CHAPTER 2

Where Do Objectives Come From?

Objectives are based on needs. If needs are not defined clearly and early in the process, a flawed project or program can result, creating inefficiencies and other problems. In this chapter we explore assessment of the various levels of needs, which lead to the levels of objectives. Specifically, we will address payoff needs, business needs, performance needs, learning needs, and preference needs. We’ll also examine input needs.

The model presented in Figure 2.1 will prove helpful as analysis begins. In the coming pages, we walk through the process of detailing the needs at six levels, beginning with payoff needs and progressing to input needs. The objectives derived directly from these needs are defined, making a case for multiple levels of objectives that correspond with specific needs. The objectives serve as the transition from needs assessment to evaluation.

PAYOFF NEEDS

The highest level of objectives, return-on-investment, comes from an analysis of payoff needs. This initial step begins with a few crucial questions:

• Is this program worth doing?
• Is the issue worth pursuing?
• Is this an opportunity?
• Is it a feasible program?
• What is the likelihood of a positive ROI?

The answers to these questions are obvious for proposed projects or programs that address significant problems or opportunities with potentially high rewards. The questions might take longer to answer for lower-profile programs or those for which the possible payoff is less apparent. In any case, these are legitimate questions, and the analysis can be simple or comprehensive. Figure 2.2 shows the potential payoff in monetary terms. A program’s payoff comes in the form of either profit increases or in cost savings (derived from cost reduction or cost avoidance).

Profit increases are generated by programs that improve sales, increase market share, introduce new products, open new markets, enhance customer service, or increase customer loyalty. These should pay off with increases in sales revenue. Other revenue-generating measures include increasing memberships, increasing donations, obtaining grants, and generating tuition from new and returning students—all of which, after taking out the cost of doing business, yield a profit.

However, most programs pay off with cost savings. Savings are generated through cost reduction or cost avoidance. For example, learning and performance that improve quality, reduce cycle time, lower downtime, decrease complaints, prevent employee turnover, and minimize delays are all examples of cost savings. When the goal is solving a problem, monetary value is often based on cost reduction.

Cost-avoidance programs aim to reduce risks, avoid problems, or prevent unwanted events. Some finance and accounting staff view cost avoidance as an inappropriate measure for developing monetary benefits and calculating ROI. However, if the assumptions are correct, an avoided cost (for example,compliance fines) can yield a higher reward than an actual cost reduction. Preventing a problem is more cost-effective than waiting for it to occur and then having to resolve it.

Determining potential payoff is the first step in the needs-analysis process. Closely related is the next step, determining business need, as the potential payoff is often based on improvements or changes in business measures.

Determining the payoff involves two factors: 1) the potential monetary value derived from the business measure’s improvement and 2) the approximate cost of the program or project. Ascertaining these monetary values in detail usually yields a more credible forecast of the defined solution. However, this step may be omitted in situations in which the business need must be resolved regardless of the program cost or when resolution of the business need has an obviously high payoff. For example, if the problem involves a safety concern, a regulatory compliance issue, or a competitive matter, then a detailed analysis of the payoff is unnecessary.

Key Questions

A needs analysis should begin with several questions. Table 2.1 presents some questions to ask about a proposed program. The answers to these questions might make the case for proceeding without analysis or indicate the need for additional analysis. The answers could show that the program is not needed. Understanding the implications of moving forward (or not) can reveal the legitimacy of the proposed program.

Table 2.1: Key Questions to Ask About the Proposed Program
Why is this an issue? Who will support the program? Who will not support the program? Are there important intangible benefits? How can we fund the program? Is this issue critical? Is it possible to correct it? How much is it costing us?	Are there multiple solutions? What happens if we do nothing? How much will the solution(s) cost? Is a forecast needed? Is there a potential payoff (positive ROI)? Is this issue linked to strategy? Is it feasible to improve it? Can we find a solution?

The good news is, for many potential programs, answers to these questions are readily available. The need might have already been realized and the consequences validated. For example, many organizations with an employee-retention problem within a critical talent group have calculated the cost of employee turnover. This cost is either developed from existing data or secured from similar studies. With this cost in hand, the economic impact of the problem is known. The proposed program’s cost can be compared to the problem’s cost (in this case, turnover) to get a sense of potential added value. The cost of the program can usually be estimated if a solution has been tentatively identified.

Obvious Versus Not-So-Obvious Payoff

The potential payoff is obvious for some programs, but not so obvious for others. Table 2.2 lists some opportunities with obvious payoffs. Each item is a serious problem that needs attention from executives, administrators, or politicians. For these situations, it would be safe to move ahead to the business needs level rather than invest too much time and resources in analysis of the payoff. After the solution is defined, a forecast may be appropriate.

In other potential programs, however, the issues might be unclear and arise from political motives or biases. Table 2.3 shows opportunities for which the payoff isn’t as obvious. The not-so-obvious opportunities call for more detail. Some requests are common, as executives and administrators suggest a process change. The requests appear to have the program identified, but without a clear reason as to why. These types of requests could deliver substantial value, but only if they are focused and clearly defined at the start. In our work at the ROI Institute, we have seen many vague requests turn into valuable programs. Sometimes overlooking the vague is a mistake; these requests can result in valuable contributions, as they can lead to critical analysis, ensuring an appropriate focus on development.

The Cost of a Problem

Problems often are expensive. To determine the cost of a problem, its potential consequences must be examined and converted to monetary values. Table 2.4 shows a list of potential costly problems. Some can easily be converted to money, and some already are. Those that cannot be converted within the resource and time constraints under which you are working are left as intangibles. Inventory shortages are often converted to money based on the direct cost of the inventory, as well as the cost of carrying the inventory. Time can easily be converted into money by calculating the fully loaded cost of the individual’s time spent performing unproductive tasks. Calculating time for completing a program, task, or cycle involves measures that can be converted to money. Errors, waste, delays, and bottlenecks can often be converted to money based on the consequences of such problems. Productivity problems, equipment damage, and equipment underuse are other examples of problems that have an apparent cost associated with them.

Examining costs means examining all the costs and their implications. For example, the full costs of accidents include not only the cost of lost workdays and medical expenses, but also their effect on insurance premiums, the time required for investigations, damages to equipment, and the time of all employees who address the accident. The cost of a customer complaint includes the cost of the time to resolve the complaint, as well as the value of the item or fee that is adjusted due to the complaint. The most important cost is the loss of future business and goodwill from the complaining customer, plus potential customers who become aware of the issue.

Table 2.4: Potentially Costly Problems
Inventory shortages	Productivity problems
Time savings	Customer dissatisfaction
Excessive employee turnover	Inefficiencies
Errors/mistakes	Excessive conflicts
Employee withdrawal	Excessive direct costs
Waste	Tarnished image
Accidents	Equipment damage
Delays	Lack of coordination
Excessive staffing	Equipment underused
Bottlenecks	Excessive stress
Employee dissatisfaction	Excessive program time

The Value of Opportunity

Just as the cost of a problem can be tabulated in most situations, the value of an opportunity can also be determined. Examples of opportunities include

• Implementing a new process
• Installing new technology
• Upgrading the workforce for a more competitive environment.

In these situations, a problem might not exist, but a tremendous opportunity to get ahead of the competition lies in taking immediate action. Properly placing a value on this opportunity requires considering possible consequences if the project or program is not pursued or taking into account the windfall that might be realized by seizing the opportunity. The monetary value is derived by following the different scenarios to convert specific business impact measures to money. The challenge lies in ensuring a credible analysis. Forecasting the value of an opportunity involves many assumptions, whereas calculating the value of a known outcome is often grounded in a more credible analysis.

BUSINESS NEEDS

Impact objectives are based on business needs. Determining specific business needs is linked to the previous step in the needs analysis, developing the potential payoff. To determine business needs, specific measures must be pinpointed so the business situation is clearly assessed. The term business is used in governments, nonprofits, educational institutions, and private sector organizations. Programs and projects in all types of organizations can show business contribution by improving productivity, quality, and efficiency, as well as by saving time and reducing costs.

Business Measures

A business need is represented by a business measure. Any process, item, or perception can be measured, and the measurement is critical to this level of analysis. If the program focuses on solving a problem, program initiators have a clear understanding of that problem and the measures that define the problem. Measures might also be obvious if the program prevents a problem. If the program takes advantage of a potential opportunity, the measures are usually still apparent. If not, a clear, detailed description of the opportunity will help clarify the measure.

The key here is that measures are in the system, ready to be captured for this level of analysis. The challenge is to define and find them economically and swiftly.

Business Measures Represented by Hard Data

Business measures are represented by hard data and soft data. Distinguishing between the two types of data helps in the process of defining specific business measures. Hard data are primary measures of improvement presented in rational, undisputed facts that are usually accumulated. They are the most desired type of data because they’re easy to measure and quantify and relatively easy to convert to monetary values. The ultimate criteria for measuring the effectiveness of an organization are hard data such as revenue, productivity, profitability, cost control, and quality assurance.

Hard data are objectively based and represent common, credible measures of performance. They usually fall into four categories, as shown in Table 2.5. These categories—output, quality, cost, and time—are typical performance measures in organizations, including private sector firms, government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, nonprofits, and educational institutions.

Output. Visible hard-data results from a program or project involve improvements in the output of the work unit, section, department, division, or entire organization. All organizations, regardless of type, must have basic measurements of output, such as the number of products sold, patients treated, students graduated, tons produced, or packages shipped. They monitor these factors, so changes can easily be measured by comparing before and after outputs. When programs are expected to drive an output measure, those knowledgeable about the situation can usually make estimates of output changes.

Quality. One of the most significant hard-data categories is quality. If quality is a major concern for an organization, processes are likely in place to measure and monitor it. Thanks in part to the rising popularity of quality improvement processes (such as total quality management, continuous quality improvement, and Six Sigma), pinpointing the correct quality measures—and in many cases placing a monetary value on them—has proven successful. Quality improvement program results can be documented using the standard cost of quality as a value.

Cost. Another important hard-data category is cost improvement. Many projects and programs are designed to lower, control, or eliminate the cost of a specific process or activity. Achieving these cost targets contributes immediately to the bottom line.

Table 2.5: Examples of Hard Data
OUTPUT	QUALITY	COST	TIME
Completion rate	Failure rates	Shelter costs	Cycle time
Units produced	Dropout rates	Treatment costs	Equipment downtime
Tons manufactured	Scrap	Budget variances	Overtime
Items assembled	Waste	Unit costs	On-time shipments
Money collected	Rejects	Cost by account	Time to program completion
Items sold	Error rates	Variable costs	Processing time
New accounts generated	Rework	Fixed costs	Supervisory time
Forms processed	Shortages	Overhead costs	Time to proficiency
Loans approved	Product defects	Operating costs	Learning time
Inventory turnover	Deviation from standard	Program cost savings	Meeting schedules
Patients visited	Product failures	Accident costs	Repair time
Applications processed	Inventory adjustments	Program costs	Efficiency
Students graduated	Time card corrections	Sales expense	Work stoppages
Tasks completed	Incidents	Participant costs	Order response
Output per hour	Compliance discrepancies		Late reporting
Productivity	Agency fees		Lost time days
Work backlog
Incentive bonus
Shipments

Some organizations have an extreme focus on cost reduction. Consider Wal-Mart, whose tagline is “Save Money. Live Better.” Wal-Mart focuses on lowering costs on all processes and products and passing the savings to customers. When direct cost savings are used, no efforts are necessary to convert data to monetary value because the costs themselves reflect this value. There can be as many cost items as there are accounts in a cost-accounting system. In addition, costs can be combined in any number of ways to develop the costs needed for a particular program or project.

Time. Time has become a critical measure for today’s organizations. Some gauge performance almost exclusively on time. Consider FedEx, whose tagline is “The World on Time.” When asked what business FedEx is in, the company’s top executives say, “We engineer time.” For FedEx, time is so critical that it defines success or failure. Time savings may mean that a program is completed faster than originally planned, a product is introduced earlier, or the time to restore a network is reduced. These savings can translate into lower costs.

Business Measures Represented by Soft Data

Hard data might lag behind changes and conditions in human performance within an organization by many months; therefore, it is useful to supplement hard data with soft data such as attitude, motivation, and satisfaction. Often more difficult to collect and analyze, soft data are used when hard data are unavailable. Soft data are also more difficult to convert to monetary values and are often based on subjective input. They are less credible as a performance measurement and tend to be behavior oriented, but represent important measures just the same. Table 2.6 shows common examples of soft data.

Work habits. Employee work habits are important to the success of work groups. Dysfunctional habits can lead to an unproductive work group, while productive work habits can boost the group’s output and morale. Examples of work habits that might be difficult to measure or convert to monetary values appear in Table 2.6. The outcome of some work habits, including employee turnover, absenteeism, and accidents, are in the hard-data category because they’re easily converted to monetary values.

Work climate/satisfaction. Several measures reflect employee dissatisfaction. Complaints and grievances sometimes fall in the hard-data category because of their ease of conversion to money. However, most of the items are considered soft-data items. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and employee engagement show how attitudes shape the organization. Stress is often a byproduct of a fast-paced work climate. These issues and measurement of these issues are gaining prominence in most organizations.

Table 2.6: Examples of Soft Data
WORK HABITS	Customer dissatisfaction	Suggestions
Tardiness	Customer impressions	New products and services
Visits to the dispensary	Customer loyalty	Trademarks
Violations of safety rules	Customer retention	Copyrights and patents
Communication breakdowns	Customer value	Process improvements
Excessive breaks	Lost customers	Partnerships
WORK CLIMATE/ SATISFACTION	EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT/	Alliances
	ADVANCEMENT	IMAGE
Grievances	Promotions	Brand awareness
Discrimination charges	Capability	Reputation
Employee complaints	Intellectual capital	Leadership
Job satisfaction	Programs completed	Social responsibility
Organization commitment	Requests for transfer	Environmental friendliness
Employee engagement	Performance appraisal ratings	Social consciousness
Employee loyalty	Readiness	Diversity
Intent to leave	Networking	External awards
Stress	CREATIVITY/ INNOVATION
CUSTOMER SERVICE	Creativity
Customer complaints	Innovation
Customer satisfaction	New ideas

Customer service. Because increased global competition fosters a greater need to serve and satisfy customers, more organizations are putting into place customer service measures that reflect customer satisfaction, loyalty, and retention. Few measures are as important as those linked to customers.

Employee development/advancement. Employees are routinely developed, assigned new jobs, and promoted. Many soft-data measures can indicate the consequences of crucial activities and processes, such as building capability, creating intellectual capital, enhancing readiness, and fostering networks.

Creativity/innovation. Creativity and innovation are key aspects of successful organizations. A variety of measures can be developed to show the creative spirit of employees and the related outcomes, such as ideas, suggestions, copyrights, patents, and products and services. While the collective creative spirit of employees might be a soft-data item, the outcomes of creativity and innovation qualify as hard data. Still, many executives consider innovation a soft-data item.

Image. Perhaps some of the softest measures relate to image. Executives attempt to increase brand awareness, particularly with sales and marketing programs. Reputation is another measure that is growing in importance. Organizations seek to improve their standings as good employers, good citizens, and good stewards of investors’ money. Leadership is probably the most sought-after measure and is influenced by initiatives designed to build leadership within the organization. Image, social responsibility, environmental friendliness, and social consciousness are key outputs of a variety of programs and projects aimed at making the organization well rounded. Diversity is also important for many organizations, which focus programs on increasing diversity of ideas, products, people, and initiatives. Finally, external awards are the outcomes of many activities and programs. Some organizations invest in full-time employees to focus solely on applying for such awards. This particular measure represents the activity, support, and engagement of all employees, including the organization’s leadership.

Sources of Impact Data

Sources of impact data, whether hard or soft, are plentiful. They come from routine reporting systems within the organization. In many situations, these items have led to the need for the program or project. Table 2.7 shows a sampling of the vast array of documents, systems, databases, and reports that can be used to select the specific measure or measures to monitor throughout the program.

Table 2.7: Sources of Data
Department records	Safety and health reports
Work unit reports	Benchmarking data
Human capital databases	Industry/trade association data
Payroll records	R&d status reports
Quality reports	Suggestion system data
Design documents	Customer satisfaction data
Manufacturing reports	Project management data
Test data	Cost data statements
Compliance reports	Financial records
Marketing data	Scorecards
Sales records	Dashboards
Service records	Productivity records
Annual reports	Employee engagement data

Some program planners and team members believe corporate data sources are scarce because the data are not readily available to them, near their workplace, or within easy reach through database systems. With a little determination and searching, however, the data can usually be identified. In our experience, more than 90 percent of the impact measures that matter to a specific program or project have already been developed and are readily available in databases or systems. Rarely do new data collection systems or processes have to be developed.

Collateral Measures

When searching for the proper measures to connect to the program and pinpoint business needs, it’s helpful to consider all the possible measures that could be influenced. Sometimes, collateral measures move in harmony with the program. For example, efforts to improve safety might also improve productivity and increase job satisfaction. Thinking about the adverse impact on certain measures also helps. For example, when cycle times are reduced, quality could suffer; or when sales increase, customer satisfaction could deteriorate. Finally, program team members must prepare for unintended consequences and capture them as relevant data items.

PERFORMANCE NEEDS

Application objectives are based on performance needs. In the needs analysis, this step explores reasons the business measure is where it is rather than at the desired level of performance. If the proposed program addresses a problem, this step focuses on the cause of the problem. If the program takes advantage of an opportunity, this step focuses on what is inhibiting the organization from taking advantage of that opportunity.

Analysis Techniques

This step might require a variety of analytical techniques to uncover the causes of the problem or inhibitors to success. Table 2.8 shows a brief listing of these techniques. It is important to relate the issue to the organizational setting, to the behavior of the individuals involved, and to the functioning of various systems. These analytical techniques often use tools from problem-solving, quality assurance, and performance improvement fields. Searching for multiple solutions is also important, because measures are often inhibited for several reasons. Keep in mind the implementation of multiple solutions— whether they should be explored in total or tackled in priority order. The detailed approaches of all the techniques are contained in many references (Langdon, Whiteside, & McKenna, 1999).

Table 2.8: Analysis Techniques
Statistical process control	Diagnostic instruments
Brainstorming	Focus groups
Problem analysis	Probing interviews
Cause-and-effect diagram	Job satisfaction surveys
Force-field analysis	Engagement surveys
Mind mapping	Exit interviews
Affinity diagrams	Exit surveys
Simulations	Nominal group technique

A Sensible Approach

The resources needed to examine records, research databases, and observe situations and individuals must be taken into account. Analysis takes time, and the use of expert input, both internally and externally, can add to the cost and duration of the evaluation. The needs at this level can vary considerably and might include

• ineffective behavior
• dysfunctional work climate
• inadequate systems
• disconnected process flow
• improper procedures
• unsupportive culture
• insufficient technology.

These needs have to be uncovered using many of the methods listed in Table 2.8. When needs vary and techniques abound, the risk exists for excessive analysis and cost. Consequently, a sensible approach must be taken. Balance must exist between the level of analysis and availability of resources and time.

LEARNING NEEDS

Learning objectives are based on learning needs. Addressing the job performance needs uncovered in the previous step often requires a knowledge or information component, such as participants and team members learning how to perform a task differently or how to use a new process. In some cases, learning is the principal solution, as in competency development, major technology changes, capability development, and system installations. In these situations, the learning becomes the actual solution.

For other programs, learning is a minor solution and involves simply understanding the process, procedure, or policy. For example, when a new ethics policy is implemented, the learning component requires understanding how the policy works and the participants’ role in the policy. In short, a learning solution is not always needed. But all solutions have a learning component.

A variety of approaches measure specific learning needs. Multiple tasks and jobs are usually in a program, and each should be addressed separately.

Subject Matter Experts

One of the most important approaches to determining learning needs is to ask those who understand the process. They can best determine what skills and knowledge are necessary to address the job performance issues defined above. Then it might be possible to understand how much knowledge and how many skills already exist.

Job and Task Analysis

A job and task analysis offers a systematic look at information when a new job is created or when tasks within an existing job description change significantly. Essentially, the analysis collects and evaluates work-related information, determining specific knowledge, skills, tools, and conditions necessary to perform a particular job. The primary objective of the analysis is to gather information about the scope, responsibilities, and tasks related to a particular job or new set of responsibilities. In the context of developing learning needs, this information helps in preparing job profiles and job descriptions. These descriptions, in turn, serve as a platform for linking job requirements to specific information or training needs.

Performing a job and task analysis not only helps individuals who will use the program to develop a clear picture of their responsibilities, but it will also indicate what is expected of them. The amount of time needed to complete a job and task analysis varies from a few days to several months, depending on the complexity of the program. Components include identifying high performers, preparing a job analysis questionnaire, and developing other materials as necessary to collect information. During the job analysis, responsibilities are defined, tasks are detailed, and specific learning requirements are identified (Gupta, 1999).

Observations

Current practices within an organization might have to be observed to understand the context in which the program is implemented. This technique can provide insight into the level of capability, as well as appropriate procedures. Observation is an established and respected data-collection method that can examine workflow and interpersonal interactions, including those between management and team members.

Sometimes, the observer is unknown to those being observed (placed in the environment specifically to observe the current processes). In other instances, the observer previously worked in the environment, but is now in a different role. Another possibility is that the observer is invisible to those being observed. Examples include retail mystery shopping, electronic observation, and temporary employee (observer) placement. It is important to remember that observation can uncover what individuals need to know or do as a program changes.

Demonstrations

In some situations, having employees demonstrate their abilities to perform a certain task or procedure provides valuable insight. The demonstration can be as simple as a skill practice or role play, or as complex as an extensive mechanical or electronic simulation. From this determination of job knowledge, specific learning needs can evolve.

Tests

Testing is not used as frequently as other needs assessment methods, but it can prove highly useful. Employees are tested to find out what they know about a particular situation. Test results help guide learning issues. For example, in one hospital chain, management was concerned that employees were unaware of the company’s policy on sexual harassment or what actions constitute sexual harassment. In the early stages of the program analysis, a group of supervisors and managers, the target audience for the program, took a 20-item test about their knowledge of the sexual harassment policy (10 items) and knowledge about sexual harassment actions (10 items). The test scores revealed where insufficient knowledge existed and formed the basis of a program to reduce the number sexual harassment complaints.

Management Assessment

When implementing programs in organizations in which there are existing managers or team leaders, input from the management team might be used to assess the current situation and the knowledge and skills that the new situation requires. This input can be collected through surveys, interviews, or focus groups. It can be a rich source of information about what the users of a new program would need to know to make it a success.

Where the learning component is minor, learning needs are simple. Determining specific learning needs can be time consuming for major programs for which new procedures, technologies, and processes are developed. As in the previous step, it is important not to spend excessive time analyzing at this early stage in the process, but collecting as much data as possible with minimal resources.

PREFERENCE NEEDS

Reaction objectives are based on preferences. This level of needs analysis drives the program features and requirements. Essentially, individuals prefer certain processes, schedules, or activities for the learning and performance improvement program or project. Those preferences define how the particular program will be implemented.

Typical preference needs are statements that define the parameters of the program in terms of timing, content, staffing, location, technology, and extent of disruption allowed. Although everyone involved has certain needs or preferences for the program, implementation is based on the input of several stakeholders rather than that of an individual. For example, participants involved in the program (those who must make it work) might have a particular preference, but their preference could exceed resources, time, and budget requirements. The immediate manager’s input may help minimize the amount of disruption and maximize resources. Available funds are also a constraining resource. The urgency for program implementation may create a constraint in the preferences. Those who support or own the program often place preferences around the program in terms of timing, budget, and the use of technology. Because this is a Level 1 need, the program structure and solution will directly relate to the reaction objectives and to the initial reaction to the program.

INPUT NEEDS

Input objectives are based on input needs. This level of analysis is similar to the preference analysis. Here, the basic input requirements are clearly defined. If the program or project is derived from analysis, this analysis would define various parameters and input requirements. If the program or project is addressing compliance, the regulation could define the requirements in terms of timing, content, audience, and even location. Because resources are limited, some constraints might surround budget. Because some projects are urgent, timing issues could come into play. Some projects need to be conveniently located, calling for location requirements. Input needs are often straightforward and come directly from the analysis or the request for the program. Understand clearly that the basis of these requirements captures all the needs, and they quickly and straightforwardly translate into input objectives.

FINAL THOUGHTS

Objectives are based on clearly defined needs, derived from careful analysis of the problem, opportunity, or requirement that led to the project or program. By considering the needs stacked on different levels, ranging from payoff needs to input needs, the complete profile is developed, which leads to a profile of objectives. Not every project or program should be subjected to all of these analyses. Some we base solely on learning needs. Others might be based strictly on preference needs, which is the case for many programs in the meetings and events arena, for example. The important issue is to take a rational, logical approach when determining needs and, ultimately, objectives. The remainder of the book focuses on how to construct the objectives that evolve from these needs. We will begin with input objectives, Level 0.