A parameter can be the cost per cubic yard, time per unit, and so on.

Pareto diagram A diagram that illustrates problems by assigned cause, from largest to smallest, in a histogram and is related to Pareto’s Law: 80 percent of the problems come from 20 percent of the issues (this is also known as the 80/20 principle).

Parkinson’s Law Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.

participative decision-making process In this ideal model, all team members contribute to the discussion and decision process. Through compromise, experience, and brainstorming, the project team and the project manager can create a buzz of energy, excitement, and synergy to arrive at the best possible solution for a decision.

peer review The process of allowing team members to review each other’s work.

performance testing Software development projects are required to test the solution to see how well the code works in a simulated production environment. These tests can evaluate the performance of the network, hardware, software, and data to predict how well the actual production environment will interact with the solution, which can set expectations for the software performance or show that additional work is needed to meet performance requirements.

performing The project team has settled into their roles and they focus on completing the project work as a team. During this stage of team development, a synergy is developed; this is the stage at which high-performance teams come into play.

personal health information A term commonly interchanged with protected health information. See protected health information (PHI).

personally identifiable information (PII) Any data that can be used to personally identify a specific individual. This classification is used in data security to protect what should be personal and private information from unethical hackers, users, or organizations. Examples include Social Security numbers, phone numbers, addresses, or photos.

PERT chart A Program Evaluation and Review Technique chart can graphically illustrate tasks, their durations, and their dependency on other tasks in the work unit.

PERT estimate The Program Evaluation and Review Technique is ideal for time and cost estimates. PERT uses a weighted average to predict how long the activity may take. PERT uses the formula of “pessimistic plus the optimistic, plus four times the most likely, divided by six.” It’s divided by six because of one count for pessimistic, one count for optimistic, and four counts for most likely.

phase A portion of the project that typically must be completed before the next phase can begin. Each phase has a set deadline.

phase gate estimating Dividing a project into phases and extracting cost estimates for each phase of the project. This cost approach helps the project team get to work on immediate deliverables as they work toward milestones at the end of each phase. The immediate actions of a project should be foreseeable, as opposed to actions that will happen way off in the future.

phase gate review In a waterfall project, a review of the project performance, product performance, and financial performance that is conducted before allowing the project to move forward. If the project passes the defined reviews, it is allowed to move into the next phase of the project. If the project doesn’t pass the review, corrections to the project are needed. If project performance doesn’t meet a threshold, it’s possible the project could be cancelled.

physical resources Equipment, tools, technology, and facilities. Resource management includes human resources and physical resources.

pilot team A collection of users who agree to test the project deliverables before the rest of the organization sees the implementation. Their input to the project allows the project manager to realize if the project deliverables are on target or not.

planned value (PV) The worth of the work that should be completed by a specific time in the project schedule.

planning group This process group is iterative. All planning throughout the project is handled within the planning process group.

PMBOK Guide The book, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, which includes all knowledge and practices within the endeavor of project management.

points of escalation The project manager may have limited authority over some project decisions that exceed a dollar or schedule variance and must be escalated to management or a project steering committee. Escalation points can be assigned to risk, issues, human resources, and other project factors.

portfolio review board This group of stakeholders is responsible for determining which projects are worthy of the company’s capital. The board defines the governance of projects and programs within an organization and oversees the selection of the projects based on a number of factors such as return on investment, project value, risk to reward of proposed projects, and predicted financial outcomes of launching a new project.

post-implementation support Once the project is completed there may be a post-implementation warranty or service period where members of the project will continue to support the solution for the customer.

postmortem Also referred to as post-project audit. See post-project audit.

post-project audit The purpose of this audit is to analyze the completed project, the effectiveness of the project team, the success of the project, the value of the deliverables, and the overall approval from the clients.

precedence diagramming method (PDM) This method requires the project manager to evaluate each work unit and determine which tasks are its successors and which tasks are its predecessors to create the PND.

predetermined client When one piece of software must interact with another piece of software, such as a web browser calling for an e-mail application, the target e-mail application is the predetermined client. The web browser needs to know which specific software it should open, such as Microsoft Outlook or Google Gmail. Some solutions, for example Microsoft Explorer, will specifically call the Outlook client.

prequalified vendor Organizations may have a preferred vendors list of prequalified vendors the project managers can choose from for contract work in the project.

problem management meeting A meeting to resolve problems as they arise on a project.

problem solving This conflict resolution approach confronts the problem head-on and is the preferred method of conflict resolution. Problem solving (aka confronting) calls for additional research to find the best solution for the problem. Problem solving is a win-win solution. It can be used if there is time to work through and resolve the issue, and it works to build relationships and trust.

process boundaries Identify where a process begins and where a process stops. By understanding the process boundaries, the project manager can document what things are needed for a particular process to begin and what conditions must be true for that process to stop.

process configuration identification The project manager identifies all of the components within the process. The project manager documents how a process is completed, what the process interfaces are, and what each process in the workflow accomplishes.

process groups The five process groups—initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing—make up projects and project phases. These five process groups have sets of actions that move the project forward toward completion.

process metrics The project manager can measure a process’s speed, cost, efficiency, throughput, or whatever metric is most appropriate for the type of work the process is participating in.

procurement The process of a buyer soliciting, selecting, and paying for products or services from a seller.

procurement audit The successes and failures within the procurement processes are reviewed from procurement planning through contract administration. The intent of the audit is to learn from what worked and what did not work during the procurement processes.

procurement management plan A subsidiary project plan that documents the decisions made in the procurement planning processes. It specifies how the remaining procurement activities will be managed.

product acceptance criteria The project scope defines either directly or by reference the technical requirements, the expected deliverables, and/or the detailed design documents that constitute the product deliverables. The product acceptance criteria clearly define what the project must create in order for the project to be accepted by the customer and for the project to be considered completed.

product manager An organizational role that is responsible for a product, such as a software product. The product manager is responsible for the selection of software and its requirements and oversees future releases of the product to the organization.

product owner A scrum project management role that oversees the features and functions of a solution, prioritizes the product backlog, and approves or declines changes to the list of features in the product backlog. The product owner is available to work with the development team to answer questions and clarify requirements for the product.

product scope The attributes and characteristics of the deliverables the project is creating.

program A collection of related projects working in alignment to realize benefits that the organization could not realize if the projects were managed independently of one another.

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) A scheduling tool that uses a weighted average formula to predict the length of activities and the project. Specifically, the PERT formula is (O + 4ML + P)/6.

program manager Oversees all of the orchestrated projects in their program. If a project is operating within a program, then the program manager is a stakeholder.

progress reports Reports that provide current information on the project work completed to date.

progressive elaboration The process of providing or discovering greater levels of detail as the project moves toward completion.

project A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.

project acceptance agreement A document that is typically written very early in the project timeline and in alignment with the defined project deliverables. The document is a clearly written explanation of what qualifies for an acceptance of the deliverables. These agreements are common in application development projects and often consist of a checklist of the required features of the project.

project calendar A calendar that defines the working times for the project. For example, a project may require the project team to work nights and weekends so as not to disturb the ongoing operations of the organization during normal working hours. In addition, the project calendar accounts for holidays, work hours, and work shifts the project will cover.

Project Change Request form Formalizes requests from anyone to the project manager. It requires the requestor not only to describe the change but also to supply a reason why this change is appropriate and needed. Once the requestor has completed the form, the project manager can determine whether the change is indeed necessary, should be rejected, or should be delayed until the completion of the current project.

project charter Similar to the project goal, but more official, more detailed, and in line with the organization’s vision and goals.

project closeout report Often used in predictive projects to document the successes and failures of the project and to provide final information on the cost, schedule, and other key performance indicators of the project.

project closure meeting A final meeting to discuss the project performance and its accomplishments.

project closure phase A phase of project management that requires proof of the project deliverables, approval from management, and satisfaction from the customers or end users.

project constraints Anything that limits the project manager’s options. Predetermined budgets, deadlines, resources, preferred vendors, and required technology are all examples of constraints. Project management always has three constraints: time, cost, and scope—sometimes called the Triple Constraints of Project Management. The project manager should identify and document all of the known constraints.

project control phase This phase of project management is a continuous cycle to oversee the project. It allows the project manager to manage task reporting, team meetings, reassignment of resources, change, and quality through software, communications, and the project team.

project coordinator A role that has limited authority over the project, works with the functional manager, and may serve under a more experienced project manager. The project manager is often called a project coordinator in a functional environment.

project dashboard Like a car’s dashboard, a project dashboard visualizes the current project performance. It can automate controls, reports, and communications. Common components of the project dashboard include cost and schedule performance, burndown charts, and status of each project task.

project deliverables The end result of the project. They are what the project produces.

project exclusions The project scope statement must define the boundaries of the project to communicate what will not be included in the project deliverable. It’s important to define what’s excluded so that there’s no confusion when the project manager wants to close the project and the project customers are expecting more deliverables.

project execution Consists of the project team completing the project work according to the project plan.

project genesis The origin of the project; a reaction to a need or an idea to improve operations within an organization. This realization of an opportunity to fulfill a need is the concept of the project.

project goal The clearly stated result a project should meet or deliver.

project information center A centralized room that contains a collection of all materials related to the project. The size of the project and the available real estate within an office building will determine the ability to create a project information center. This could also be cloud-based to host project information.

project kickoff A meeting or an event to introduce the project, the management backing the project, the project manager, and the team members. It should be casual but organized and used as a mechanism to assign ownership of the project to the team.

project life cycle The project life cycle is unique to each project and is composed of the unique phases of a project.

project management information system (PMIS) Typically a computer program that assists with project management activities, recordkeeping, and forecasting.

project management life cycle The project management life cycle is composed of five process groups: initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing.

project management office (PMO) Centralizes and coordinates the management of projects within an organization, line of business, or department. PMOs can vary by organization, though most offer project management support, guidance, and direction for projects within their business domain. It’s not unusual for a PMO to direct the actual project management of a project.

project manager The individual accountable for all aspects of a project. The project manager is a stakeholder for the project and is responsible for developing the project plans, keeping the project on track, monitoring and controlling the project, and communicating the project status and performance.

project network diagram (PND) A fluid mapping of the work to be completed. PNDs allow the project manager and the project team to tinker with the relationships between tasks and create alternative solutions to increase productivity, profitability, and the diligence of a project.

project planning phase The cornerstone of a successful project. The project manager and project team must identify the required activities and estimate the time required to complete the activities in order to reach the project goal.

project resources Employees, contractors, or equipment used on a project.

project scope The defined range of deliverables a project will produce. The project scope is concerned with the work, and only the required work, necessary to complete the project.

project scope statement Defines all of the deliverables the project will create, the boundaries of the project, and the work that the project team will need to complete in order to create the project deliverables. This document is based on the project requirements, the feasibility study, the business goals and objectives, and the business case document.

project sponsor A person in the organization who has the authority to grant the project manager power over the project resources, assign a project budget, and support the presence of the project. This person also signs the project charter to launch the project officially and assign the project manager to the project.

project status report Often a weekly report on how the project is performing on key performance indicators, accomplishments in the project, and goals for the project work over the next week. The report is distributed to key project stakeholders, such as management, sponsors, the project steering committee, and customers.

project steering committee A group of managers, executives, customers, and other stakeholders that oversees project decisions. Some decisions, such as costs and schedule changes, are escalated to the project steering committee.

project team People who work on planning and executing the project plan. Depending on the organization and the staffing management plan, the project team may work full time or part time on the project. Team members may intermittently work on the project work as the plan warrants or be assigned to the project manager for the duration of the project.

project vision In project management terms, the ability to see the project deliverables clearly and recognize the actions required to produce them.

projectized structure An organizational structure in which the project manager has the greatest amount of authority. The project team is assigned to the project on a full-time basis. When the project is complete, the project team members move on to other assignments within the organization.

Projects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2) Often used in the UK and Europe, PRINCE2 is a structured project management approach that segments the project work into defined stages. PRINCE2, like the Project Management Professional (PMP), is a certification program.

protected health information (PHI) Addresses privacy concerns for medical patients. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule provides patient privacy rights that patient health information cannot be shared without the patient’s consent.

purchase order A unilateral form of a contract where the purchasing organization and the vendor have an agreement for the rate and cost of materials and services.

purpose statement A statement indicating why the research was initiated and reflecting the proposed project.

qualitative risk analysis An examination and prioritization of the risks based on their probability of occurring and their impact on the project if they do occur. Qualitative risk analysis guides the risk reaction process.

quality assurance (QA) A process in which the overall project performance is evaluated to ensure the project meets the relevant quality standards.

quality audit A process used to confirm that the quality processes are performing correctly on the current project. The quality audit determines how to make things better for the project and other projects within the organization. Quality audits measure the project’s ability to maintain the expected level of quality.

quality control (QC) An inspection-driven process in which the work results are monitored to see if they meet relevant quality standards.

quality management plan Document that describes how the project manager and the project team will fulfill the quality policy. In an ISO 9000 environment, the quality management plan is referred to as the project quality system.

quality policy The formal policy an organization follows to achieve a preset standard of quality. The quality policy of the organization may follow a formal approach, such as ISO 9000, Six Sigma, or total quality management (TQM), or it may have its own direction and approach. The project team should either adapt the quality policy of the organization to guide the project implementation or create its own policy if one does not exist within the performing organization.

quantitative risk analysis A numerical assessment of the probability and impact of the identified risks. Quantitative risk analysis also creates an overall risk score for the project.

quote (or quotation) A document from the seller to the buyer in response to the buyer’s request for quote (RFQ). Quotes are used when price is the determining factor in the decision-making process.

RACI chart A chart that uses the legend of Responsible, Accountable, Consult, and Inform: the first letter of each responsibility spells RACI. This is a type of responsibility assignment matrix (RAM).

real-time, multi-authoring editing software A software solution that allows multiple people to edit and view the project work in real-time. The software provides for live collaboration by multiple people as the solution is being created.

receiver As part of the communications model, the receiver is the recipient of the message.

referent power Power that is present when the project team is attracted to, or wants to work on the project with, the project manager. Referent power also exists when the project manager references another, more powerful person, such as the CEO.

regression planning When a change is approved for the project there may also be a regression, aka rollback or fallback, plan to define how to undo the change if the change creates risks or issues within the project.

regression testing After completing a change to software, a regression test confirms the added change didn’t break the existing code in the solution.

request for bid (RFB) Like an invitation for bid, this is a document sent from the buyer to the seller with specific requirements on the product or service to be purchased. The buyer only wants a price for the product or services the vendor is selling.

request for information (RFI) A formal request from the buyer to the seller for additional information about goods and services the seller may provide. It’s not an official sign of business to come but is often a starting point of research to start the procurement processes.

request for proposal (RFP) A formal request from an organization to a prospective vendor or vendors to create a proposal for the work to be completed and provide a cost estimate. An RFP does not guarantee anyone the job; it simply formalizes the proceedings of the selection process.

request for quote (RFQ) A document from the buyer to the seller asking the seller to provide a price for the procured product or service.

requirements traceability matrix (RTM) A table that tracks each requirement through each phase of the project’s stages to completion and implementation.

residual risks Risks that are left over after mitigation, transference, and avoidance. These generally are accepted risks. Management may elect to add contingency costs and time to account for the residual risks within the project.

resource calendar Shows when resources, such as project team members, consultants, and subject matter experts, are available to work on the project. The resource calendar takes into account vacations, other commitments within the organization, restrictions on contracted work, overtime issues, and so on.

resource constraint Describes a situation where a project may need additional resources but doesn’t have access to the resources—for example, a particular type of equipment, a particular project team member, or a facility such as a training room.

resource histogram A bar chart reflecting when individual employees, groups, or communities are involved in a project. It is often used by management to see when employees are most or least active in a project.

resource leveling heuristics A method to flatten the schedule when resources are overallocated or allocated unevenly. Resource leveling can be applied in different methods to accomplish different goals. One of the most common methods is to ensure that workers are not overextended on activities.

resource pool An organization’s potential team members that can join a project based on their skillsets, availability, and experience.

resources Resources can be both workers and physical objects such as bandwidth, faster computers, or leased equipment.

retrospective The final meeting or ceremony in a scrum iteration that allows the product owner, scrum master, and development team to discuss the success and failures of the last iteration and how the team can work more effectively and efficiently in the next iteration of the project.

return on investment (ROI) The attitude that IT projects are not an expense but an investment that will allow an organization to become more profitable.

reward power The project manager’s authority to reward the project team.

risk An unplanned event that can have a positive or negative influence on the project’s success.

risk database A database of recognized risks. The planned response and the outcome of the risk should be documented and recorded in an organization-wide risk database. The risk database can serve other project managers as historical information. Over time, the risk database can become a risk lessons learned program.

risk management plan A subsidiary project plan for determining how risks will be identified, how quantitative and qualitative analyses will be completed, how risk response planning will happen, how risks will be monitored, and how ongoing risk management activities will occur throughout the project life cycle.

risk register A document that defines each risk event, its characteristics, signs that the risk may be occurring, any responses for the risk event, and the risk’s eventual outcome in the project.

risk report A report that communicates pending risks, risks that have occurred, risk responses, and the effectiveness of the risk response.

roles and responsibilities matrix A method to identify all of the roles within a project and the associated responsibilities to the project work. This matrix is an excellent way to identify the needed roles of the project participants, identify what actions they’ll need to be able to perform in the project, and ultimately determine if the project has all of the roles to complete the identified responsibilities.

root cause analysis A study of the effect that’s being experienced with a determination of the causal factors of the effect. This is one of the purest forms of analysis, and the results are often graphed in a cause-and-effect diagram. The project manager will also use this approach in quality control.

rough order of magnitude This estimate is “rough” and is used during the initiating processes and in top-down estimates. The range of variance for the estimate can be −25 percent to +75 percent.

run chart A line chart of data plotted over time. Run charts can be used to show funds spent, tasks completed, quality control inspection scores, or performance on other key performance indicators such as time or costs.

runaway project A project that starts out well and then gains speed, momentum, and scope, causing budget overages and increased man-hours, and possibly hurting the project manager’s reputation or career. The biggest element of a runaway project is the budget.

Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe) An agile project management approach that has specific activities, workflows, meetings, and approval mechanisms. It is an approach, like scrum or eXtreme Programming.

scales of probability and impact Each risk is assessed according to its likelihood and its impact. There are two approaches to ranking risks: Cardinal scales identify the probability and impact by a numerical value, ranging from 0.01 as very low to 1.0 as certain. Ordinal scales identify and rank the risks from very high to very unlikely.

scatter chart A diagram that tracks the relationship between two variables within a project. The closer the two variables track together on the scatter diagram, the more likely the variables are related and can influence each other (for example, maintenance on a piece of equipment and improved quality in outputs from the maintained equipment).

schedule management plan A subsidiary plan that details how the schedule will be created and how changes to the schedule may be allowed. This plan also defines how the actual changes themselves will be managed and how the changes may affect other areas of the project.

schedule performance index (SPI) Reveals the efficiency of work. The closer the quotient is to 1, the better: SPI = earned value/planned value.

schedule variance Describes the difference between the earned value of the project work and the planned value of the project work. Schedule variances often prompt the project manager to create a schedule variance report explaining the variance in the project. The formula for schedule variance is earned value – planned value.

scheduler A special project management role. This person works with the project team, the project manager, and management to create, monitor, and control the project schedule. The team will meet regularly with the scheduler to provide updates on project work and progress.

scope creep A process that happens when a project manager allows small changes to enter into the project scope without formal approval. Eventually the scope of the project swells to include more deliverables than the project budget or team is able to deal with.

scope management plan A plan that details how the project scope will be created, how the WBS will be defined, how the scope will be protected from change, where changes to the scope may be permitted, and how the management of approved changes will be handled.

scope statement A document that describes the work, and only the required work, to meet the project objectives. The scope statement establishes a common vision among the project stakeholders to establish the point and purpose of the project work. It is used as a baseline against which all future project decisions are made to determine if proposed changes or work results are aligned with expectations.

scope verification The process of the project customer accepting the project deliverables. Scope verification happens at the end of each project phase and at the end of the project. Scope verification is the process of ensuring the deliverables the project creates are in alignment with the project scope.

scrum A type of agile project management. Scrum uses a prioritized product backlog of requirements to determine which requirements will be created during the next sprint of the project work. Scrum has special rules, ceremonies, and resources that traditional, predictive project management does not use.

scrum master An agile project role that gets the team the information and supplies they need in the project, confirms everyone in the project is following the agile rules, protects the team from interruptions, and works to remove obstacles or blockers from the team’s progress.

secondary risks Risks that stem from risk responses. For example, the response of transference may call for hiring a third party to manage an identified risk. A secondary risk caused by the solution is the failure of the third party to complete its assignment as scheduled. Secondary risks must be identified, analyzed, and planned for just as any identified risk must be.

semiflexible constraints Constraints that have a date value associated with them but require that the task begin or end by the specified date. Use these constraints sparingly.

sender As part of the communications model, the sender is the person or group delivering the message to the receiver.

sharing A positive risk response that allows the project team to partner or team with another entity to realize an opportunity that the team may not have been able to realize on their own. Sharing examples are teaming agreements, joint ventures, partnerships, and special-purpose companies.

short message service (SMS) Text messages shared over mobile phones, tablets, or other telephone devices. These messages aren’t encrypted.

should-cost estimates Estimates created by the performing organization to predict what the cost of the procured product should be. If there is a significant difference between what the organization has predicted and what the sellers have proposed, either the statement of work was inadequate or the sellers have misunderstood the requirements. Should-cost estimates are also known as independent estimates.

simulation An exercise that allows the project team to play “what-if” games without affecting any areas of production.

single source A specific seller that the performing organization prefers to contract with.

smoke testing Preliminary testing to confirm that the major components and functions of a software solution are working. Smoke testing is done after a software build and before the software is released into production.

smoothing A conflict resolution method that smooths out the conflict by minimizing the perceived size of the problem. It is a temporary solution, but it can calm team relations and temper boisterous discussions. Smoothing may be acceptable when time is of the essence or any of the proposed solutions would work.

soft logic The preferred order of activities, aka discretionary dependency. Project managers should use these relationships at their discretion and document the reasoning behind making soft logic decisions. Discretionary dependencies allow activities to happen in a preferred order because of best practices, conditions unique to the project work, or external events.

software development life cycle (SDLC) A waterfall project management approach that defines the stages the software development project will follow. The stages are planning, analysis, design, implementation, and maintenance. This is a predictive project management approach.

sprint A component of agile project management. Sprints are executing phases in the agile project management approach and can last from two to four weeks in duration.

sprint review A demonstration of what the development team has created in the iteration for the project customers. Only completed items of the sprint can be demonstrated. The meeting allows the development team to hear feedback from the project customers.

staffing management plan A subsidiary project plan that determines how project team members will be brought on to and released from the project. This plan is useful if the project does not require the project team members to be on the project for the duration of the project schedule.

stakeholder management strategy The project will likely have negative, neutral, and positive stakeholders. The stakeholder management strategy defines how the project manager will bolster support for the project, fend off the negative stakeholders, alleviate fears and concerns, and promote the support for the project. The project manager will use the stakeholder management strategy along with the project’s communications management plan.

stakeholders The individuals, groups, and communities that have a vested interest in the outcome of a project. Examples include the project manager, the project team, the project sponsor, customers, clients, vendors, and communities.

standard costs The budget department may have preassigned standard costs for labor to do certain tasks like programming lines of code, installing hardware, or adding new servers. This preassignment of values helps the project manager estimate labor costs of a project easily and without having to justify each labor expense as a line item.

STAR method One of the best interview methods, especially when dealing with potential integrators. STAR is an acronym for situation, task, action, result.

start no earlier than (SNET) constraint This semiflexible constraint requires that a task begin no earlier than a specific date.

start no later than (SNLT) constraint This semiflexible constraint requires that a task begin by a specific date at the latest.

start-to-finish (SF) tasks These rare tasks require that the predecessor doesn’t begin until the successor finishes. This relationship could be used with accounting incidents. For example, the predecessor task is to physically count all of the network jacks that have been installed—once they have been installed.

start-to-start (SS) tasks These tasks are usually closely related in nature and should be started, but not necessarily completed, at the same time. An example is planning for the physical implementation of a network and determining each network’s IP addressing configurations. Each task is closely related and should be done in tandem with other tasks.

statement of work (SOW) A document that fully describes the work to be completed, the product to be supplied, or both. The SOW becomes part of the contract between the buyer and the seller. The SOW is typically created as part of the procurement planning process and is used by the seller to determine whether it can meet the project’s requirements.

statistical sampling A process of choosing a percentage of results for inspection. Statistical sampling can reduce the costs of quality control.

status reports Reports that provide current information on the project cost, budget, scope, and other relevant information.

status review meetings Regularly scheduled meetings to record the status of the project work. These commonly employed meetings provide a formal avenue for the project manager to query the team on the status of its work, to record delays and slippage, and to forecast what work is about to begin.

storming A stage of team development marked by a struggle for project team control and momentum of who’s going to lead the project team. It is during this phase that people figure out the hierarchy of the team and the informal roles of team members.

stress testing A software development test to see how much stress the solution can manage—often beyond the normal performance expectations the solution will experience in production.

subteams Project teams in a geographically diverse project. Each team on the project in each site is a subteam. On a larger project, subteams can be created for different disciplines used within the larger project.

SWOT analysis An approach that examines the project based on its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to test where the project could fail and where the project could improve. SWOT is a great technique to use on resources the project managers have not used before or on requirements that the project manager and the project team haven’t tried before.

synchronous communication Communication that happens in real-time, such as a phone call.

system or process flowcharts Show the relation between components and how the overall process works. They are useful for identifying risks between system components.

task list A list of the major steps required from the project’s origin to its conclusion. A task list is created after the technology has been selected and before the project manager creates the implementation plan. The task list is based on the work packages within the work breakdown structure.

team leaders Each subteam has a team leader who reports directly to the project manager and oversees the activities of the team members on the subteam.

terms of reference (TOR) Provides the terms of how the project, team, or organization will operate and sets the framework and boundaries for the project. Terms of reference can be used for project teams, vendors, and organizations.

testers/quality assurance (QA) Software development role that applies performance and security tests to the software solution to confirm that the software is of quality, meets expectations, and is secure before the software may move forward to operational transfer to production.

three-point estimating An estimating approach that uses worst-case, most likely, and optimistic approaches to create an average cost or time duration for a project component.

tiered structure A structure in which the deliverables are released over multiple dates, allowing the IT project manager to agree to meet new requirements for the project scope.

time and material (T&M) billing method Most technology integrators like to bill time and materials because there may be some additional problem discovered in the midst of the project that can result in the vendor working extra hours to solve it. T&M contracts should have a not-to-exceed (NTE) clause to contain costs.

time-tracking tools Software and hardware solutions that track task completion time. Can be used for billing, payroll, and performance analysis.

to-complete performance index (TCPI) A formula used to forecast the likelihood of a project to achieve its goals based on what’s happening in the project right now. There are two different formulas for the TCPI, depending on what the project manager wants to accomplish. To see if the project can meet the budget at completion, use this formula: TCPI = (BAC − EV)/(BAC − AC). To see if the project can meet the newly created estimate at completion, use this version of the formula: TCPI = (BAC − EV)/(EAC − AC).

top-down estimating A technique that bases the current project’s estimate on the total cost of a similar project. A percentage of the similar project’s total cost may be added to or subtracted from the total, depending on the size of the current project.

total budgeted costs The amount of dollars budgeted for the project prior to the start of the project implementation phase. This is the same as budget at completion (BAC).

total quality management (TQM) A process that has all employees within an organization working to fulfill their customers’ needs while also working to increase productivity. TQM stems from Dr. W. Edwards Deming’s management principles, which the Japanese adopted after WWII. In the United States, these principles were readily adopted in the 1980s after proof of their success in Japan.

total slack The total time an activity can be delayed without delaying project completion.

trade secrets An organization’s private information that is related to a product the organization owns, such as the creation process, a recipe, or underlying code in a software solution.

transference A response to risks in which the responsibility and ownership of the risk is transferred to another party (for example, through insurance).

transition plan/release plan A plan that can help ease the transfer of the project deliverables from the project manager to the operations of the organization. This plan defines several things for both the project manager and the organization: transition dates, ownership, training, extended support, and warranties.

trend analysis Using past results to predict future performance.

triggers Warning signs or symptoms that a risk has occurred or is about to occur. An example is a vendor failing to complete their portion of the project as scheduled.

unit price The price of one unit of a product or service; for example, cost per laptop or cost per hour. This is used in parametric estimating to predict the price of a project.

unit testing Testing the smallest testable part of a software solution for conformance to requirements. Unit testing is usually performed by the software developers and testers.

upper management The chief executive officers of an organization, such as the CEO, CIO, and COO.

usability laboratory A place where the project team can test the technology prior to implementing it in production.

user acceptance testing (UAT) The final testing process before a software solution goes live in production. UAT aims to confirm that the final build and solution performs as expected according to the project requirements and product scope of the project.

utility function A person’s willingness to accept risk.

value-added change A change that positively affects the project deliverables. The cost or schedule costs incurred by the change may be less than the value the change will contribute to the project or its deliverables.

variance The difference between what was planned and what was experienced; typically used for costs and schedules.

variance at completion (VAC) The difference between the budget at completion (BAC) and the estimate at completion (EAC); its formula is VAC = BAC − EAC.

velocity chart Shows the amount of user stories the agile project team has completed in each iteration over the project life. The chart can also show how much total work the team has completed over time and how much work remains in the product backlog to be completed.

version control tool A software solution that controls, tracks, and provides a record of changes to software solutions to ensure that all team members are working on the most current build of the code.

virtual team A team composed of geographically dispersed project team members. Communication demands increase when managing virtual teams.

Vroom’s expectancy theory See expectancy theory.

war room A centralized office or locale for the project manager and the project team to work on the project. It can house information on the project, including documentation and support materials. It allows the project team to work in close proximity.

warranty period After the project has been completed, there is often a predefined period of time where the performing organization is responsible for their solution should there be any bugs, defects, or other performance issues.

waterfall A predictive project management approach where the stages of the project are predefined and the flow of the work moves from the top of the flow through each stage to the final stage of the project.

whiteboard A physical board or software to draw solutions, facilitate a conversation, or illustrate a key idea.

withdrawal A conflict resolution method that is used when the issue is not important or the project manager is outranked. The project manager pushes the issue aside for later resolution. It can also be used as a method for cooling down. The conflict is not resolved, and it is considered a yield-lose solution.

work authorization system A tool that can control the organization, sequence, and official authorization to begin a piece of the project work.

work breakdown structure (WBS) A deliverable-oriented collection of project components. Work that isn’t in the WBS isn’t in the project. The point of the WBS is to organize and define the project scope.

work breakdown structure (WBS) dictionary A reference tool to explain the WBS components, the nature of the work package, the assigned resources, and the time and billing estimates for each element.

work breakdown structure (WBS) template A master WBS that is used in organizations as a starting point in defining the work for a particular project. This approach is recommended, as most projects in an organization are similar in the project life cycles, and the approach can be adapted to fit a given project.

work unit A chunk of work that must be completed to ensure a phase ends on schedule so that the next phase can begin.

workaround An unplanned response to a risk that has occurred when there is no contingency plan in place.

workshops One-day or multiple-day events, often held offsite, that focus on gathering requirements, writing the project management plan, or writing user stories in an agile project management approach.

zero-based budgeting The budget to be created must always start at the number zero rather than factoring new expenses into a budget from a similar project.