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Introduction to Sociology

1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘sociology’ is derived from the Latin word societus, meaning ‘society’, and the Greek word logos, meaning ‘study’ or ‘science’. Thus, sociology means the science of society. It essentially and fundamentally deals with the network of social relationships we call ‘society’. It is one of the youngest social science disciplines.

The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte, the French philosopher often referred to as the father of sociology. He introduced the word sociology for the first time in his famous work Positive Philosophy in about 1839. Enlightenment brought about the need to develop a ‘scientific’ outlook and to interpret the world in terms of the laws of science, discarding the earlier theological interpretations. Thus, social thinkers thought that development was scientific in nature. While Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle were the first to work out a model for human society, social thinkers in the 19th century started thinking about the emergence, growth, and development of society from the perspectives of science.

1.1. The Teaching of Sociology as a Separate Discipline

Sociology is one of the youngest of the social science disciplines. It was earlier studied as a part of philosophy. With the development of modern science and scientific methods during the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a separation of sociology from philosophy and a closer association with the natural or physical sciences.

The general concepts of sociology are as follows:

• Sociology is a science of society.
• Sociology is a science of social relationships.
• Sociology is the study of social life.
• Sociology is the study of human behaviour in groups.
• Sociology is the study of social action.
• Sociology is the study of forms of social relationships.
• Sociology is the study of social groups or social systems.

Figure 1.1 General Concepts of Sociology

2. ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology can be considered as one of the youngest as well as one of the oldest of social sciences. It came to be recognized as a distinct branch of knowledge only recently. However, from the beginning of civilization, society has been a subject of enquiry and has spurred on the restless and curious mind of man. For thousands of years, men have reflected on the societies in which they lived.

However, sociology as a science and particularly as a separate field of study is of recent origin. The earliest attempts at systematic thought regarding social life in the West may be said to have begun with the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BCE). Plato’s Republic is an analysis of the city community in all its aspects. Later, in Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics, we find the first major attempts to deal systematically with the law, the society, and the state.

The Romans were mainly preoccupied with the legal aspects of European society and did not focus on its non-legalistic aspects. Therefore, they produced few original social philosophies. Among Romans, the most outstanding author is Cicero, who in his book, De Officus (On Justice), transmitted to the Western world the treasures of Greek learning in philosophy, politics, law, and sociology.

In the Middle Ages, scholasticism developed as a method of learning in the universities, which focused on reasoning and merged classical philosophy with medieval Christian theology. The scholastics propounded the Biblical thesis that man is a special creation of God: He is subject to no laws but those of God, and that the social system is divinely sanctioned.

It was not until the 16th century that a clear-cut distinction was made between the state and the society, and there appeared writers who treated social issues from a more pragmatic point of view. In the 18th century, Italian writer Vico and French writer Montesquieu made notable contribution towards the scientific investigation of social phenomena. According to Montesquieu, laws are an expression of the national character, and the spirit they exhibit can be explained in the light of the social and geographical conditions under which men live. Climate is the principal determinant of social life.

In the 19th century, Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term ‘sociology’ and stated that it is a science of social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, and their discovery is the object of investigation. Comte proposed the study of sociology in two main parts: social statics and social dynamics. In social statics, the subject of study is how societies are interrelated. Social dynamics deals with whole societies as the unit of analysis, and explains how they developed and changed through time. Comte’s important works are Positive Philosophy and Positive Polity.

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), considered as one of the most brilliant social thinkers of the 19th century, established sociology as a systematic discipline. His book, Principles of Sociology, was published in three volumes in 1877 and it deals with sociological analysis. According to him, family, politics, religion, social control, and work (industry) are the fields of sociology. His work gives an account of how the parts of a society influence the whole.

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French philosopher, was the first modern thinker to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in maintaining the ‘whole’. Durkheim also stated that society was more than the sum of its parts. Thus, he focused not on the study of social facts, that is, ways of thinking, feeling, acting, and so on, which exist over and above the actions of individuals. According to him, as ‘social facts’ are external to individuals, they can be studied by sociologists. Durkheim studied religion, division of labour, and suicide as social facts. His main works are The Division of Labour in Society, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Suicide, and Rules of the Sociological Method.

German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) made pioneering contributions through his theory of social action, concept of bureaucracy, and concept of the ideal type. The ideal type, according to Weber, is not related to any type of perfection and has no connection at all with value judgements. It is purely a logical one: a methodical device that tries to render a subject matter intelligible by revealing or constructing its inner rationally.

The study of sociology was initiated in India in 1919 at the University of Bombay, but it was in 1930 that it began to be taught as a separate discipline. Indian writers in the early 20th century, such as G.S. Ghurye, R.K. Mukerjee, D.P. Mukherji, Benoy K. Sarkar, H.T. Mazumdar, and N.K. Bose, made original contributions to the sociological study of India’s villages, the caste system, marriage, kinship, and family in India, creating the foundations of the discipline in India.

3. NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

The nature of sociology depicts the frame that the society forms by fixed and systematic examination of peoples’ social activities through face-to-face interactions, developed from active movement of civilization and history. Sociology not only focuses on a single aspect of society but also governs multiple dimensions of social life that includes economy, state, family, religion, science, social inequality, culture, and human life. Sociology, as a branch of social science, by its nature has its own method of investigation done based on theoretical traditions and has its roots grounded in pragmatic approach on observation of social reality. Sociology as a subject, which is the branch of social science, gives knowledge about society and its functions, and explains the nature of social activity, and that each society has different nature. The important characteristics of sociology are as follows:

• It is a purely independent science.
• It is a social science with no definite normative discipline.
• It is a pure science and not a practical science.
• It is more or less an abstract science and not a concrete science.

The nature of sociology dwells up with people in the society and the types of family found in it, such as nuclear, joint and extended families. The activities of these family types are explained by the nature of sociology. Each society has its own caste system and it is usual that marriage occurs with same caste people. However, some societies encourage marriages to occur with blended families, which means that people get married belonging to different castes with broad mind and positive attitude. People in the society and the parents or elders of the respective couples accept the blended family. Although such family is formed in a socially acceptable manner, there are both advantages and disadvantages that decide the nature of the society.

3.1. Disadvantages

• There are more chances for the siblings to get into enmity and rivalry.
• The young children in the family may act into bad habits, such as smoking and alcohol consumption.
• Family members may have conflict with financial issues. They may be selfish with their money in issuing to other members of the family.

3.2. Advantages

• Single parent gets life after remising.
• A new type of family blending is formed.
• Child of a divorced or widowed spouse gets a new parent.

3.3. Conclusion

A family is a social institution where the members are joined in a socially acceptable manner, where they share the responsibility in building up a good family, develop good relationship with society, and frame social relationship with society. Families are formed after legally acceptable procedure, that is, marriage where each member enjoys his or her complete life.

• It is a general science that does not deal with any one particular individual.
• It is a branch of science that is rational and empirical in nature.
• Sociology is a branch of social science that deals with disciplines of reversal distinct modes of enquiry. It has human sociality as central part of any pursuit. In this perspective of sociology, human activities are understood as a web of social relationships with broader structures. Few studies in sociology focus on intimate, face-to-face communication and about activities and functions of whole civilization throughout history, but most of them focus on human activities in context. In this manner it gets differentiated from psychology, which deals only about autonomous individual as basic unit of analysis. Sociology perceives human life as a whole. It is better understood only when it is connected properly to the social life.

Social theories form main and central part of social investigation because they give complete statements, which are comprehensive and will have connections among various factors of social life.

Certain important theories in sociology may focus on economic and cultural forces that have greater significance in shaping the society, as sociology as a discipline requires doing in-depth research in order to have a clear concept to understand the relationship among the focused factors within the social life as a whole. The term ‘whole’ means the comprehensive understanding about the focused factors. Therefore, in this manner, sociology can be differentiated from other disciplines like economics and political science that form centre part of enquiry.

4. SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY

Scope means to understand in depth about the area of the study. Sociology has its own field of enquiry. It has its own boundary of knowledge and scope. There are multiple opinions about sociology, but there are two main thoughts given from the school of sociology, which are as follows:

1. Specialist or formalistic school
2. Synthetic school

Both schools of sociology have contradictory ideas about sociology. Specialist school has belief that sociology is a specified science and has limited scope, whereas the synthetic school believes that sociology is a general science and has vast scope.

4.1. Specialistic School

Famous sociologists who support this school were George Simmel, Vierkandt, Max Weber, von Wiese, and F. Tonnies. The important concept and ideas about this school on sociology are follows:

• Sociology is a pure, independent, specific social science.
• Sociology studies in detail about various forms of social relationships.
• Scope of sociology has its narrow space and is limited.
• Sociology deals with particular form of human relationship.
• It studies only important events connected with social science.
• Simmel, the sociologist, has the belief that given that sociology is a specific science, it should deal with social relationships with multiple angles or dimensions.

4.1.1. Criticism or Disadvantages

• Sociologists alone do not study the social relationships but other social scientists also do it.
• It is practically difficult to differentiate the forms of social relationships that is explained in following chapters, and it is hard to explain the society in a nut shell, as the society deals with different types of social relationships.
• Formalistic schools have sorted out that scope of sociology is narrow and limited.
• Full concept of sociology is imaginary.

4.2. Synthetic Schools

Main sociologists who supported this school were Ginsberg, Durkheim, Comte, Sorokin, Spencer, F. Ward, and L.T. Hobhouse. The important views and concept of the sociologists about this school are follows.

• Sociology is a systematic and, moreover, general social science.
• Sociology covers various areas and has most scope in the area of enquiry.
• It is ultimately a synthesis of social science.

5. SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

5.1. The Scientific Method

In order to describe or illustrate sociology as social science in a better way, there is a need to do an in-depth systematic scientific enquiry using scientific methods. The subject matter on sociology that if required to be described always has a limited space; therefore, sociology should be systematically enquired, and moreover, any subject that is dealt in scientific method requires greater patience, good confidence, better knowledge, diligence, creative imagination ability, and objectivity in order to define it as a scientific social science. Therefore, without this scientific attitude and with good social spirit, nobody can profit nor describe sociology as a scientific science. This method consists of the following five steps:

1. Observation: The first or initial step in a scientific method is a minute and careful observation of the subject matter of research. This kind of observation differs from simply looking around. Scientific observation proceeds systematically. It must be accurate and precise, and should take place under controlled conditions, though this is sometimes difficult.
2. Recording: The second step of a scientific method is a careful recording of all the data obtained in the observation. For this, unbiased objectivity is necessary.
3. Classification: The collected data has to be then classified and organized. The classification is aimed at placing disintegrated facts into such a relation that they exhibit a symmetrical pattern. In this way, the subject matter is systematically arranged on a logical basis, leading to the formulation of concepts that symbolize whole categories of people, objects, and processes.
4. Verification: Because most research is subject to error—of which the researcher may not be aware—verification is an important step of a scientific method. This step consists of repeating, or replicating, the research project by the original scientist or by others. For a research to be considered valid, it must be capable of being replicated with the same results.
5. Generalization: The last step in the scientific method is to generalize the findings of the research by analysing the possible relationships among concepts. Conclusions are drawn from the analysis of the data. Such generalization leads to theories and laws.

Figure 1.2 Steps of Scientific Methods in Sociology as Science

5.2. The Essential Elements of Science

Let us now discuss the essential elements of science on the basis of the foregoing discussion, and see whether sociology can be called a science.

5.2.1. The Scientific Method

As has been stated earlier, science is so called not because of its subject matter but because it employs scientific methods.

5.2.2. Objectivity

Scientists must relieve themselves of personal attitudes, desires, beliefs, values, and tendencies when confronting data intended to support a finding. They must not allow any biases to influence their judgements.

5.2.3. Ethical Neutrality

Scientists cannot make value judgements about their conclusions; they must only be concerned with whether their findings are true or false.

5.2.4. Relativity

Scientific findings are always subject to change or revision, based on new discoveries or changes in any of the elements involved. Therefore, scientific findings cannot be considered as universal or final truths. While in the natural and physical sciences it is also possible to have universal laws, the social sciences have no laws because they deal with people rather than inanimate objects.

5.3. How Sociology Is a Science

5.3.1. Sociology Employs the Scientific Method

All the methods of sociology are scientific. Sociological methods employ various scientific apparatus, such as scales of sociometry, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, case studies, and so on. In these methods, the first step is the collection of data through observation, which are then systematically recorded. Following this, the data are classified, research results replicated, and theories formulated on the basis of the accepted data.

Figure 1.3 How Sociology Is a Science

5.3.2. Sociologists Try to Be Objective

Although objectivity is a goal of social science research, total objectivity in social science research is often an ideal, since the researchers’ class, education, gender, and so on, may influence the way they view their subjects. Whether total objectivity is possible or even desirable in social science research is a matter of much debate.

5.3.3. Sociologists Need to Be Neutral

Sociologists are not supposed to state if their conclusions are good or bad, and therefore they subscribe to principles of value neutrality.

5.3.4. Relativity

Social science theories are frequently questioned and undergo revisions depending upon changes occurring in the society. Furthermore, unlike in the natural sciences, there may be different theories about the same social phenomena, which may all be equally valid.

5.4. The Difference between Social Sciences and Physical Sciences

Sociology and other social sciences share with other sciences the use of the scientific methods. However, it is evident from the preceding discussion that though sociology is a scientific discipline, it cannot be compared to the natural or physical sciences. Roughly speaking, the natural or physical and social sciences differ in the following respects (Table 1.1).

 

TABLE 1.1 Difference between Social Sciences and Physical Sciences

Social Science	Physical Science
Social science investigates laws related to man’s social behaviour	Physical science searches for physical laws in natural phenomena.
Social science proceeds upon the assumptions that man is the central figure.	There is no equivalent in physical science.
The fundamental elements of social sciences are psychological related.	The basic elements of physical sciences have a physical relation.
The basic elements of social science cannot be separated analytically.	Because they study physical elements, the physical science possesses greater exactness.
Because of their lesser exactness, social sciences can make comparatively few predications.	Physical sciences can make more predictions due to their higher degree of exactness.
Objectivity is achieved with difficulty in social sciences.	Objectivity is attained easily in physical sciences.
Social science provides comparatively lesser scope for measurement of subjects matter.	There is greater possibility of measurement in the study of physical examination.
It is difficult to construct laboratories for social sciences. Society is the laboratory.	Physical sciences have their own laboratories because they can easily be constructed for studying physical objects.

6. FUNCTIONS OF SOCIOLOGY

6.1. Technical Function

India is a newly born democracy. Although it was at the peak of prosperity in ancient times, its condition deteriorated in the Middle Ages, and there have been no improvements since. As a result, the democracy is facing many obstacles and difficulties. In brief, the country’s leaders and thoughtful citizens are faced with the problems of reconstructing the country. In this reconstruction will lie the foundation of social reconstruction. Problems concerning mores, traditions, institutions, classes, castes, and so on, will have to be faced. There are many problems faced in operating the technical function of sociology, therefore first and foremost step to fulfil the operational function of sociology is to understand about present content and its meaning of democracy and this function is carried out by a sociologist.

Technical Introductory Informative Tolerative Cultural

Figure 1.4 Functions of Sociology

6.2. Introductory Function

Sociology not only undertakes to supply information concerning the meaning of various parts of the social system, but also acquaints one with the nature and laws of those in order to facilitate the interaction of any change. Before any desired change can be made in a society, it is necessary to know the methods that can introduce this change into its various parts. These methods are scientifically studied in sociology.

6.3. Informative Function

In this way, the study of sociology would put the social worker and officers in India in possession of important information. A theoretical study can never be a substitute for practical experience. The country can progress only through practical improvements, not by theoretical study. However, a theoretical and scientific study of such problems of society, such as unemployment, poverty, prostitution, crime, social disorganization, individual disorganization, lack of food, and so on, is a good background for practical efforts at such improvement. Society is a complex structure and its problems cannot be comprehensible to every individual. There must be a scientific study of these if they are to be understood. It is necessary to conduct sociological researches into special circumstances so that there can be proper guidance in practice.

6.4. Tolerative Function

In India, one comes across people belonging to many different castes, races, tribes, religions, and cultures. A sociological study would make a comprehensive survey of the customs and traditions of each of them. This would tend to enhance tolerance and benevolence. For example, a person studying the customs relating to diet, living, clothing, marriage, and so on, of one tribe would not compare them with his or her own and look at one or the other as superior but would rather be inclined to consider both from a scientific viewpoint, an attitude of curious and speculative interest. As a result, he would not restrict morality to thoughts of class segregation but would make an effort to recognize or discover its real universal nature of form. This would lead to the removal of narrow differences and give the seed of nationalism a chance to strike roots and develop into a feeling of universal brotherhood with the passage of time.

6.5. Cultural Function

The development of society is impossible without cultural development. A scientific study of the various meanings of culture and principles of their activities, besides a study of their importance, would be an added advantage, before trying to make any practical contribution to cultural development. As it is necessary to theoretically acquaint a person with the machinery before he can be taught to repair motors, so is it necessary for the pioneers of culture to be acquainted with the elements of culture.

6.6. Democratic Function

The great benefit of the study of sociology lies in its democratic function. India has now become a republic but, owing to lack of any democratic sense in the masses, social maladies such as prejudice, selfishness, deceit, chicanery, and so on, are prevalent. The country’s greatest need at the moment is character, as has been stressed repeatedly by national leaders. While on the one side this character implies a selfless tendency, on the other, it does not lose sight of tolerance, benevolence, understanding, planning, and so on, all of which are very important. The study of sociology can introduce a proper viewpoint in this direction.

7. SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

7.1. Sociology and Other Social Sciences

There are other social sciences, in addition to sociology; which study society. Among them are psychology, anthropology, history, economics, and so on. Comte considers these other sciences useless since society cannot be broken into parts and studied. In Comte’s opinion, society is a totality and its study should also be done as a whole. In this way, sociology is the sole social science, according to Comte, but sociologists today do not agree with Comte’s theory. Actually, the structure of society is so vast and complex that a general science that studies it in its entirety must be supplemented by special sciences, which study its parts. Sociology synthesizes the other social sciences but it is at the same time an individual science having its own individual viewpoint. According to Ward, sociology definitely does synthesize other social sciences, but it is a synthesis in which the individual social sciences lose their separate existence and form or create a novelty. Sorokin, too, looks upon sociology as an independent science.

7.2. Sociology and Psychology

Sociology studies society, while psychology studies human behaviour. In the words of Thouless, psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviour. In this way, the scopes of sociology and psychology coincide to quite some extent and both are positive sciences. Both are factual and both employ scientific methods. Both have lesser capacity of prediction. In both, it is difficult to maintain objectivity.

7.2.1. Difference between Sociology and Psychology

Difference in Attitude

Maclver writes about sociology: ‘It is difference of attitude in regard to a common material.’ The attitude of psychology is individualistic and that of sociology is social.

Difference in Units

The unit of psychology is an individual, while sociology regards the society as a unit. In this way, the psychologist studies man as an individual in interaction with his culture and geographical environment. On the other hand, the sociologist studies man as a part of society.

Difference in Methods

The methods of sociology and psychology are not identical. They differ from each other.

7.2.2. Relation between Psychology and Sociology

Sociology and psychology have much in common and enjoy an intimate relationship. Without understanding human psychology, it is more or less impossible to understand the interrelations and activities related to human beings. In much the same way, many of the profound secrets of psychology remain, so there is a need for the knowledge of social relationships, behaviours, and activities.

7.3. Sociology and Anthropology

A. L. Kroeber calls sociology and anthropology twin sisters. Social relations between sociology and anthropology are closer than those between anthropology and political science.

7.3.1. Three Parts of Anthropology

Anthropology can be divided into three parts as follows:

1. Physical anthropology: It studies the characteristics of human anatomy, from which is derived the knowledge of human races and of the origin of human being. This study benefits sociology.
2. Social and cultural anthropology: According to a committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute, UK, social anthropology deals with the behaviour of man in social situations.
3. Prehistoric archaeology: It studies the cultures of prehistoric period. Using them as a standard for comparison, the sociologist facilitates his understanding of the present social structure.

7.3.2. Difference between Sociology and Anthropology

Difference of Subject Matter

The subject matters of sociology and anthropology differ. Physical anthropology studies the subtle anatomical characteristics, whereas sociology concerns itself with their influence upon social relationships.

Figure 1.5 Difference between Sociology and Anthropology

Difference of Attitude

Kluckhohn says, ‘The sociological attitude has tended towards the practical and the present; the anthropological towards pure understanding and the past.’

Difference of Methods

As a result of studying different subject matters from different viewpoints, sociology and anthropology differ from each other in their respective methods. Sociology makes use of documents, statistics, survey, and so on. Social anthropology resorts in the main to the functional method, in which the person conducting the research actually goes to live in the society he is to study. Sociology and anthropology are not only different but are related too. Table 1.2 highlights the relationship between these two fields.

 

TABLE 1.2 Relation between Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology	Anthropology
Mainly a study of modern communities	Mainly a study of ancient communities
Makes use of documents and the statistical method	Makes use of the functional method
In additional to studying social problems, it makes suggestions for their solutions.	Studies social problems but does not make suggestions for their solution.
Methods of social science	Methods of natural science
Limited study of anatomical characteristics	Detailed study of anatomical characteristics
Is concerned with the influence of anatomical features upon social relationships	Is not concerned with the influence of anatomical features upon social relationships
Study of influence of races upon social relationships	Profound study of races; no concern with their effect upon social relationships
Special individual study of various aspects and problems of society	Study of society as a whole
Besides discovering social facts, it also guides their change	Does not guide

7.4. Sociology and Economics

Defining economics, Fairchild, Buck, and Slesinger write, ‘Economics is the study of man’s activities devoted to obtaining the material means for the satisfaction of his wants.’ According to this definition, economics is the study of economic relations.

Economic relationships bear a close relation to social activities and relationships. On the other hand, social relationships are also affected by economic relationships. Due to this close relation some sociologists have treated economics as a part of sociology.

 

TABLE 1.3 Difference between Sociology and Economics

Sociology	Economics
Sociology studies social relationships	Economics studies economic relationships
Sociology comprehends the whole society in its scope	The scope of economics is comparatively restricted
Sociology has a comprehensive viewpoint	Economics studies relations and activities only from the economic viewpoint
Sociology studies society. Its unit is the group	The unit of economics is the individual and it mainly studies his/her economic aspect
The methods of sociology differ from those of economics	In economics, induction, deduction, and so on, are used

7.4.1. Difference between Sociology and Economics

Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of subject matter, scope, viewpoint, methods, and so on (Table 1.3). Thus, economics is an independent science whose relation to sociology is one of mutual assistance.

7.5. Sociology and History

History studies the activities of human race. Paul Barth has said that the history of cultures and institutions is of help in the understanding of sociology and in the collection of its material.

Sociology assists in the study of society. Nowadays, history is also being studied from the sociological viewpoint. The philosophy of history is also proving very useful for sociology. In this way, sociology and history are closely related.

7.5.1. Difference between History and Sociology

History Is Concrete, While Sociology Is Abstract

According to Park, in the sense that history is concrete, sociology is the abstract science of human experience and human nature. History presents a chronological description of incidents, cultures, and so on, but sociology attempts to discover their cause and general principles.

Sociology and History Have Different Perspectives

As a rule, history studies those incidents that are peculiar or unusual. Sociology studies those incidents that are frequently repeated. History describes incidents taking place at a definite place and time. Sociology strives to discover universal laws and is not related to particular spatio-temporal incidents.

They Have Different Interests

History generally studies incidents that happened in the past. Sociology is interested in past incidents only inasmuch as they can render some assistance in understanding the present societies.

7.6. Sociology and Political Science

Pointing out the close relation between sociology and political science, Barnes has written, ‘The most significant thing about sociology and modern political theory is that most of the changes which have taken place in the political theory in the last thirty years have been along the line of development suggested and marked out by sociology.’ Actually, the knowledge of sociology is necessary to understand the problems of political science because political problems also have a social aspect.

7.6.1. Problems Common to Sociology and Political Science

The law of the state has a profound influence on society. It is by means of law that the government changes and improves society but it is necessary to keep in view the customs, traditions, and racial norms of the country while formulating laws. The problem of deciding upon the form of government is best explained by taking recourse to both sociology and political science. The problem of determining the government’s policy is also common to both. Similarly, the study of customs, behaviour, institutions, values, and so on, is common to both sociology and political science.

As sociology and political science are two different subjects, they have differences as well. Table 1.4 explains these differences.

 

TABLE 1.4 Difference between Sociology and Political Science

Sociology	Political Science
Science of society	Science of government or political society
Study of organized and disorganized communities	Study of only organized communities
Study of all kinds of social relationships	Study of only political relationships
Study of all forms of society	Study of only the political society
Study of the means of social control	Study of only those means of control that are recognized by government

7.7. Sociology and Biology

According to N.G. Miller, our ideas of what sort of progress is possible or desired for man depends in part at least upon our views of his nature, his manner of organization, and the method by which he bears with the rest of nature. In this way, the study of biology is necessary for the study of sociology. It is not possible to determine the models and limits of man’s social progress without being acquainted with his physical capacities, qualities, shortcomings, and limitations. Biology presents us with this very knowledge. It studies man’s original and biological development, describes his development, sexual, anatomical and personal peculiarities, and formulates principles for his adjustments to the environment. The Darwinian theory of evolution is just one such principle that has been used in sociology to good advantage. Besides, human ecology is based upon biological ecology. Genetics, which is of major importance in sociology, is also a branch of biology.

7.7.1. Limits of Biological Principles in Social Sphere

However, biological principles can be applied the social sphere only up to certain limits. An indiscriminate application beyond these limits can lead to drastic consequences. It is indicating towards this fact that Ginsberg has cautioned against the too facile application of biological categories to social facts and, in particular, a tendency to over-emphasize the purely racial factors in social evolution or change.

8. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY

Medical sociology is a specialized branch of sociology which studies health, healthy behaviour and health institutions. Previously, disease and its treatment were considered the problems of medical sciences alone, but medical sociologists have declared that in diseases and health problems, the role of social and psychological factors is very significant. Similarly, it is very important to find out the role of behavioural and cultural factors in the causation of diseases.

Figure 1.6 Uses of Medical Sociology

8.1. Uses of Medical Sociology

• To estimate the rural health status of the individual and the community.
• To find out the social factors in the causation of communicable diseases like sexual diseases, TB/AIDS, and so on.
• To find out the customs, traditions, beliefs, and other cultural patterns that affect the health of a particular community.
• To establish the interdependence of medical and social sciences.

The meaning of social pathology is to understand conditions, such as poverty, crime, beggary, and so on. The study of diseases and social factors responsible for their causation may also be included in this. The study and survey of accidents, heart diseases, diabetes, asthma, cancer, and so on, come under the subject matter of social medicine.

9. HOSPITAL SOCIOLOGY

The study of hospital, patients, medical and nursing personnel, and organizations of health care and services are included in hospital sociology. The hospital has become an indispensable part of society. In addition to in-patients, a large section of the society is indirectly related to the hospital as outdoor patients. Hence, it is essential that the hospital should be studied in its entire social perspective. The following may be included in the subject matter of hospital sociology:

• Social structure of the hospital
• Medical and nursing professionals
• Hospital and nursing (as an industry)
• Specialization in medical services
• Patient–doctor, nurse–patient, nurse–doctor, nurse–patient’s relatives, and other interpersonal relations within the hospital
• Medico-social work
• Consumer Protection Act
• Medical ethics, nursing code of conduct, and social etiquette
• Role of patients and their relatives in the hospital

10. SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS IN SOCIOLOGY

10.1. Education

It is an established fact that education improves health status. Education of women especially plays an important role in the health behaviour of the people. Educated societies or states have low maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR).

10.2. Political Structure

Policies, rules, and regulations about health and their implementation depend upon the political structure of a country. A positive political system improves the health conditions of the citizens. Strong political will and democratic pattern always support the well-being of the people.

Figure 1.7 Socio-cultural and Economic Aspects in Sociology

10.3. Occupation

The financial position of an individual or family affects its health conditions. If an individual is unemployed, he or she cannot afford to spend much on health prevention and promotion. Poor families are more susceptible to diseases. In illness, they feel stressed for lack of money.

10.4. Economic Status

Nations that have a sound economic status or financial strength can spend more on health; therefore citizens of developed countries have a higher life expectancy and better health status.

10.5. Demographic Structure

Demography is directly related to the health conditions of the people. Male–female ratio, population of children, youth and older people, density of population, and so on, affect and determine the health status.

10.6. Cultural Beliefs

Cultural beliefs and values regarding food, living, housing, habits, personal hygiene, and so on, affect the lifestyle of an individual and community. Lifestyle has greater impact on health. A healthy and positive lifestyle enhances health promotion.

10.7. Social Environment

It covers the wide area of social health. Social health is related to positive maternal environment and positive human environment.

11. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGY

The major methods of investigation of social phenomena used by sociology are the following:

• Questionnaire method
• Schedule method
• Interview method
• Case study method
• Participant observation
• Social survey
• Statistical method

11.1. Questionnaire Method

In social research the questionnaire method is used comprehensively. In the questionnaire method, as is evident from its name, a list of selected questions is compiled. These questions throw light upon the different aspects of the problem. Usually, the questions have a ‘Yes/No’ response format and the informant has merely to reject the wrong answer. The questionnaire method, however, has several difficulties. Often, while answering the question, people prevaricate. Sometimes, the questions are so framed that they become ambiguous and are interpreted differently by the observer and the informant. Quite often, the questions are answered without grasping their full significance. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the questionnaire method is by far the most popular in social research.

11.2. Schedule Method

The schedule method resembles the questionnaire method inasmuch as it is also a list of questions, the answer to which supplies the data. But these questionnaires are taken by the observer to the informant and the answers filled in by this method have a greater minuteness of detail. However, compared to the questionnaire method, this one involves more time, energy and money.

11.3. Interview Method

In the interview method, evidently enough the observer faces the informant and questions him across the table, noting down the information that the questions elicit. This certainly does obtain much useful information but simultaneously becomes plagued by the defect that much of the information that the informant can offer indirectly cannot be expected in a direct interview. In fact, much of the success of the observer depends upon his individual ability. If the informant shows hesitation because the information is being transcribed, a tape recorder can be used.

Figure 1.8 Methods of Sociology

11.4. Case Study Method

The case study is a form of qualitative analysis involving very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation, or an institution. This method may be defined as an all-inclusive and intensive study of an individual in which the investigator brings to bear all his inquisitive methods, or as a systematic gathering of enough information about a person to allow one to understand how he or she functions as a unit of society. Burgess calls this method the ‘social microscope’. In this method, a schedule or questionnaire relating to the problems of the people who are to be studied is prepared and laws are formulated by generalizing the answers to these questions. This method clarifies the latent meaning of numerals and is therefore complementary to a statistical study.

11.5. Participant Observation

As is evident from the name, in the participant observation method, the observer participates with the people whom he is observing. This gives him the opportunity to come into direct contact with the people who are to provide him this information. This method provides much detailed information along with the facility of its execution. But this method involves extensive use of time, money, and energy. In spite of these difficulties, it assists in a profound study of rural groups because other methods like the questionnaire method do not prove efficacious. This method finds an uninhibited use in all anthropological studies.

11.6. The Statistical Method

The statistical method is widely used in sociology. In the words of Odum, statistics, which is the science of numbering and measuring phenomena objectively, is an essential tool of research. In this method, quantitative facts are collected. According to Bogardus, social statistics is mathematics applied to human facts. This method is used in questions that involve measurements, numerals, and so on. For example, this method is very important in the study of the rates of birth and death, divorce, marriage, and so on. This method can also be used in the measurement of social situations and assumptions. This method helps to deduce averages and norms.

12. SOCIAL SURVEY

Social survey is a process by which qualitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community’s composition and activities. It is evident from this definition that social survey is intended to be the study of the social aspects of the composition and activities of a community. Social survey method is also a fact-finding study dealing chiefly with the poverty of the working class and with the nature and problems of the community.

12.1. Objectives of Social Surveys

12.1.1. Collection of Data Related to the Social Aspects of Community

Social surveys study individuals as members of society and in this way study social circumstances and problems.

12.1.2. Study of Social Problems, Especially Labour Problems

In social surveys, social problems and in particular the problems of the labour class like illiteracy, poverty, lack of sanitation, unemployment, drinking, crime, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, and so on, are studied.

12.1.3. Practical and Utilitarian Viewpoint

The studies of social survey are made with a practical and utilitarian viewpoint so that suggestions for collective programme may be offered in solving different problems.

12.2. The Subject Matter of Social Surveys

12.2.1. Direct Survey and Indirect Survey

Direct survey is one in which the facts can be quantitatively interpreted. On the other hand, no such quantitative interpretation is possible in the case of an indirect survey. For example, the survey of the population is direct. On the other hand, the survey of the state of health or the level of nutrition is indirect.

12.2.2. Census Survey and Sampling Survey

In a census survey, the different parts of the entire area are individually studied and the figures are then compiled into one. On the other hand, in a sample survey, instead of studying the whole area, we take only a representative part of it.

12.2.3. Primary Survey and Secondary Survey

In a primary survey, the survey is started right from the beginning. In this survey, the surveyor collects facts concurring with his objectives and thus primary surveys are more reliable and pure. But if some data has already been collected in the study of any subject, a new start does not have to be made. The survey conducted under these circumstances is called a secondary survey.

12.2.4. Initial Survey and Repetitive Survey

If the survey conducted in the area is the first of its kind, it is called an initial survey. If some survey has already been done in the past, then the present survey is termed a repetitive survey. An initial survey involves a comparatively greater effort and exertion. In it comparable data are not available. In a repetitive survey the information obtained is more reliable and can be compared.

12.2.5. Official Survey, Semi-official Survey and Private Survey

As the name indicates, official survey is the survey sponsored by the government; semi-official survey is the one conducted by universities, district boards, municipalities, and other similar semi-official institutions; and private survey is a survey undertaken by individuals.

12.2.6. Widespread Survey and Limited Survey

Surveys are classified as such on the basis of their extension or coverage. A survey covering a greater area is called a widespread survey, while one more limited or less extensive is known as a limited survey. A limited survey is comparatively more reliable and less liable to make mistakes, but at the same time it carries with it the probability of some of the facts being omitted.

12.2.7. Public Survey and Confidential Survey

It is evident from the very name that public surveys are those in which the process and results of study are not concealed, while confidential surveys are those in which the processes and results are not revealed to the people.

12.2.8. Postal Survey and Personal Survey

Postal survey, as the term itself implies, is a method in which the surveyor obtains the answers by sending the questionnaire by post. If the survey is to be a personal one, then the surveyor has to move about personally in the areas to be surveyed and collect information. Postal survey certainly does economize upon time, effort, and money, but the information which it can obtain is very limited and lacks reliability.

12.2.9. Regular Survey and Ad Hoc Survey

Regular surveys are conducted after the lapse of a fixed period of time, as exemplified by the surveys conducted by the State Bank of India. The team made for an ad hoc survey is temporary and is dissolved after the survey has been completed.

12.3. Major Steps in Social Surveys

• Definition of the purpose or object
• Definition of the problem to be studied
• Analysis of this problem in a schedule
• Delimitation of the area or scope
• Examination of all documentary sources
• Fieldwork
• Arrangement, tabulation and statistical analysis of data
• Interpretation of the results
• Deduction
• Graphic expression

13. FIELDS OF SOCIOLOGY

The scope of sociology being wide, an effort has been made to divide its study into different fields. Table 1.5 lists its main fields of study.

 

TABLE 1.5 Fields of Sociology

Fields of Sociology	Description
Sociological theory	It includes the study of sociological concepts, principles, and generalizations
Historical sociology	Under this, we study the past social institutions and the origin of the present ones
Sociology of the family	It studies the origin, growth, functions, kinds, nature of family and its problems like those of divorce, and so on
Human ecology and demography	It studies the influence of population and geographical factors on society
Sociology of community	It is a study of community. It is divided into two parts: rural sociology and urban sociology
Special sociologies	Recently, special sociologies have been developed to study different aspects of social relationships

13.1. Other Fields of Sociology

• Sociology and family
• Sociology and community
• Sociology and demography
• Sociology and education
• Sociology and religion
• Sociology and economics
• Sociology and politics
• Sociology and social stratification
• Sociology and anthropology
• Medical sociology
• Sociology of law
• Military sociology
• Sociology of criminology
• Social psychology
• Social disorganization
• Sociology of ecology
• Sociology of rural and urban society
• Cultural sociology

14. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology studies society scientifically: A scientific knowledge of society is the prerequisite to any marked improvement in the state of human affairs.

14.1. Sociology Studies Roles of the Institutions in the Development of the Individual

Sociology studies social institutions, and the relation of the individual to each of these institutions. The home and the family, the school and education, the church and religion, the state and government, industry and work, the community and associations—these are the great institutions through which society functions.

14.2. The Study of Sociology Is Indispensable for Understanding and Planning of Society

Society is a complex phenomenon with a multiplicity of intricacies. It is almost impossible to understand it and solve its various problems without the study of sociology. A certain amount of knowledge about the society is necessary before any social policy can be carried out. For example, a policy of population control cannot be determined in exclusively economic terms because matters of family organization, customs, and traditional values must be taken into account, and these require a sociological type of analysis.

14.3. Sociology Is of Great Importance in Solving Social Problems

The present world is suffering from many problems, which can be solved only through a scientific study of the society. It is obvious that social evils do not just happen. Everything has its due cause. It is the task of sociology to study the social problems through the methods of scientific research and find out solutions for them.

14.4. Sociology Has Drawn Our Attention to the Intrinsic Worth and Dignity of Man

Sociology has been instrumental in changing our attitude towards human beings. In such a huge and specialized society as ours, we are all limited as to the amount of the organization and culture that we can experience directly.

14.5. Sociology Has Changed Our Outlook with Regard to the Problems of Crime, and So On

Again, it is through the study of sociology that our whole outlook on various aspects of crime has changed. The sciences of criminology and penology, social work and social therapy, which are rendering commendable service in understanding social situations and solving individual problems, are but handmaids of sociology.

14.6. Sociology Has Made a Great Contribution to Human Culture

Human culture has been enriched by the contribution of sociology, which has removed many cobwebs from our minds, and knowledge and enquiry. Sociology also impresses egoistic ambitions and class hatred. In short, its findings stimulate every person to render a hill measure of service to every other person and to the common good.

Figure 1.9 Importance of Sociology

14.7. Sociology Is of Great Importance in Solving International Problems

The progress made by physical sciences has brought some nations of the world to a stage of advancement that is much ahead as compared to those who have been left behind by the revolutionary progress of the sciences. We live in a 21st-century world, which is politically divided in terms of 18th-century conditions. The consequences are that stresses within and between political units lead from time to time to war and conflict. Given the workshops of the nation-state, men have failed to bring in peace. The study of sociology of war will help understand the underlying causes of war and remove all such causes that promote tensions between nations and ultimately lead to war.

14.8. Sociology Is Useful as a Teaching Subject

In view of its importance, sociology is becoming popular as a teaching subject also. It is being accorded an important place in the curriculum of colleges and universities.

14.9. Sociology as a Profession

The value of sociology lies in the fact that it keeps us up to date on modern situations. It contributes to making good citizens and to solving community problems, adds to the knowledge of society, identifies good government with community, helps one understand the causes of things; and so on.

• Nurse should understand the nature and the scope of sociology so that the nurses are able to integrate and learn the society well.
• Sociology is investigated as a social science, several research surveys are done to learn essential elements and its effects on the society
• The nurses should be able to enumerate the different functions of sociology and highlight the difference between other branches of science, for example, psychology, and inculcate the importance of sociology in nursing practice.

I. LONG ESSAY

• Define sociology, and explain the importance of sociology.
• Explain the different methods of sociology.
• Illustrate the functions of sociology.

II. SHORT ESSAY

• Explain sociology as a scientific method.
• List the differences between social and the physical science.
• Explain the relationship and difference between sociology and psychology.
• Describe medical sociology.
• Illustrate the socio-cultural and economic aspects in sociology.

III. SHORT ANSWERS

• Define social survey.
• Outline fields of sociology.
• Delineate the concept of sociology and biology.
• Briefly write notes on sociology and political science.
• Explain the concept of sociology and history.
• Write few words about sociology as a separate discipline.
• Illustrate the concept of sociology and anthropology.
• Define medical sociology.
• List the steps of social survey.
• Describe few lines on statistical method.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The term sociology was coined by:
   1. Auguste Comte
   2. Herbert Spencer
   3. Emile Durkheim
2. The study of sociology was initiated in India in the year 1919 at:
   1. University of Chennai
   2. University of Mumbai
   3. University of Delhi
3. The first modern thinker, French philosopher, who explained society as ‘whole’ was:
   1. Max Weber
   2. Herbert Spencer
   3. Emile Durkheim
4. The Greek philosopher Plato and Aristotle were first to frame the model of:
   1. social process
   2. human society
   3. social life
5. The book on principles of sociology was written by:
   1. Plato
   2. Max Weber
   3. Herbert Spencer
6. Theory of socialization was pioneered by:
   1. Aristotle
   2. Emile Durkheim
   3. Max Weber
7. In the 18th century Italian writer Vico and French writer Montesquieu made a notable contribution to scientific investigation on:
   1. social stratification
   2. social change
   3. social phenomenon
8. The study about cultures in prehistoric period is called as:
   1. prehistoric archaeology
   2. anthropology
   3. psychology
9. The philosopher who said sociology and anthropology are twin sisters:
   1. A. L. Kroeber
   2. Plato
   3. Auguste Comte
10. Cicero’s book on justice (De Officus) is on:
    1. Greek sociology
    2. American sociology
    3. Indian sociology
11. Which of the following can be a suitable area of study in the scope of sociology?
    1. trade
    2. community
    3. education
    4. individual
12. One of the effects of sociology is:
    1. lack of objectivity
    2. absence of purpose
    3. lack of fixity
    4. none of the above

ANSWERS

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11.(b) 12. (a)

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