NOTES

Chapter 1

1. Weingarten (2007). This story was also used as an introduction to the book The Invisible Gorilla and Other Ways Our Intuitions Deceive Us by Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons (2009). The authors, however, used it to illustrate “inattentional blindness”—that is, the phenomenon that people miss significant things right in front of their very eyes when focusing on something else, such as on their way to work. I doubt that it would have made a difference in their judgments if the people focused on Bell.

2. Litzmann (1927), p. 111.

3. See Bunderson (2003), p. 559; Murphy (2007), p. 326 with further references.

4. Tsui & Barry (1986), p. 586; Judge & Ferris (1993), p. 97; Ferris & Judge (1991).

5. Sugrue (1999).

6. For a more detailed analysis, see Morris (1999), p. 55.

7. Tetlock (2005). Further developed by Tetlock, Mellers, Rohrbaugh, & Chen (2014); Mellers et al. (2015).

8. Bunderson (2003), p. 559.

9. According to these results we are totally unable to assess others’ abilities: Cook (1939); Gurnee (1934); Laird & Remmers (1924); Pintner (1918); according to them we are at least better than chance: Anderson (1921); Gaskill, Fenton & Porter (1927); even more optimistic: Ambady & Rosenthal (1992); for a good overview: Reynolds & Gifford (2001, p. 187–188) and Murphy et al. (2003, p. 486).

Research mostly focused on whether we are able to properly assess our conversation partner’s state, especially emotions such as fear (e.g. Hall & Bernieri, 2001). When traits were rated, the focus was more on aspects such as a tendency to depression or—closer to competence—credibility (e.g. Ambady & Rosenthal, 1992; see Murphy et al., 2003, for a discussion).

10. D. E. Rosenthal (1976), p. 260. Most leading law firms and consultancies use the “up-or-out” system, also known as the “Cravath System.” The prestigious New York City law firm Cravath, Swaine, & Moore introduced this system in the early 20th century: young lawyers were hired with the clear option of either becoming a partner or being fired if they turned out to be less competent than expected.

11. See Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu (2002); Le Deist & Winterton (2005); Sandberg & Pinnington (2009).

12. Murphy (2007), p. 329, combined competence and intelligence (along with “smartness” and “brightness”) to create a “composite perceived intelligence score.” See also Reynolds & Gifford (2001).

13. Argyle, Ginsburg, Forgas, & Campbell (1981), p. 254; Wahrman & Pugh (1972). More recent studies show similar results: Judd, James-Hawkins, Yzerbyt, & Kashima (2005); Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick (2007); Rosenberg, Nelson, & Vivekananthan (1968); Wojciszke, Bazinska, & Jaworski (1998); Wojciszke (2005). Competence is also one of the three most important factors of leadership competence, in addition to administrative skills and human qualities (Mott, 1972; O’Driscoll, Humphries, & Larsen, 1991).

14. Judge & Ferris (1993), p. 80.

15. Lerner (1980).

16. Peter & Hull (1969). The previously discussed “up or out” system is one way of tackling this problem.

17. Clance & Imes (1978); see also Fast & Chen (2009).

18. J. Holt (2005).

19. Nesse & Williams (1994), p. 220; cf. Buss (2000), p. 16f.

20. Luhmann (1984).

21. T. Clark & Salaman (1998).

22. Godfrey, Jones, & Lord (1986).

23. See also Murphy (2007); S. P. Levine & Feldman (1997); J. B. Ellis & Wittenbaum (2000).

24. See Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Riordan (1995).

25. J. Mayo, White, & Eysenck (1978); Eysenck & Nias (1988).

26. Frank (1961).

27. See Waber, Shiv, Carmon, & Ariely (2008); de Craen, Roos, de Vries, & Kleijnen (1996); Buckalew & Ross (1981).

28. Jamieson, Lydon, Stewart, & Zanna (1987).

29. Murphy (2007), p. 330.

30. Bromley (1993), p. 120. Typically, we try to demonstrate our competence in our CVs (Knouse, 1994; Metcalfe, 1992), in interviews (Ralston & Kirkwood, 1999), and on our websites (Connolly-Ahern & Broadway, 2007).

31. Littlepage, Robison, & Reddington (1997); Bottger (1984); and Shell & Moussa (2007), p. 13.

32. Waller & Younger (2017), p. 17.

33. About the effect on a company’s reputation: Cravens, Oliver, & Ramamoorti (2003); Gaines-Ross (2000). About the effect on a company’s actual performance: Rajagopalan & Datta (1996); Fanelli & Misangyi (2006); Waldmann, Ramirez, House, & Puranam (2001). Pollach and Kerbler (2011) also point out intercultural differences: in the United States, competent business leaders are expected to engage themselves much more in community matters than is the case in Europe.

Chapter 2

1. “Iconic Albuquerque” (2008).

2. “The Triumph of the Nerds” (1996).

3. There are several versions of this story; this one seems most likely. H. Evans (2004) based his story on Kildall’s (never published) autobiography, which was completed shortly before Kildall’s death in 1994 (Hamm & Greene, 2004).

4. Schuman (2008), p. 62.

5. Eagly & Acksen (1971).

6. Tedeschi, Schlenker, & Bonoma (1971).

7. Schlenker & Leary (1982).

8. Tversky & Kahneman (1991); Kahneman & Tversky (1979); see also Hogg & Abrams (1993).

9. Gross (1996), p. 182.

10. Raymond (2003).

11. Tsui & Barry (1986), p. 586.

12. For a good overview: Ansolabehere, Snowberg, & Snyder (2006).

13. The Center for Responsive Politics analyzed the years 1964–2014 (“Reelection rates,” n.d.).

14. According to Hofstede (2001), there are certain differences among an aspect he refers to as “uncertainty avoidance” among cultures.

15. Oldmeadow, Platow, Foddy, & Anderson (2003), p. 148.

16. McGarty, Turner, Oakes, & Haslam (1993); Turner (1991); Turner & Oakes (1989); for an overview, cf. Oldmeadow et al. (2003), p. 148.

17. Ekman (2001), p. 228. In cases in which a lie detector is 80 percent accurate and 1,000 applicants are tested, if 10 of these are spies, then 8 of them would be exposed. However, 198 candidates (20 percent of the 990 honest ones) would be wrongly classified as dishonest. See also Vrij (2008), p. 31.

18. Judge & Ferris (1993), p. 84; for more specific information: Rowe (1989).

19. Plassmann, O’Doherty, Shiv, & Rangel (2008).

20. Swann & Ely (1984).

21. There are certainly differences between individuals, but in general, most people show a high level of trust in others. We therefore usually believe those to whom we are talking (G. R. Miller & Stiff, 1993, p. 35; see also McCornack & Levine, 1990; McCornack & Parks, 1986; Stiff, Kim, & Ramesh, 1992).

22. Snyder & Cantor (1979).

23. Elmar Stachels, former CEO of the German pharmaceutical company Bayer in China, comments, “Leadership in China means not forcing your point of view—not saying: ‘I am the expert, I know everything’ ” (Fernández & Underwood, 2006, pp. 15, 85).

24. Wahrman & Pugh (1972). Although he was classified as unappealing, people preferred to work with him rather than with a nice but reserved person.

25. C. R. Berger & Bradac (1982); Cutler, Penrod, & Dexter (1990); Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve (1988); Lindsay (1994).

26. Bunderson (2003), p. 569; Bazil (2005), p. 42.

27. The corresponding quote is often incorrectly attributed to US poet Maya Angelou (“People will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel”); it is in fact much older (see R. Evans, 1971).

28. See also Hubbertz (2006).

29. Dutton & Aron (1974). See also White, Fishbein, & Rutstein (1981). Critical comment: Kenrick & Cialdini (1977).

30. Strack, Stepper, & Martin (1988). As early as 1974, Laird investigated the effects of facial muscle innervations, and Ekman, Levenson, and Friesen presented a landmark study in 1983. Lanzetta, Cartwright-Smith, & Kleck (1976) gave electric shocks to their subjects; some were asked to exaggerate their painful expressions, others were asked to suppress those expressions as much as possible—allegedly to deceive the audience. Subsequent questioning revealed that those who increased the expression of pain felt the pain to be stronger and those who attenuated the expression of pain to be much weaker. For a critical discussion, see Stroebe, Hewstone, & Stephenson (1996), p. 326ff.

31. Joule & Beauvois (1998), p. 121f. The authors attribute this idea, which was systematized in the late 1960s, to the philosopher Baruch Spinoza.

32. Carney, Cuddy, & Yap (2010).

33. Peterson (2018), pp. 1–28; particularly pp. 25–27.

34. In the CBS broadcast CBS Reports on November 4, 1979.

35. Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg (1998).

36. Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996).

37. After Grout & Perrin (2006).

38. Cf. Baumeister (1998); Baumeister, Smart, & Boden (1996); Kernis, Grannemann, & Barclay (1989).

39. Fast & Chen (2009); see also Carver, Lawrence, & Scheier (1999); Higgins (1987); Maner et al. (2005); Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Goldenberg (2003); Stone & Cooper (2001).

40. Argyle (1979), p. 87.

41. D. J. Schneider (1981).

42. Culbert (1968); Vonk (1999).

43. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 181.

44. The study is cited from Beckwith (1997).

45. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 181.

46. Peters (2006).

47. Many thanks to Dr. Martin Gründl for pointing this out. See also Foster (2013); Hirschi & Jaensch (2015).

48. Weinraub (2000).

49. Hamm & Greene (2004).

Chapter 3

1. Forgas (1999), p. 68.

2. The first experiment on this was from Thorndike (1920).

3. Barrett (2005).

4. An excellent overview here: Rosenzweig (2007).

5. Bazil (2005), p. 40.

6. McArthur & Post (1977), p. 530f.

7. McArthur & Post (1977); cf. also Bierhoff (1989), p. 210.

8. Cialdini (1993), p. 190.

9. Judge & Ferris (1993), p. 88.

10. Bata & Sinclair (1990), p. 201.

11. Judge & Ferris (1993), p. 88.

12. Only later did it come out that he had, before his CEO post, when he was head of the Exploration and Production Division, known about the lower reserves for 18 months (Davis, Polk, & Wardwell, 2008).

13. See Schlenker & Darby (1981); Darby & Schlenker (1982); also Mummendey (1995), p. 158f.

14. McArthur & Post (1977).

15. Tiedens, Ellsworth, & Mesquita (2000); Weiner (1986).

16. Hareli, Berkovitch, Livnat, & David (2013).

17. Livnat & David (2013); Tangney (1996); Rodriguez Mosquera, Fischer, Manstead, & Zaalberg (2008); Rodriguez Mosquera, Manstead, & Fischer (2002); Tiedens, Ellsworth, & Mesquita (2000); cf. Hareli et al. (2013).

18. Brescoll & Uhlmann (2008).

19. On assertiveness: Delamater & McNamara (1987); De Rivera (1977); on decisiveness: Rothman & Wiesenfeld (2007); Mikulincer (1998); on persistence: M. S. Clark, Pataki, & Carver (1996); Sinaceur & Tiedens (2006); also Hareli et al. (2013); on assertiveness and toughness: Delamater & McNamara (1987); De Rivera (1977); M. S. Clark, Pataki, & Carver (1996); Sinaceur & Tiedens (2006); Rothman & Wiesenfeld (2007).

20. See, for example, Cornelissen (2014), pp. 200–215; Argenti & Forman (2002), pp. 235–66.

21. Schlenker & Leary (1982).

22. Ulmer, Sellnow, & Seeger (2007).

23. See E. E. Jones & Pittman (1982); also Mummendey (1995), pp. 142, 148.

24. Bates (2005), p. 41f.

25. According to Salter (2007). After two weeks, at least 43 percent of their website users still chose JetBlue as their favorite airline; not the most representative measurement of their reputation but at least some sort of indicator.

26. Bates (2005), p. 42.

27. Asch, 1946.

28. Popper (1969), p. 127f.

29. Ambady and Rosenthal (1992); Ambady, Bernieri, & Richeson (2000).

30. Dipboye (1989); Phillips & Dipboye (1989).

31. Zaltman (2003), p. 24.

32. Goeudevert (1996).

33. Cialdini (1993).

34. Murdock (1962); Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968); Glanzer and Cunitz (1966).

Chapter 4

1. Potter, 1962, p. 287; from Jones, 1989, p. 484.

2. Darley & Goethals (1980). A similar result was found by Kernis & Grannemann (1990).

3. Jobs (2005).

4. Nöllke (2002), p. 314. I am much indebted to the German author Matthias Nöllke for his wonderful collection of stories, which I have liberally used in this chapter.

5. Nöllke (2002), p. 312.

6. Castiglione (1999).

7. Ericsson, Prietula, & Cokely (2007). Whether they are musicians, athletes, or chess players, it supposedly takes 10,000 hours of practice—from the performances of the Beatles to Bill Gates’s programming work—to make a true expert.

8. Kleinfield (1993).

9. See Nöllke (2002), p. 99.

10. For a historical description, see Segal, Raglan, & Rank (1990).

11. Campbell (1949). Hollywood producer and writer Christopher Vogler created a highly influential seven-page memo for the Disney Company on Campbell’s work, which was then turned into a book (Vogler, 1990).

12. L. Ross (1977).

13. See Nöllke (2002), p. 210.

Chapter 5

1. For example Powelz (2011) or Weibel, Wissmath, & Groner (2008).

2. Reynolds & Gifford (2001).

3. See Murphy, Hall, & Colvin (2003); Borkenau & Liebler (1995); Reynolds & Gifford (2001); Pancer & Meindl (1978); Behling & Williams (1991).

4. For example, N. Miller, Maruyama, Beaber, & Valone (1975); Murphy et al. (2003); and Reynolds & Gifford (2001).

5. See Addington (1971); Scherer (1979).

6. See Murphy et al. (2003); Zuckerman & Driver (1989).

7. See Mehrabian (1972); see also Sereno & Hawkins (1967).

8. Brown, Strong, & Rencher (1975); Klofstad, Anderson, & Nowicki (2015); Klofstad, Anderson, & Peters (2012); Tigue, Borak, O’Connor, Schandl, & Feinberg (2012).

9. Mehrabian (1972).

10. Scherer (1979) came to the conclusion that Germans are especially quick to react negatively to a volume that is too high. On the other hand, Americans are more likely to have a generally more positive assessment of a higher volume.

11. Wilkinson (1965).

12. On lower status: Giles & Powesland (1975); see Giles (1970); Riches & Foddy (1989). On lower persuasiveness: Giles (1973). On lower credibility: Dixon & Mahoney (2004); Lev-Ari & Keysar (2010). On lower perceived competence: Mulac & Rudd (1977). A measurement was carried out using the ‘SDAS’, the speech dialect attitudinal scale (Mulac, 1975, 1976).

13. See, for instance, Ng & Bradac (1993); Gluszek & Dovidio (2010); Ryan & Carranza (1975).

14. M. A. Stewart, Ryan, & Giles (1985); see also D. S. Ellis (1967).

15. Giles (1970).

16. See Cargile (2000). Yzerbyt, Provost, & Corneille (2005) found that French-speaking Belgians were thought to be less competent not only by Frenchmen but also by their French-speaking compatriots.

17. Taylor, Bassili, & Aboud (1973); Giles & Johnson (1981, 1987); Rakic, Steffens, & Mummendey (2011a, 2011b).

18. Fuertes, Potere, & Ramirez (2002); Giles (1971).

19. See Giles (1970). See also Brown (1969); Taylor and Gardner (1970); current: Reynolds & Gifford (2001).

20. See Giles (1970); Ryan & Sebastian (1976); Ryan (1979).

21. Wilkinson (1965).

22. Scherer (1979).

23. Murphy et al. (2003).

24. Berger & Bradac (1982).

25. See Murphy et al. (2003).

26. See Scherer (1979).

27. Lakoff (1973); although the term “power talking” was probably coined by Walther (1996).

28. Hosman & Wright (1987) and Hosman & Siltanen (1991) came to the conclusion that a small number of hedging attempts would increase the impression of competence, but this can be ignored because the overall effect of the powerless style is so negative that a differentiation here is not necessary. See Scherer (1979); Bradac, Hemphill, & Tardy (1981); Bradac & Mulac (1984).

29. See Scherer (1979); Bradac et al. (1981) and Bradac & Mulac (1984).

30. O’Barr & Atkins (1998).

31. G. R. Miller & Hewgill (1964); Hawkins (1967).

32. According to Armstrong (1980).

33. Schopenhauer (1913b), p. 182. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own.

34. Armstrong (1980).

35. Siegfried (1970); Armstrong (1980).

36. U. Anderson, Kadous, & Koonce (2004). The only exception: if the individual submitting the document had a high level of motivation for deception, then the test subject would examine the numbers thoroughly. Also see Kadous, Koonce, & Towry (2005); Porter (1995); Birdsell (1998).

37. Hutton, Miller, & Skinner (2003).

38. Mahoney & Finch (1976); R. G. Williams & Ware (1976).

39. The “social psychology of language” explores how cognitive factors affect the understanding and creation of language. See Giles & Coupland (1991), p. xi. Reynolds & Gifford (2001).

40. Gifford & Reynolds (2001).

Chapter 6

1. The expression “body language” was coined by the following early studies: Birdwhistell (1952, 1970); Efron (1941); Ekman & Friesen (1969); Exline & Winters (1965); E. T. Hall (1959, 1963, 1966); Kendon (1967); Mehrabian (1971, 1972); Scheflen (1964, 1965, 1966); Sommer (1969). However, the term is now used for such an array of situations that it has become almost useless (cf. R. P. Harrison, 1979, p. 218).

2. Hellweg, Pfau, & Brydon (1992); cf. Bugental, Kaswan, & Love (1970).

3. Cf. Argyle (1979), p. 127; Murphy (2007).

4. Especially in Western and Far Eastern cultures, strong conventions dictate that conversation partners have to face each other with friendly faces, hence the caveat regarding facial expressions (Argyle, Alkema, & Gilmour, 1972).

5. Cf. Mehrabian (1972), pp. 105, 189; Zaidel & Mehrabian (1969).

6. Albert & Dabbs (1970).

7. Davis (1971, p. 82) puts it nicely: “Puritan heritage could have something to do with US Americans being particularly careful not to intrude personal space: We equate physical closeness with sex, so that when we see two people standing close together we assume that they must be either courting or conspiring.”

8. Cf. Brehm (1968). About personal space: Sommer (1969).

9. Pease & Pease (2004).

10. Watson (1972); Watson & Graves (1966); more generally: E. T. Hall (1966).

11. Murphy (2007), p. 327ff.; Murphy et al. (2001); Murphy et al. (2003).

12. Mehrabian (1972).

13. Mehrabian (1972), p. 72ff.

14. Hare & Bales (1963); Strodtbeck & Hook (1961); cf. Nemeth & Wachtler (1974), p. 532.

15. Liepman (1957), p. 11ff.

16. N. R. Anderson (1991).

17. Dovidio & Ellyson (1982).

18. Cf. Exline (1963); Exline, Gray, & Schuette (1965); Kendon (1967); Kleinke, Berger, & Staneski (1975).

19. Tecce (2004).

20. G. Spence (2006).

21. See N. R. Anderson (1991). Even smiling babies have a positive effect (Power, Hildebrandt, & Fitzgerald, 1982).

22. On the effect on perceived intelligence: Murphy et al. (2003). On the effect of low status: N. R. Anderson (1991); Mehrabian (1972), pp. 81–82. On the effect of serious expression on status and dominance: A. G. Halberstadt & Saitta (1987); Keating et al. (1981).

23. Mehrabian (1972).

24. Schmid Mast & Hall (2004).

25. See Mummendey (1995), p. 201.

26. Argyle (1979), pp. 126, 272; Henley (1973).

27. Feldman (1971); Henss (1989).

28. Cf. P. R. Wilson (1968).

29. Blaker et al. (2013).

30. Cf. Henss (1989); Roberts & Herman (1986), p. 134. On evolutionary psychology: Van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser (2008).

31. Argyle (1979).

32. Deck (1968).

33. Stulp, Buunk, Verhulst, & Pollet (2012).

34. Judge & Cable (2004).

35. Booher (2011), p. 16.

36. Naftulin, Ware, & Donnelly (1973).

37. W. M. Williams & Ceci (1997). Similar, Radmacher, & Martin (2001), who found out that the professor’s extroversion was the most important factor investigated. Cf. also Riniolo, Johnson, Sherman, & Misso (2006); Pozo-Muñoz, Rebolloso-Pacheco, & Fernández-Ramírez (2000).

38. Mehrabian (1967).

39. Mehrabian (2009), p. 75ff.

Chapter 7

1. Thorndike (1920).

2. F. W. Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts (2012); Rosenzeig (2007).

3. Latham & Wexley (1981), p. 102. A term used is the “status characteristic framework”—e.g., by J. Berger, Fisek, Norman, & Zelditch (1977). For a good overview: Bunderson (2003), p. 562.

4. This mode of action of the halo effect corresponds to the prevailing opinion of Heider (1958) and Shelly (2001).

5. See in addition Bolino, Varela, Bande, & Turnley (2006); and also Ferris, Judge, Rowland, & Fitzgibbons (1994). The impact of the halo effect is all the more intense when the observer has an extreme feeling for the observed, whether positive or negative (Tsui & Barry, 1986). For a theoretical overview: Forgas (1999).

6. In the very early work on impression management, a distinction was not yet made between the objectives of different positive interactions. Only negative impressions in contrast to positive were considered. Typical of these undifferentiated observations was the study by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1957), which was based on the assumption that the impression produced by an actor is largely at the level of good versus bad. As the development of impression management progressed over the decades, research found greater differentiation. Various positive and correspondingly different negative interaction targets have now been defined. The researchers, and, in particular, E. E. Jones, devoted themselves to a special (positive) interaction goal with keen interest: the goal of being popular. See E. E. Jones (1990), and also E. E. Jones & Wortman (1973).

7. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 185.

8. Cf., for example, Cialdini & Goldstein (2004); Thacker & Wayne (1995); Eastman (1994). On conversations: Varma, Toh, & Pichler (2006); on salary increases: Tsui & Barry (1986); Appelbaum & Hughes (1998); Orpen (1996); Wayne & Kacmar (1991); Wayne & Ferris (1990); to ingratiate employees: Kipnis, Schmidt, & Wilkinson (1980).

9. E. E. Jones (1964). Tedeschi and Melbug (1984) added favors, which I have included in self-enhancement. According to Drory and Zaidman (1986), the “respect” component should also be added.

10. Girard (1977).

11. Drachman, Carufel, & Inkso (1978).

12. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 183. According to source credibility theory, sources that have a high motivation to influence others are less influential because their motivation is obvious. Cf. Pornpitakpa (2004); Birnbaum & Stegner (1979).

13. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 183.

14. Grant (2014), p. 43.

15. I learned this from Dale Carnegies wonderful classic (Carnegie, 1936/2001, p. 58).

16. See also Nasher (2013), p. 61ff.

17. Ury (2008), p. 82.

18. Grant (2014).

19. Carnegie (1936/2001), p. 89.

20. More on this: Nasher (2013), p. 158ff. On the impact of a favor: Mummendey (1995), p. 157. The principle of reciprocity was probably first examined by Gouldner (1960).

21. Vrij (2008), p. 48; Chartrand & Bargh (1999); Akehurst & Vrij (1999); Baumeister, Hutton, & Tice (1989); DePaulo & Friedman (1998); Dimberg, Thumberg, & Grunedal (2002); Tickle-Degnen (2006).

22. Wheeler & Nelson (2003), p. 14.

23. Tedeschi & Melbug (1984).

24. E. E. Jones (1964).

25. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 183.

26. E. E. Jones (1990), p. 183.

27. Grant (2014), p. 43.

28. See C. R. Berger, Gardner, Parks, Schulman, & Miller (1976), p. 159f.

29. Sokal (1996b).

30. Sokal (1996a); see also Sokal & Bricmont (1998).

31. Tedeschi & Melbug (1984).

32. Godfrey et al. (1986).

33. Shell (2006), p. 142; Cialdini (1993). Also see Newcomb (1961); Byrne (1971); Locke & Horowitz (1990); M. B. Brewer (1979); Ryen & Kahn (1975); Michinov & Monteil (2002); cf. also Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders (2010), p. 237f.

34. Cialdini (1993), p. 173.

35. Oldmeadow et al. (2003).

36. See Gilbert & Horenstein (1975).

37. See S. J. Gilbert (1976).

38. Cf. Cozby (1973); Mummendey (1995), p. 153.

39. See A. Shapiro (1968).

40. See Jourard & Landsman (1960).

41. See also Schulz (2002), p. 221ff.

42. Cf. Fiser & Fiserova (1969), p. 92; H. L. Shapiro (1947), p. 456.

43. Fiske and Cox (1979) even formulated their questions in such a way that attractiveness would actually be completely in the background: they asked the test subjects how they felt in the company of the person described. Still, the first thing described was the appearance.

44. Winston, Strange, O’Doherty, & Dolan (2002); Winkielman, Halberstadt, Fazendeiro, & Catty (2006); Bar, Neta, & Linz (2006); Hassin & Trope (2000); Zebrowitz (1997).

45. Byrne, London, & Reeves (1968); cf. also Coombs & Kenkel (1966); Korabik (1981); Krebs & Adinolfi (1975); Moss (1969); Roff & Brody (1953); Stroebe, Insko, Thompson, & Layton (1971); Patzer (1985), p. 96. On the stronger effect on the other sex: Praxmarer (2011).

46. Adams & Crane (1980).

47. Stephan & Langlois (1984).

48. On school kids: cf. Chaikin, Gillen, Derlega, Heinen, & Wilson (1978); Felton, Koper, Mitchell, & Stinson (2008); Hamermesh & Parker (2005). For comparison of the pupils at different ages: Goebel & Cashen (1979). On college students: cf. Lombardo & Tocci (1979) and current analyses of faculty attractiveness and attractiveness points at ratemyprofessor.com; Riniolo et al. (2006); Liu, Hu, & Furutan (2013).

49. Ritts, Patterson, & Tubb (1992); Adams (1978); M. Ross & Salvia (1975).

50. See Hill & Kahn (1974).

51. Hamermesh & Biddle (1994); Frieze, Olson, & Russell (1991); Hosoda et al. (2003).

52. See Budesheim & DePaola (1994); Sigelman, Thomas, Sigelman, & Ribich (1986); Efran & Patterson (1974); Albright et al. (1997); Todorov, Mandisodza, Goren, & Hall (2005); Lenz & Lawson (2011); Tsfati, Elfassi, & Waismel-Manor (2010); Hoegg & Lewis (2011); Ibrocheva (2009); and also Verhulst, Lodge, & Lavine (2010). It also made no difference whether the test subjects were aware of other facts about the candidate (Palmer & Peterson, 2012). A study in the United States: Praino, Stockemer, & Ratis (2014). In Australia: King & Leigh (2009), p. 591. In Finland: Berggren, Jordahl, & Poutvaara (2010). And in Germany: Rosar, Klein, & Beckers (2012).

53. When it comes to the world of medicine, physicians give more optimistic diagnoses and prognoses to attractive patients—whether this is beneficial is questionable (see Barocas & Vance, 1974). Less attractive patients are often not even admitted to therapy by therapists—and if they are, they are more likely to be sent to group therapy (see Cavior, 1970). And the list goes on: more attractive people are more likely to be helped by strangers (Benson, Karabenick, & Lerner, 1976). Attractive defendants are less frequently convicted of a crime, and those who are receive a more mild punishment than unattractive ones (see Efran, 1974). For more on the incredible impact of physical attractiveness, see Efran (1974); Hudson & Henze (1969); H. L. Miller & Rivenbark (1970); Perrin (1921); Tesser & Brodie (1971).

54. Chaiken (1979).

55. Cf. Byrne & Clore (1970); Kleck, Richardson, & Ronald (1974); Levinger (1972).

56. Moore, Filippou, & Perrett (2011). Regarding popularity: G. Brewer & Archer (2007); Patzer (1975). The research is based on attribution theory (e.g., Bem, 1972; Heider, 1944, 1946, 1954, 1958; E. E. Jones & Davis, 1965).

57. Cf. Berscheid & Walster (1972) and also Patzer (1985), p. 190. More recent: Lee, Pitesa, Pillutla, & Thau (2015).

58. Cf. A. G. Miller (1970), p. 242.

59. Abramowitz & O’Grady (1991).

60. Cf. Patzer (1985); Bassili (1981); Henss (1989), and also Myers (2005). It is only since Aronson (1969) that social psychology has focused more on attractiveness. The research set in motion by him has defined four principles (cf. Patzer, 1985, p. 42): Attractive people have more social power than unattractive people (Mills & Aronson, 1965; Sigall, Page, & Brown, 1971). If everything else is identical, attractive people are more popular than unattractive people (Byrne, 1971; Byrne et al., 1968; Walster, Aronson, Abrahams, & Rottmann, 1966). More attractive people are attributed with more positive qualities than unattractive people (Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972; A. G. Miller, 1970; Nida & Williams, 1977). More attractive people have a different effect on others and invoke different reactions compared to unattractive people (McGuire, 1969; Sternthal, 1972).

61. Koernig & Page (2002).

62. See Praxmarer (2011).

63. Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo (1991).

64. Todorov et al. (2005).

65. Cf. Cunningham, Barbee, Druen, Roberts, & Wu (1995); Langlois et al. (2000); Perrett, May, & Yoshikawa (1994); Zebrowitz (1997); Baker & Churchill (1977); Murstein (1972); Cross & Cross (1971); Kopera, Maier, & Johnson (1971). In Cross and Cross (1971), there was a great deal of agreement around evaluating the “most attractive” face. However, every face had at least one vote. There is thus great agreement in the evaluation of beauty. At the same time, however, we can still hope that every human being is beautiful to at least one other person, which explains one relationship or the other.

66. See Budge (1981).

67. If you analyze the works of da Vinci, you can see that he actually adhered to this proportion rule with mathematical precision (compare Patzer, 1985, p. 155). Another strictly mathematical approach is applied today by the California beauty surgeon Edward Levin, for whom the proportions are also decisive.

68. Gründl (2013), p. 360.

69. Gründl (2013), p. 354; Perrett et al. (1998). Only the prominent lower jaw is typically male (Alley & Cunningham, 1991; Cunningham, Barbee, & Pike, 1990; Grammer & Thornhill, 1994).

70. Gründl (2013), p. 240; Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997); Enlow (1989); Lorenz (1943); cf. also Gründl (n.d.c.).

71. Hirschberg (1978). On the eyes: Keating & Doyle (2002).

72. Gründl (2013), p. 305f.; cf. also Berry & Brownlow (1989); Berry & McArthur (1985); Zebrowitz (1997).

73. Gründl (2013), p. 305.

74. Wolf (1991); Gründl (2013), S. 298.

75. Wolf (1991); Gründl (2013), p. 297f.; Alley (1988a); Deutsch, Zalenski, & Clark (1986); England & McClintock (2009); Falser, Bendel, Voller, & Wegner (2008); Giesen (1989); Henss (1992); D. Jones (1995); Teuscher & Teuscher (2007); Wilcox (1997); Deutsch, Clark, & Zalenski (1983); Johnston & Franklin (1993); Braun, Gründl, Marberger, & Scherber (2001).

76. Buss (1989).

77. Gründl (2013), p. 237.

78. Cf. Farkas & Cheung (1981); Peck, Peck, & Kataja (1991); Sackeim (1985); Simmons, Rhodes, Peters, & Koehler (2004).

79. Galton (1878, 1888).

80. Langlois & Roggman (1990); cf. also Grammer (2000), p. 174.

81. Langlois & Roggman (1990); Thornhill & Gangestad (1993).

82. J. Halberstadt & Rhodes (2003). As for the perception of humans: Winkielman et al. (2006); Winkielman, Schwarz, Reber, & Fazendeiro (2003).

83. Grammer & Thornhill (1994); Rhodes, Roberts, & Simmons (1999); Rhodes, Proffitt, Grady, & Sumich (1998); Thornhill & Gangestad (1993).

84. Alley & Cunningham (1991); cf. also Gründl (2013), p. 4ff.

85. Gründl (2013), p. 88f.

86. Gründl (2013), p. 349.

87. Gründl (2013), p. 90.

88. Cf. Nielsen & Kernaleguen (1976).

89. Gründl (2013), p. 93ff. The relevance was ordered after Terry & Brady (1976); Terry & Davis (1976); Terry (1977): first, mouth; second, eyes; third, facial structure; fourth, hair; and fifth, nose. Other factors are skin and teeth.

The full list of factors from Gründl’s postdoctoral research project is as follows (Gründl, 2013):

Women

• tanned skin

• darker eyelashes

• darker eyebrows

• lighter sclera (whiteness)

• no dark eye rings

• narrower eyebrows

• eyebrows rising laterally

• eyebrows tapering more laterally

• more lashes

• smaller distance between eyelid and eyelid fold

• more pronounced cheekbones

• more concave cheeks, narrower nasal bridge

• shorter distance between the sides of the nostrils

• shorter philtrum (distance between nose and upper lip)

• fuller lips

• narrower and longer neck

• more pronounced jaw angle

• narrower face (greater ratio of length: width)

• greater ratio of the vertical distance between the vertex and hairline to the forehead height

• shorter middle and lower face in relation to the entire skull

• upper jaw not situated back in relation to the mandible

Men

• tanned skin

• darker eyebrows

• lighter sclera (whiteness)

• denser eyelashes

• longer eyelashes

• more pronounced cheekbones

• more concave cheeks, wider back of the nose

• smaller distance to the outside of the nostrils

• weaker nasolabial folds

• fuller lips

• symmetrical upper lip (even crista philtri)

• narrower neck

• no receding hairline, more acute angle of the jaw

• more prominent chin with greater distance between the mouth and base of the chin

• narrower face (greater ratio of length to width)

• greater ratio of the vertical distance between the vertex and hairline to the forehead height

• longer mandible relative to the upper face

• no receding hairline, less sloping forehead

• less protruding orbital bulge

• less protruding nasal bridge

• concave (instead of convex) curved nasal ridges

• less protruding nasal tip

• contoured (smaller) jaw-neck angle

• longer mandible in the vertical in relation to the upper face

90. Cf. Patzer (1985), p. 149.

91. Cf. Lawson (1971).

92. “Augen und Brauen” (n.d.).

93. Martins, Tiggemann, & Churchett (2008); cf. also Feinman & Gill (1977); Gründl (2013), p. 310; Roll & Verinis (1971).

94. Cf. Hamid (1968); Terry & Kroger (1976); Terry & Zimmermann (1970).

95. Thornton (1943, 1944). Interestingly, Jahoda (1963) found that on average, myopic people are actually more intelligent.

96. Argyle & McHenry (1971); cf. also Argyle (1979). A Japanese study, on the other hand, found that the positive effect of the glasses persists even after three minutes (Saito, 1978).

97. Osborn (1996); Rennenkampff (2004), p. 80.

98. Sobal & Stunkard (1989). Cf. also Gründl (n.d.a.).

99. Andersson (1994); cf. also Gründl (n.d.a.).

100. On the BMI: Fan, Dai, Liu, & Wu (2005); Maisey, Vale, Cornelissen, & Tovee (1999); Swami & Tovee (2006). On the WHR: Furnham, Tan, & McManus (1997); Henss (1995); Singh (1995). On the WCR: Fan et al. (2005); Maisey et al. (1999); Swami & Tovee (2006); Swami et al. (2007); cf. also Tovee, Reinhardt, Emery, & Cornellisen (1998); Tovee, Hancock, Mahmoudi, Singleton, & Cornelissen (2002).

101. Fan et al. (2005); Maisey et al. (1999); Swami & Tovee (2006).

102. Frederick & Haselton (2003); Furnham & Radley (1989); Lavraka (1975); cf. also Swami et al. (2007) and Barber (1995); cf. also W. D. Ross & Ward (1982). Leit, Pope, and Gray (2001) studied Playgirl models from 1973 to 1997.

103. Cf., for example, Maier & Lavrakas (1984); Parsons (1980); Swami, Antonakopoulos, Tovee, & Furnham (2006); Swami, Caprario, Tovee, & Furnham (2006).

104. Yang, Gray, & Pope (2005).

105. Swami et al. (2007); cf. also Maier & Lavrakas (1984); Parsons (1980); Swami, Antonakopoulos, et al. (2006); Swami, Caprario, et al. (2006); Apparala, Reifman, & Munsch (2003).

106. Furnham & Nordling (1998).

107. Swami et al. (2007).

108. Swami & Furnham (2006); Swami & Tovee (2005); Swami, Antonakopoulos, et al. (2006); Swami, Caprario, et al. (2006); J. M. B. Wilson, Tripp, & Boland (2005); Sypeck et al. (2006).

109. Freese and Meland (2002) came to different conclusions regarding the WHRs of the Miss America winners and Playboy models. According to Gründl, “There is a kernel of truth in the theory that the ideal ratio of waist to hip in a woman should be 0.7. But the context is weak. Inflating 0.7 to a ‘Magic Number’ and making it as an irrefutable fact does not do justice to the truth” (“Taille-Hüfte-Verhältnis,” n.d.).

110. Gründl also developed a “beauty formula,” a mathematical equation for calculating the attractiveness value of a particular figure. In a multiple regression analysis, the average attractiveness assessment was predicted from the body figure measurements. This regression equation, into which the figure-measured values are applied, is Y = b0 + b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 + . . . + bn * xn. Y is the predicted attractiveness value of the figure under consideration. The x values are values measured from the figure, such as the leg length, and the b values are the constant factors associated with the x values, with which the respective x value is multiplied. Cf. Gründl (n.d.b.).

111. Berscheid & Walster (1972); cf. R. A. Stewart, Powell, & Chetwynd (1979), p. 125.

112. Lee et al. (2015).

113. Feingold (1992); Langlois et al. (2000); Jackson, Hunter, & Hodge (1995); see also Zebrowitz, Hall, Murphy, & Rhodes (2002), p. 239.

114. Zebrowitz et al. (2002), p. 244ff.

115. Zebrowitz et al. (2002), p. 240f.; cf. also Langlois et al. (2000) and Zebrowitz (1997) for an overview of how attractiveness leads to higher intelligence.

116. Mobius & Rosenblat (2006).

117. Kanazawa & Kovar (2004).

118. Others have not found any correlation between attractiveness and intelligence (Feingold, 1992; Langlois et al., 2000; Eagly et al., 1991); a weak one was found by Jackson et al. (1995).

119. Asch (1946); but more accurately: Fiske et al. (2002); Fiske, Xu, Cuddy, & Glick (1999); for the “warmth over competence hypothesis” with the dimensions of warmth (rapport) and efficiency (competence), cf. Abele & Wojciszke (2007); Wojciszke (1994); see also J. Durante & Volpato (2012).

120. Thus, for example, riddled with relativization and thus hardly convincing: Judd, James-Hawkins, Yzerbyt, & Kashima (2005); Kervyn, Yzerbyt & Judd (2010); cf. also F. Durante, Capozza, & Fiske (2010).

121. Richetin, Durante, Mari, Perugini, & Volpato. (2012); cf. also Rosenberg et al. (1968).

122. W.-Y. Lin, Wang, Lin, Lin, & Johnson (2011); cf. also Yzerbyt et al. (2005); Judd et al. (2005).

123. Mills & Aronson (1965); Mills (1966).

124. Reinhard, Messner, & Sporer (2006).

125. Lenz & Lawson (2011).

126. Stockemer & Praino (2015); cf. also Banducci, Karp, Thrasher, & Rallings (2008) and Lenz & Lawson (2011).

127. Chandon & Wansink (2007).

Chapter 8

1. McKenna (2006) gives an exciting insight into the history of business consultants.

2. See Peterson, pp. 1–28, for this entire paragraph, particularly pp. 6–7 and 15–16.

3. Doob & Gross (1968). A very similar experiment was carried out by Joseph Forgas (1976). He compared the different driving methods of Europeans: the most impatient were the Italians (surprise, surprise), who were honking after an average of 5 seconds; the Germans were most patient, with an average of 7.5 seconds.

4. Milgram (1963).

5. Webster & Driskell (1978).

6. Schmid Mast & Hall (2004), p. 146.

7. Bunderson (2003); Oldmeadow et al. (2003), p. 146ff; Fiske et al. (2002). In different cultures: Cuddy et al. (2006); Fiske & Cuddy (2006).

8. Oldmeadow et al. (2003), p. 139; see also Balkwell, Berger, Webster, Nelson-Kilger, & Cashen (1992); Berger, Norman, Balkwell, & Smith (1992).

9. Very convincing: Oldmeadow et al. (2003), p. 138f, referring to the so-called status characteristics theory. It still assumed that there must be a “path of relevance” between the respective status and the perceived competence (see Foddy, 1988; Foddy & Riches, 2000; Norman, Smith, & Berger, 1988). On the individual status characteristics, such as occupation, race, and gender, see Cuddy et al. (2006); Eckes (2002); and Fiske & Cuddy (2006).

10. Mischke (2004); and Michler (2013).

11. Bourdieu (1982).

12. Lefkowitz, Blake, & Mouton (1955).

13. See Mummendey (1995), p. 151.

14. Schmid Mast & Hall (2004); Sybers & Roach (1962); Barnes & Sternberg (1989). Clothing also affects expectations (Rafaeli & Pratt, 1993). With men, a suit and tie influence their perceived—and, indeed, even their actual—status.

15. O’Neal & Lapitsky (1991); Kwon (1994); Kwon & Färber (1992).

16. A study by US authorities came to the conclusion that 75 percent of people assume that being well dressed leads to being perceived as smarter, more diligent, and more popular (Bowman, 1992, p. 39).

17. On formal attire: Rucker, Anderson, & Kangas (1999); on casual wear: Rafaeli, Dutton, Harquail, & Mackie-Lewis (1997). (Peluchette & Karl, 2007).

18. Hoffmann (1981).

19. In men, attractiveness is also a status trait (Schmid Mast & Hall, 2004).

20. Wookey, Graves, & Butler (2009). However, this was not the case for lower positions such as that of secretary. When the secretary was dressed in a “sexy” manner, she was rated as socially more competent, which seemed to be appropriate for the lower position. Similarly: Glick, Larsen, Johnson, & Branstiter (2005).

21. See Nielsen & Kernaleguen (1976); Beckwith (1997), p. 186; Han, Nunes, & Dreze (2010).

22. Booher (2011), p. 20.

23. Kruglanski & Webster (1991); C. E. Miller & Anderson (1979); Schachter (1951). Particularly on status: Cialdini & Goldstein (2004); C. Anderson, Srivastava, Beer, Spataro, & Chatman (2006); J. M. Levine (1989); L. Lin, Dahl, & Argo (2013); Marques, Abrams, & Serôdio (2001); C. P. Wilson (1979).

24. Etzioni (2004); Searcy (2011).

25. Cartwright (1959a); Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson, & Liljenquist (2008); Haslam (2004); Sherif & Sherif (1964); J. Berger & Ward (2010); Feltovich, Harbaugh, & To (2002); Han et al. (2010).

26. Bellezza, Gino, & Keinan (2014); see D. J. Phillips & Zuckerman (2001); Thompson, Rindfleisch, & Arsel (2006); Van Kleef, Homan, Finkenauer, Gundemir, & Stamkou (2011); Simonson & Nowlis (2000); Arnould & Thompson (2005); Brooks (1981); D. B. Holt (1998); R. A. Peterson & Kern (1996); Solomon (1999). On individualism: Baumeister (1982); Galinsky et al. (2008); Kim & Markus (1999).

27. “Survey finds” (2000). In the study, 44 percent of respondents indicated that a casual dress code led to more delays and absences. At least 30 percent also stated that it led to more flirting behavior. In other words, casual clothing leads to a casual attitude.

28. On piercings and tattoos: Seiter & Hatch (2005). On eyebrow piercings: Acor (2001). See also Karl, McIntyre Hall, & Peluchette (2013); Chen (2007); B. Miller, Niçois, & Eure (2009). A survey (“How companies,” 2004) concluded that a total of 72 percent were against body piercings, 69 percent against visible tattoos, 73 percent against unusual hair colors, and 64 percent against unusual hairstyles.

29. See McArthur & Post (1977), p. 531.

30. Kircheisen (1925), p. 272.

31. Aronson & Mills (1959).

32. Gerard & Mathewson (1966).

33. See Young (1965). American fraternities call them “hell weeks.” A fraternity at Ohio State University locked two candidates into a storage room for two days. The two were only fed salty food and given two plastic cups to collect their own urine (Cialdini, 1993, p. 87). Germany has a tradition in which applicants to fraternities must complete a certain number of fencing duels, named “academic fencing,” in order to become full members. The rather common scar resulting from these dangerous fights is worn with pride.

34. S. Brown (2001).

35. See Schmidt (1971); Schmidt, Schmerl, & Steffens (1971); see also Mummendey (1995), p. 151.

36. According to a study conducted by the online job market Stepstone, senior marketing executives with a postgraduate degree earn an average of 64,862 euros, compared to 48,957 euros without one. There are also differences in industries: for IT executives, the difference is only just under 10 percent; in the financial sector, just under 15 percent (see Naumann, 2015). Another good overview of the differences between industries: Ritter (2013).

37. See Sobelman (1974); Strong, Taylor, Bratton, & Loper (1971).

38. Bryan Huang, former chief of BearingPoint China, says, “How can I face my friends when they are all directors and I’m just a manager?” (Fernández & Underwood, 2006, p. 54).

39. Cialdini (1993), p. 75 ff.

40. See Schwanitz (1999), p. 395ff.

41. See Cialdini & Richardson (1980).

42. See Mummendey (1995), p. 145f.

43. Cialdini et al. (1976).

44. Mummendey (1995), p. 145.

45. Cialdini & de Nicholas (1989).

46. A. A. Harrison, Struthers, & Moore (1988).

47. See Cialdini & Richardson (1980).

48. I thank Dr. Vladimir Donshoi for his inspiring thoughts on this matter.

49. Cialdini et al. (1976).

50. Also found in Spurling (2000).

51. Gladwell (2007), p. 160ff.

52. Fernández & Underwood (2006), p. 84.

53. Fiske & Taylor (1991), pp. 121–22, 144–45.

54. Uzzi, Lancaster, & Dunlap (2007); see also Lancaster & Uzzi (2012).

55. Probably because you can expect valuable rewards from them (see Ridgeway & Johnson, 1990).

56. Bunderson (2003), pp. 563, 578.

57. Pratto, Stallworth, & Sidanius (1997); Nyquist & Spence (1986); Eagly & Blair (1990). On women’s modesty: Schmid Mast & Hall (2004), p. 160.

58. Pheterson, Kiesler, & Goldberg (1971).

59. Schmid Mast & Hall (2004), p. 156; and also Amyx & Bristow (2009).

60. McKenna (2006), p. 159.

61. McKenna (2006), p. 8ff. According to recent estimates, there are almost 500,000 consultants worldwide, although it is unclear how narrowly the position is defined (Hari, 2010).

62. McKenna (2006), p. 200.

Conclusion

1. G. Spence (1996).

2. Ridderstråle & Nordström (2000).

3. Knapp (1972).

4. Competence + trustworthiness = credibility (Amyx & Bristow, 2009; see also McGuire, 1969). M. B. Brewer (1997, 1999) considers trustworthiness to be a precondition for successful communication (see also Morgan & Hunt, 1994; Hosmer, 1995; Nooteboom, 1996; Johnson & Lennon, 1999; Das & Teng, 2001; McKnight & Chervany, 2001; Moorman, Zaltman, & Deshpandé, 1992; Gambetta, 1988). Das and Teng (2001) distinguish between goodwill trust and competence trust. For Todorov, Said, Engell, and Oosterhof (2008), competence is positioned on an axis with confidence and dominance. Finally, trust also has a positive influence on perceived competence (Verhulst et al. 2010).

5. See Poortinga & Pidgeon (2003), p. 962. See also Hosmer (1995).

6. Van Iddekinge, McFarland, & Raymark (2007); A. P. Ellis, West, Ryan, & DeShon (2002).

7. C. K. Stevens & Kristof (1995).

8. Gordon (1996).

9. For this, see Fiske (1998); Diekman & Eagly (2000); Steffens, Schult, & Ebert (2009).

10. Rosen (1981).

11. Simpson (2013). Certainly, due to the fact that buyers did not know the artist really was Banksy, the artworks could have simply looked like Banksy copies.

Epilogue

1. Zaltman (2003), pp. 27, 57.

2. Mead was referring to “symbolic interactionism,” a term that probably was first used by Herbert Blumer (cf. Felson, 1981; cf. also Swann, 1987).

3. Goffman (1959).

4. Under the auspices of the Office of Naval Research, a symposium was held at Harvard University in 1957, where, for the first time, questions were discussed under the heading “Person Perception” (Tagiuri & Petrullo, 1958). The list of participants reads like a who’s who of the most influential experts in this young field—from Solomon Asch through Fritz Heider to E. E. Jones. See also D. J. Schneider, Hastorf, & Ellsworth (1979); Warr & Knapper (1968).

5. See E. E. Jones (1990); Nisbett & Roll (1980).

6. Rosenfeld et al. (1995). It would seem that the frequently used concept of self-presentation is only used here to establish a connection between this research, with strong sociological roots, and the popular self-concept research of modern psychology. See Mummendey (1995), p. 126; D. J. Schneider (1981) is of another opinion; Schlenker (1985); Schlenker & Weigold (1992).

7. See Argyle, Ginsburg, et al. (1981), p. 254; Nemeth & Wachtler (1974), p. 540; Wahrman & Pugh (1972).

8. J. Berger et al. (1977, p. 124), uses a more complex formula: SSci = [1 − (1 − e(cl)) * (1 − e(c2i)) * (1 − e(c3i))]. Here, SSci stands for “specific status cue score,” the e mirrors the different factors, and the i stands for the employee in question (cf. also Bunderson, 2003, p. 570).

9. Oldmeadow et al. (2003), p. 141ff.

10. Also known as the ecological approach (McArthur & Baron, 1983).

11. D. J. Schneider (1973).

12. Gerard Zaltman of Harvard Business School developed, for this purpose, the so-called metaphor elicitation technique (MET) (Zaltman, 2003).

13. Sommer (1988).

14. Quoted in A. Stevens (2018).

15. The description of “stereotypes” concerning human beings goes back to Lippmann (1922). For a good overview: Hilton & von Hippel (1996).

16. Todorov et al. (2005). The following was found to hold true: The higher the perceived competence, the better the candidate’s result in the election was. When there was no doubt about the candidate’s perceived competence, the candidate won by a landslide.

17. For more detail, see (especially in their literature review) Montaser-Kouhsari, Landy, Heeger, & Larsson (2007).

18. This and other “Gestalt laws” were developed by the Austro-Hungarian psychologist Max Wertheimer to describe our perception under a variety of circumstances (Wertheimer, 1923).

The Italian psychologist Gaetano Kanizsa (1976), in the context of optical illusions, spoke of “illusory contours.” Martin Gründl (personal correspondence), on the other hand, finds that, in this figure, it is more the “good gestalt” that is in play, since, in this case, a white triangle seems to partly conceal the “Line-Triangle” underlying it, and it is easy to see two triangles turned counter to one another here.

19. Based on the model of cognitive information processing, impressions are stored in the memory and retrieved again (cf. Wayne & Liden, 1995, p. 235ff.).

20. Thus, for example, Loftus & Palmer (1974); Shaw & Porter (2015).

21. Reynolds & Gifford (2001), p. 198.

22. See Murphy et al. (2003); Ambady, Hallahan, & Rosenthal (1995); Colvin & Bundick (2001); J. A. Hall (1984); J. A. Hall, Carter, & Horgan (2001).

23. Eagly et al. (1991).

24. For a very good overview of their theory, see Kahneman (2011).

25. For detailed argumentation, see D. E. Rosenthal (1976), p. 264ff.

26. O. Peterson, Andrews, & Spain (1956).

27. Murphy (2007) and Reynolds & Gifford (2001).

28. Gifford & Reynolds (2001), p. 197.

29. J. A. Hall (1984); cf. also Murphy et al. (2003), p. 471.

30. Golde (1969), summarized by D. E. Rosenthal (1976, p. 271), who was mainly interested in the competence of lawyers.