5

Social Process

1. INTRODUCTION

Society is a system of relationships between two or more individuals and also between different groups. The contents of social relations are actions between persons, who are acting towards one another and responding reciprocally. Social interactions are social processes whereby two or more persons are in a meaningful contact and exert reciprocal influence on each other. The term social relationship refers to the relationship that exists among people. We may witness such relationships between father and son, employer and employee, teacher and student, merchant and customer, leader and follower, friends and enemies, children, and so on. Such relationships are among the most obvious features of society.

Social relationships represent the functional aspects of society. Analysing and classifying them is a difficult task. Social relationships involve reciprocal obligations, reciprocal statuses, and reciprocal ends and means, as between two or more actors in a mutual contact. They refer to a pattern of interaction between these individuals, and this is why the school of sociology, which has attempted to systematize its thought in relationship terms, has been called the formal school. Thus, social relationships may be studied by the kind or mode of interaction they exhibit. These kinds or modes of interaction are called social processes. Social processes are the fundamental ways in which men interact and establish relationships.

2. FORMS OF SOCIAL PROCESS

Society contains hundreds and perhaps thousands of socially defined relationships. These relationships are beyond measurement. It is humanly impossible for any individual to make a detailed study of each and every social relationship. Instead, social relationships must be classified and dealt with as general types. For this reason, they have been classified and discussed in terms of the kinds of interaction they manifest. The forms of social interactions are of two types: conjunctive processes and disjunctive processes.

2.1. Conjunctive Processes

These are the interactions that bring persons together. These are called positive processes and reflect mutual altruism and justice or associative processes. Conjunctive processes of interactions are cooperation, accommodation, and assimilation.

2.2. Disjunctive Processes

These are the interactions that push people apart. These are called negative processes or dissociative processes that reflect hostility. The disjunctive processes of interactions are conflict and competition. Both of these lead to disintegration in society. They are the forms of non-cooperation and opposition. However, there is a considerable difference between competition and conflict. The fundamental differences between the two can be understood from Table 5.1.

 

TABLE 5.1 Differences between Competition and Conflict

Competition	Conflict
Impersonal	Personal
Continuous	Intermittent
Unconscious	Conscious
Productive	Non-productive
Encourages hard work	Discourages hard work
Based on non-violence	Based on violence
Both combatants gain	Both combatants lose
Achievement of aim the primary object	Prevention of damage the prime consideration
Observes social laws	Discourages social laws
Divides into very small divisions	Divides into large divisions
The aim is self-interest with loss to opponent	The aim is self-interest

3. COOPERATION

Cooperation is that form of social interaction in which two or more persons work for the achievement of a common end. For example, take the case of a college. Here, all the teachers have a common aim of maintaining a high standard of education. They also aim to create and maintain a respectable position of the college in social circles. This commonality of aim leads them all to cooperate with each other.

Suppose there is a teacher who does not share these common aims. What does he or she do? Such a teacher does not cooperate with the other teachers. Similarly, in order to run a state carefully, there needs to be cooperation within the administration. Besides, the administrator and the administered have to extend their full cooperation to each other.

3.1. Meaning of Cooperation

Cooperation is one of the most basic, pervasive, and continuous social processes. It is the very basis of our social existence. Cooperation generally means working together for the pursuit of a common goal. The term cooperation is derived from two Latin words, co meaning ‘together’ and opere meaning ‘to work’. Literally, cooperation means ‘joint work’ or ‘working together for common rewards’.

Cooperation is a form of social process in which two or more persons or groups act jointly in the pursuit of a common goal. It is a reciprocal relation. Generally, it means working together in pursuit of common interests. Thus, it refers to group effort to realize certain common goals.

Cooperation consists of two elements, namely: (1) common goals and (2) an organized effort. Social life depends upon cooperation. We cooperate in several ways with others in our social activities daily. For example, we play together, we worship together, the farmers till their fields together. In fact, the agricultural activities are generally carried on the basis of cooperation. Cooperation is a significant interactional process because the basic social activities are carried on smoothly by cooperation. It would not be an exaggeration to say that cooperation is necessary for our very existence. For, it is cooperation that results in procreation and in the rearing of children and in socialization.

Cooperation requires sympathy and identification. We cannot have cooperation without developing sympathy for others. Sympathy depends upon the capacity of an individual to imagine himself in the place of another, particularly when the other person is in difficulties.

3.2. Types of Cooperation

3.2.1. Direct Cooperation

Individuals involved in direct cooperation perform identical functions, For example, while playing together, working together, or tilling fields together, people work in company with other members. The performance of a common task with joint effort brings them social satisfaction.

3.2.2. Indirect Cooperation

In this case, the functions are not identical. The performers retain their individuality, but they have a common end in mind. They do unlike tasks towards a similar end. This is based on the principle of division of labour and specialization.

3.2.3. Primary Cooperation

This is found in primary groups, such as family, neighbourhood, friends’ group, children’s playing group, and so on. In cooperation in these groups, individual interests are merged in group interests. Every member works for the betterment of all. There is an interlocking identification of the individuals, the group, and the task performed. The group contains all, or nearly all, of each individual’s life. The rewards for which everyone works, are shared, or are meant to be shared, with every other member in the group. Means and goals become one, for cooperation itself is a highly prized value.

3.2.4. Secondary Cooperation

This is the characteristic feature of the modern civilized society and is found mainly in secondary groups. It is highly formalized and specialized. Here, cooperation is not a value in itself; attitudes are more likely to be individualistic and calculating. Most members of the group feel some loyalty towards the group. Each performs his tasks, and thus helps others to perform their tasks, so that he can separately enjoy the fruits of his cooperation.

3.2.5. Tertiary Cooperation

This refers to the cooperation that may be found between bigger groups. It may be found between two or more political parties, castes, tribes, religious groups, and so on. It is often called accommodation.

3.3. Importance of Cooperation

That cooperation is important is obvious by the fact that the very existence of society depends on the mutual cooperation between the males and females of the species. Child-bearing and rearing are the results of the mutual cooperation between man and woman. The socialization of the child is not possible without the cooperation of the members of the family. It is this cooperation that nurtures his various potential capacities. The story remains the same outside the family too. The child learns and lives with the cooperation of his teachers and colleagues at school. Cooperation is so important in the life of an individual that it is difficult for man to survive without it. He calls it mutual aid. In the rearing of progeny and in the provision of protection and food, cooperation is inevitable. The continuation of human race requires the cooperation of male and female for reproduction and upbringing of children. Cooperation has its origin in the biological level.

Cooperation helps society to progress; the latter is better achieved through united action. Progress in science and technology, agriculture and industry, transport and communication, and so on, would not have been possible without cooperation. The persons who cooperate may generate unbounded enthusiasm. It is the mainspring of our collective life. It gives strength to union. It builds; it conserves. In democratic countries, cooperation has become a necessary condition for people’s collective life and activities. The growth of the role of cooperation is seen in the increase in the size of communities. Cooperation is an urgent need of the present-day world. It is needed not only among the individuals, associations, groups, and communities, but also among nations.

4. ACCOMMODATION

When we move from conflict to reconciliation and cooperation, the first step is accommodation. It is impossible to always conflict with and struggle against your environment or the people around you. Although you may not agree with them, you must, more often than not, tolerate or suffer them. This understanding or common agreement is called accommodation. It is a process that goes on at all points of time in some sphere of life or the other, even though we are not aware that the process is going on. The life of an adolescent in the family is a striking example of accommodation. This process of accommodation is seen in every sphere of life. When people from villages or small towns migrate to cities or metropolises, they accommodate themselves in the new situation. Accommodation is necessary whenever you are placed in a new country, society, caste, social circle, neighbourhood, or any other sphere.

Accommodation is a form of social process in which two or more persons interact in order to prevent, reduce, or eliminate conflict. It refers to the termination of rivalrous interaction. It avoids conflict and competition. It is a process that makes the individuals adjust and adapt themselves to each other. The main feature of accommodation is living peacefully and in co-existence with one another. It avoids hostility and is based on give-and-take policy.

Accommodation is also a condition. It is a condition of mind where you are attuned to social understanding and peace. Right from your birth, you are a part of a particular set of circumstances, some of which are good and some bad.

4.1. Need for Accommodation

• Accommodation assumes various forms. Without accommodation, social life can hardly go on. Since conflicts disturb social integration, disturb social order, and damage social stability, in all societies efforts are made to solve them at the earliest.
• Accommodation checks conflicts and helps persons and groups maintain cooperation.
• It enables persons and groups to adjust themselves to changed functions and statutes which are brought about by changed conditions.
• It helps to carry on the life activities together even with conflicting interests.
• It is a means of resolving conflict without the complete destruction of the opponent.
• It makes cooperation between antagonistic or conflicting elements or parties possible. Hence it is often called antagonistic cooperation.

There are differences between accommodation and adjustment (Table 5.2).

Accommodation and adaptation are also different in many aspects (Table 5.3).

 

TABLE 5.2 Differences between Accommodation and Adjustment

Accommodation	Adjustment
Unconscious	Conscious
Comes after adjustment	Comes before accommodation
Both external and internal	Only external

 

TABLE 5.3 Difference between Accommodation and Adaptation

Accommodation	Adaptation
A process of learning	Result of biological Evolution
Outcome of conflict	Outcome of competition
Social process	Biological process

4.2. Characteristics of Accommodation

• Accommodation is the natural result of conflict: Since conflicts cannot take place continuously, they make room for accommodation. When parties or individuals involved in conflict do not relish the scene of conflict, they sit down for its settlement.
• Accommodation may be a conscious or unconscious activity: Man’s adjustment with the social environment is mostly unconscious. The newborn individual learns to accommodate himself to the social order that is dictated by various norms, such as customs, morals, traditions, and so on. Accommodation becomes conscious when the conflicting individuals and groups make deliberate and open attempts to stop fighting and start working together.
• Accommodation is universal: Accommodation as a condition and as a process is universal. It is found in all societies and in all fields of social life.
• Accommodation is continuous: The process of accommodation is not confined to any particular stage in the life of an individual. It is not limited to any fixed social situation either. On the contrary, throughout one’s life one has to accommodate oneself to various situations.
• The effects of accommodation may vary with the circumstances: Accommodation may act as a means to reduce the conflict between persons or groups. It may serve to postpone outright conflict for a specific period of time, and may permit groups marked by sharp socio-psychological distance to get along.

4.3. Forms or Methods of Accommodation

Gillin and Gillin have mentioned the following methods of accommodation:

• Yielding to coercion: Coercion involves the use of force or the threat of force to make the weaker party accept conditions of agreement. This can take place when the parties are unequal in strength. It implies the existence of the weak and the strong in any conflict.
• Compromise: When the contending parties are almost equal in power, they attain accommodation by means of compromise. In compromise, each party to the dispute makes some concession and yields to some demand of the other.
• Toleration: Toleration is another form of accommodation in which the conflicts are avoided rather than settled or resolved. Toleration or tolerant participation is an outgrowth of the ‘live and let live’ policy. It is a form of accommodation without formal agreement. There is no settlement of difference but only the avoidance of conflict.
• Conversion: This form of accommodation involves a sudden rejection of one’s beliefs, convictions, and loyalties and the adaptation of others. This term is ordinarily used in the religious context to refer to one’s conversion to some other religion. The concept is now used in literary, artistic, economic, political, and other fields.
• Sublimation: Accommodation by means of sublimation involves the substitution of non-aggressive attitudes and activities for aggressive ones. It may take place at the individual as well as the group level.

Figure 5.1 Methods of Accommodation

• Rationalization: This involves plausible excuses or explanations for one’s behaviour. One is not prepared to acknowledge one’s failures or defects for it may indicate guilt or the need for change. Hence, one blames others for one’s own defects so that one can retain one’s self-respect.

5. ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is the process by which a person or a group coming into contact with another cultural group acquires its ways of life in the long run. It is a form of adjusting to the society. When an individual or a group is exposed to new circumstances, they begin to absorb these circumstances slowly and gradually, somewhat unconsciously. As a result, social attitudes get modified. The changes that have crept among the Hindus and the Muslims, in many parts of India, is a very good example of assimilation. The two communities have become so intimate and well acquainted with each other that they have assimilated many points of each other’s cultures into their own. It would be very difficult now to differentiate these points from their own social conduct.

Assimilation is a cultural process. When one culture comes into contact with another, we get to see a dominant sentiment of mutual conflict in the beginning. With the passage of time, this sentiment subsides. The two cultures then synthesize with and assimilate many elements from each other. They begin to take each other more tolerantly. This is the process of assimilation. One culture gets the opportunity of combining with the other. Both the cultures develop the feelings of kindness and tolerance for each other. It is at this stage that either of the cultures begins to absorb many features of the other within itself. In other words, the cultures begin to assimilate. This process of assimilation can be seen in the relations between individual and society, husband and wife, members of the family, social institutions, associations and communities, and so on.

5.1. Factors Promoting Assimilation

5.1.1. Tolerance

Assimilation cannot occur unless the relationships are intimate. Now, such relationships are possible only in an atmosphere of tolerance. Thus, the first prerequisite is that people believing in one culture should be willing to tolerate the proximate existence of people who uphold the cause of a different culture. It is in this tolerant atmosphere that one culture can be influenced by the other. Tolerance is thus the fertile soil in which the process of assimilation finds its roots.

5.1.2. Close Social Relationships

As is evident from the previous paragraph, tolerance leads to very close social relationships and contacts. The greater the social contacts and the growth of social relationships, the faster the process of assimilation.

5.1.3. Cultural Similarity

Cultural similarity leads to greater assimilation. The reason for this is that when two cultures have striking similarities in some vital respects, then the intimacy and tolerance between the members of one culture for those of the other is of a higher order.

5.1.4. Amalgamation

Amalgamation is certainly a factor that promotes assimilation. In amalgamation, people from one culture marry into the other. This leads to the creation of blood relationships. Blood relationships can make people from the two cultures impress each other. Such an impression accelerates the process of assimilation.

5.1.5. Education

Education is another conductive factor for assimilation. For the immigrants, public education has played a prominent role in providing cultural contact.

Figure 5.2 Factors Promoting Assimilation

5.1.6. Equality of Economic Opportunity

As long as economic inequalities prevail, the environment smells of jealousy, hatred, and conflict. But if such inequalities can be got rid of, giving people the same opportunities for economic progress as their neighbours enjoy, social intimacy increases. This in turn promotes assimilation.

5.2. Factors Hindering Assimilation

5.2.1. Superiority and Inferiority

Strong feelings of superiority and inferiority foster only hatred and disgust among people for each other. In such a hostile environment, people decline to establish any relationship among themselves. The result is that they learn little, if anything, from each other. Rather, they try to avoid mutual contact and influence. In such adverse circumstances, one simply cannot expect assimilation.

5.2.2. Domination

Domination of others leads to a feeling of superiority among those who dominate. They do not consider the people they dominate on an equal footing with themselves. When the Aryans conquered the native races of India, their victor status made them look upon the latter as inferior. They abhorred the vanquished races. Similarly, when people lose their independence, they develop a hatred for their persecutors and rulers. Thus, whether it is domination or subordination, social relations do not grow. As a result, assimilation becomes difficult.

Figure 5.3 Factors Hindering Assimilation

5.2.3. Persecution

This point is merely an extension of the above one. The victors tend to socially persecute and exploit the vanquished. Such an injustice only leads to increased conflict between the exploiters and the exploited. When such a conflict exists, it hinders the growth of social intimacy and consequently that of assimilation.

5.2.4. Physiological Characteristics

The colour of one’s skin and the difference in physiological characteristics are big barriers in the path of assimilation. The differences and discrimination between the white and the black races across the world is a well-known phenomenon. Such discrimination leads to little mutual contact between the whites and the blacks. The whites consider themselves somehow superior to the blacks. This notion of superiority of breed makes them look upon all social contacts with the blacks as degrading. This naturally becomes an obstacle to assimilation.

 

TABLE 5.4 Differences between Assimilation and Accommodation

Assimilation	Accommodation
Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It takes time. For example, immigrants take time to get assimilated with the majority group	Accommodation may take place suddenly and in a radical manner. For example, talks with the management may lead workers to decide to stop their month long strike all of a sudden
It normally provides a permanent solution to inter-group disputes and differences	It may or may not provide permanent solution to group differences and disputes. It may only provide a temporary solution
It is mostly an unconscious process. Individuals and groups involved in it are often not aware of what actually happens within themselves or in their group	It may be both a conscious and an unconscious process. In most of the instances, it takes place consciously. For example, the labour leaders who come for talks are sufficiently aware of the fact that they are purposefully seeking out a solution to their dispute

5.2.5. Cultural Differences

We know that cultural similarity or identity promotes assimilation. Cultural differences, being just the opposite of this, naturally have the contrary effect. They tend to hinder the process of assimilation.

5.2.6. Isolation

Isolation is the opposite of intimacy. If the latter helps promote assimilation, the former hinders it. If you live in isolation from others, you cannot expect to form social contacts and relations. In such a scenario of aloofness, the question of mutual influence simply does not arise.

Assimilation and accommodation are two different processes (Table 5.4).

6. CONFLICT

Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations. It is one of the forms of struggle between individuals and groups. It takes place whenever a person or group seeks to gain a reward not by surpassing other competitors but by preventing them from effectively competing. Conflict and cooperation are universal interactional processes in human life.

Conflict is expressed in numerous ways in our daily activities. It occurs when crude hostility and more intense forms of struggle become common between individuals or groups to realize certain common objectives. The best examples of this are armed warfare, riot, revolution, street fight, and so on, in which large groups of persons combat with the intension of destroying one another. So, conflict refers to all rivalrous interactions between individuals and groups.

Competition gradually changes into rivalry, which in turn changes into conflict. Hence, Kingsley Davis is correct in observing that it is thus a modified form of struggle.

6.1. Nature of Conflict

• Conflict, as a process, is the very antithesis of cooperation. If cooperation facilitates the functions of a person or group of persons, conflict hinders them.
• Sometimes individuals resort to violent means to destroy their opponents. However, all violent actions should not be associated with conflict.
• Sometimes conflict carries a legal sanction and occurs peacefully. For example, the Indian National Army employed violent measures to fight against the British Government under the guidance and leadership of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.
• Conflict arises because of contradictory aims. For example, the aim of the Indians was to strengthen the country, whereas the British sought to weaken it. This contradiction in aims of the two peoples gave rise to conflict.
• Contradictory methods also lead to conflict. The contradictory methods of the different political parties of India are mainly responsible for the conflict between them.

6.2. Characteristics of Conflict

• Conflict is universal: Conflict or clash of interest is universal in nature. It is present in almost all the societies. Karl Marx, the architect of communism, has said that the history of the hitherto existing human society is nothing but the history of class struggle.
• Conflict is a conscious action: The individuals and groups who are involved in conflict are aware of the fact that they are conflicting. As Park and Burgess have pointed out, conflict is always conscious and evokes the deepest emotions and strong passions.
• Conflict of personal interests: When competition is personalized, it leads to conflict. In the struggle to overcome other persons or groups, the goal is temporarily relegated to a level of secondary importance.
• Conflict is not continuous but intermittent: Conflict never takes place continuously. It takes place occasionally. No society can sustain itself in a state of continuous conflict.
• Conflict is conditioned by culture: Conflict is affected by the nature of the group and its particular culture. The objectives of a conflict may be property, power and status, freedom, action, and thought or any other highly desired value.
• Conflicts and norms: Culture not only modifies conflict and its forms, but also controls and governs it. When conflict is frequent and when no adequate techniques have been worked out, more violent and unpredictable sorts of conflict, such as race riots, arise.
• Conflict may be personal or impersonal and open or subtle: Conflicts may assume a variety of forms. We may observe conflicts between two individuals, families, classes, races, nations, and groups of nations. They may take place between smaller or larger groups.
• Ways of resolving conflict: Conflict can be resolved mainly in two ways: (1) accommodation and (2) assimilation.
• Frustration and insecurity promote conflicts: Sometimes, factors like frustration and insecurity promote conflicts within the same society. Individuals feel frustrated if they are thoroughly disturbed in their attempts to reach their goals. Insecurities, such as economic crisis, unemployment, and the fear of deprivation of love and affection may add to the frustration. A society marked by widespread insecurity is one in which conflict is potential.

Figure 5.4 Characteristics of Conflict

6.3. Functions of Conflict

• Conflict results in a new consensus.
• It stiffens the morals and improves the solidarity of the group.
• It alters the relative status of the parties involved.
• At the end of the conflict, the victor group enlarges.
• Conflict provides opportunity to work out non-violent techniques for resolving crisis.
• It results in a redefinition of value system.

Competition is different from conflict as shown in the Table 5.5.

Cooperation is naturally different to conflict (Table 5.6).

6.4. Forms or Types of Conflict

6.4.1. Corporate Conflict

Corporate conflict, which is often known as group conflict, occurs among the groups within a society or between two societies. When one group tries imposing its will on the other, conflict takes place. For example, racial riots, communal upheavals, religious persecutions, labour– management conflicts, war between nations, and so on.

Figure 5.5 Functions of Conflict

6.4.2. Personal Conflict

It takes place within groups. It is more severely restricted and disapproved than the conflict between the groups. The group as a whole has nothing to gain from internal conflict. Personal conflicts arise on account of various motives: envy, hostility, betrayal of trust, and so on.

Violence occurs much less often, though not always, in personal conflict than in corporate conflict. A husband may quarrel with his wife, a student with his or her teacher, a friend with his or her friend, but they are less likely to get violent.

 

TABLE 5.5 Differences between Competition and Conflict

Competition	Conflict
Cooperation is a process of seeking to monopolize a reward by overtaking all rivals	Conflict is a process of seeking to possess a reward by weakening or eliminating all rivals
Competition may be conscious or unconscious	Conflict is always a conscious activity
Competition is universal as well as continuous	Conflict is universal but not continuous. It is intermittent
The attention of an individual is concentrated on the object or the goal. It is mostly impersonal in nature	The concentration is on the person rather than the object. Hence, conflict is mostly personal in nature
Competition may lead to positive as well as negative results. Healthy competition even contributes to progress	Conflict mostly brings negative results. Its negative results outweigh its positive results

 

TABLE 5.6 Difference between Cooperation and Conflict

Cooperation	Conflict
Cooperation refers to a joint activity in pursuit of common goals or shared rewards	Conflict is a process of seeking to monopolize a reward by weakening or destroying the other competitors
Cooperation may be conscious or unconscious. It need not always be a deliberate act	Conflict is mostly conscious in nature. It is mostly a deliberate act
Cooperation requires sympathy and identification, kindness and consideration for others	Conflict is always associated with the deepest emotions and strongest sentiments. In it, there is no regard for others
Cooperation is universal and continuous in nature	Conflict is universal, no doubt. But it is not continuous, it is intermittent
Cooperation brings mostly positive results. It builds, conserves and leads to progress	Conflict brings mostly negative results. It harms, destroys and retards progress
Cooperation is basic to group life. There can be no society without cooperation	Conflict is not fundamental to the group life of man. Society can exist without it
Cooperation assumes different forms: primary, secondary, and tertiary cooperation; direct and indirect cooperation	We may speak of class conflict, international conflict, conflict of interpersonal ideas, religious, cultural, racial, and caste conflicts

6.4.3. Latent and Overt Conflicts

Conflicts may be overt or latent. In most cases, long before a conflict erupts into hostile action, it has existed in latent form as social tension and dissatisfaction. Latent conflict becomes overt conflict when an issue is declared and when hostile action is taken. Overt conflict takes place when one side or the other feels strong and wishes to take advantage of this fact. For example, the latent conflict between democratic and communist countries becomes overt at the time of war between them.

6.4.4. Class Conflict

It arises between social classes which have mutually hostile or opposite interests. Karl Marx has spoken much about the conflict between the social classes: the rich and the poor, or the capitalists and the proletariats.

6.4.5. Racial Conflict

Racial conflict occurs mostly due to the physiological differences, which are apparently seen among people. One race may claim superiority over the other and start suppressing the other, resulting in conflicts. Conflicts between the whites and the blacks are examples of this.

6.4.6. Caste Conflicts

A sense of highness and lowness, of superiority and inferiority, of holiness and unholiness that some caste groups have developed has been responsible for caste conflicts. The so-called upper castes or Savarna Hindus conflicting with the so-called Harijans or lower castes (untouchables) has become a common feature in India.

6.4.7. International Conflicts

It refers to the conflict between two or more nations or groups of nations. It may take place for political, religious, economic, imperialistic, and ideological or any other such reason.

6.5. Negative Effects of Conflict

• Conflict is the most vigorous form of social interaction and evokes the deepest passions and strongest emotions. It disrupts social unity. It is a costly way of settling disputes. The results of intra-group conflicts are largely negative in that such a struggle lowers the morale and weakens the solidarity of the group.
• Conflict causes social disorder, chaos, and confusion. War as a form of conflict may destroy the lives and properties of countless individuals. It may bring incalculable damage and immeasurable suffering to a number of people. Human history has monumental evidence in this regard. The modern modes of warfare, which can destroy millions of people and vast amounts of properties within a few minutes, have brought new fears and anxieties for mankind.
• Conflict does a lot of psychological and moral damage also; it spoils the mental peace of man.

Conflicts may even make the people inhuman. Lovers of conflict have scant respect for human and moral values. Conflicts between the labour and the management have resulted in material losses. Productivity decreases because of labour strikes. Men and machines become idle.

6.6. Positive Effects of Conflict

• A limited amount of internal conflict may indirectly contribute to group stability. An occasional conflict within the group may make its leadership alert and its policies up to date. If there is no scope of occasional expression of conflict, and if it is deliberately suppressed, the accumulated discontent may explode and cause irreparable loss.
• External conflict brings about social unity and oneness among the members. During the Indo–Pak War, all the political parties joined together, forgetting their differences, and supported the Government of India in facing the challenges.
• Personal conflicts also have their advantages. It is through constant struggle only that individuals can rise to a higher level. The opposition of one individual by the other is the only way in which the continued relationship can be made personally tolerable.

7. COMPETITION

Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is a natural result of the universal struggle for existence. It is based on the fact that all people can never satisfy all their desires. Competition takes place whenever there is an insufficient supply of things that human beings commonly desire. Whenever and wherever commodities that people want are available in a limited supply, there is competition. Competition is a modified struggle. It is a social process in which two or more individuals or groups are striving to achieve some mutually desired goal. The desires and wants of the individuals or groups are unlimited. The objects are short in supply and of high value. If they are available in abundance, then no competition takes place. For example, people do not compete for air. Food products are essential for the continuation of life. Since they are short in supply, securing them leads human beings to engage in competitive endeavour. The degree of competitive process is expressed more in modern society then in simple society. Although it is a disjunctive process, it is a kind of game that must be played fairly and involves certain conscious or unconscious rules of the game.

Competition is a process of struggle between people for scarce goods, goals, money, rewards, status, values, or love. In it, the attention of the competitors is not so much upon each other as upon the goods, the goals, the status, and the recognition that they are seeking. Competition may take place on an unconscious level. Individuals compete to achieve their objectives unaware of the competitive character of their activities. For example, a large number of students in matriculation or higher secondary compete without being aware of the competitive character of each one of them. Competition may be personal, as in election to an office. In business, one can observe competition among merchants, which takes place in the absence of coercion or physical force. In society we find competition to secure higher status. Competitive opportunities are provided in all cultural systems. For example, educational opportunities are provided through which the members can strive hard to achieve their common goal.

7.1. Nature of Competition

7.1.1. Continuous

There is no end to competition. It always tends to increase. For example, competition in the acquisition of wealth goes on increasing.

7.1.2. Impersonal

The only difference between competition and struggle is that competition is always impersonal, whereas struggle is always personal. In the words of Ogburn and Nimkoff, struggle is a personal competition.

7.1.3. Unconscious

It is concerned with the subject and not the individual. Therefore, besides the knowledge of the subject, it is an unconscious action.

7.1.4. Universal

Competition is found in every society. This has its basis in the simple fact that people everywhere wish to procure the things that are limited in supply. Besides, competition is found in every class of people. We see students competing in the classroom, labourers competing in the field, and artists competing for fame. Competition enables the development of both the individual and the nation.

7.2. Forms of Competition

• Economic: Economic competition is found in production, exchange, and distribution as well as consumption in the field of economic activities.
• Social: Everybody seems to be engaged in competitive activity to get a high status in society.
• Political: Within a country, one can see competition between the various political parties and even between the different members of a political party to obtain political power. Similarly, at the global level, there is always diplomatic competition between different nations.
• Cultural: Cultural competition is found in different cultures. History shows that there has always been a great difference between the cultures of the natives and the invaders, and this leads to competition between the two.
• Racial: If there are two races within a country, there is intense competition between them. Countries like South Africa and Zimbabwe stand testimony to such competition.

7.3. Importance of Competition

• Competition has an important role in the life of individuals, societies, and groups. It increases efficiency. As Biesanz and Biesanz put it, we are convinced that while cooperation gets things done, competition assures that they will be well done. Social status and competition are very closely associated.
• In the words of Bernard, altogether we may speak of economic, social, and political competition. In all cases, competition for status is present. In fact, competition has an important hand in causing an amazing development of individual and society as the chief aim of competition is to move towards progress.
• In the words of Eldredge, the competition between individuals and groups aims largely towards the objective of preserving their respective status rather than survival. However, unrestrained competition is not desirable. For, competition is advantageous, but if it goes out of control, its disadvantages will overcome the advantages, thereby harming the society. Bogardus is correct in saying that competition logically develops into conflict.
• Competition may be impersonal. The individual competitor may be aware that others are competing with him. But the competitors have no personal contact with each other. The farmer is not in contact with other farmers with whom he is competing in determining the price of rice or wheat.
• Through competition, the distributive and ecological order of society is created (Park and Burgess). Competition determines the distribution of population territorially and vocationally. The division of labour and all the vast organized interdependence of individuals and groups, characteristics of modern life, are a product of competition.

7.4. Characteristics of Competition

7.4.1. Scarcity as a Condition of Competition

Whenever there are commonly desired goods and services, there is competition. In fact, economics starts with its fundamental proposition that while human wants are unlimited, the resources that can satisfy these wants are strictly limited. Hence, people compete for possession of these limited resources.

7.4.2. Competition and Affluence

Competition may be found even in circumstances of abundance or affluence. In a boom time for employment, competition may take place for the status of the top position. There is competition not only for food, shelter, and basic needs, but also for luxuries, power, name, fame, social position, mates, and so on.

7.4.3. Competition Is Continuous

Competition is found virtually in every area of social activity and social interaction. Particularly, competition for status, wealth, and fame is always present in almost all societies.

7.4.4. Competition Is Universal

Modern civilized society is marked by the phenomenon of competition. Competition covers almost all the areas of our social living. Business people compete for customers, lawyers for clients, doctors for patients, students for ranks or distinctions, athletes and sportsmen for trophies, political parties for power, young men and women for mates, and so on. Still, no society can be said to be exclusively competitive or cooperative.

Figure 5.6 Characteristics of Competition

7.4.5. Competition Is Dynamic

Competition stimulates achievement and contributes to social change. It lifts the level of aspiration from the lower level to a higher level. A college student who competes with others to get selected to the college cricket team, after becoming successful, may struggle to get selected to the university cricket team, to the state team, to the national team, and so on.

7.4.6. Competition a Cause of Social Change

Competition is a cause of social change in that it causes persons to adopt new forms of behaviour in order to attain desired ends. New forms of behaviour involve intentions and innovations, which naturally bring about social life. Competition is also an effect of social change because a changing society has more goals to open than a relatively static society.

7.4.7. Competition May Be Personal or Impersonal

Competition is normally directed towards a goal and not against any individual. Sometimes it takes place without the actual knowledge of the other’s existence. It is impersonal as in the case of civil services examination, in which the contestants are not aware of one another’s identity. Competition may also be personal as when two individuals contest for election to an office. As competition becomes more personal, it leads to rivalry and graduates into conflict. Competition in the social world is largely impersonal. The individual maybe vaguely aware of, but has no personal contact with, other competitors.

7.4.8. Competition May Be Constructive or Destructive

Competition may be healthy or unhealthy. If one or more of the competitors tries to win only at the expense of the others, it is destructive. Sometimes, big industries or capitalists resort to such a kind of competition and make small petty businessmen become virtually bankrupt. But constructive competition is mutually stimulating and helpful. It contributes to the welfare of all at large. For example, farmers may compete with one another to raise the best crops, workers in a factory to maximize production, students in a college to get distinctions, and so on.

7.4.9. Competition Is Always Governed by Norms

Competition is neither limitless nor unregulated. There is no such thing as unrestricted competition. Such a phrase is a contradiction in terms. Moral norms or legal rules always govern and control competition. Competitors are expected to use fair tactics and not unfair means.

7.4.10. Competition May Be Unconscious Also

Competition may take place on an unconscious level. Many times individuals who are engaged in competition may be oblivious of the fact they are involved in a competitive race.

7.5. Special Functions of Competition

7.5.1. Assigns Statuses to the Individuals

Competition assigns individuals their respective places in the social system. Social status and competition are always associated. Some people compete with others to retain their status; others to enhance their status.

7.5.2. Source of Motivation

Competition is a source of motivation for the individuals. It makes the individual show his ability and express his talents. It increases individual efficiency.

7.5.3. Provides Social Mobility

As far as the individual is concerned, competition implies mobility and freedom. The spirit of competition helps the individual improve his social status.

7.5.4. Competition Contributes to Economic and Social Progress

Fair competition is conducive to economic and social progress. It even contributes to general welfare because it spurs individuals and groups to exert their best efforts. When the competition is directed to promoting the general interests of the community as a whole, it can bring about miraculous results.

 

TABLE 5.7 Differences between Competition and Cooperation

Competition	Cooperation
Competition is a form of social interaction wherein the individuals try to monopolize rewards by surpassing all the rivals	Cooperation refers to a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end
Competition can take place at the level of the group and also at the level of the individual	Cooperation is always based on the combined or the joint efforts of the people
Although competition can bring about positive results, it can cause damages or losses to the parties or the persons involved.	Cooperation normally brings about positive results. It rarely causes losses to the parries or the persons involved
Competition has its own limitations. It is bound by norms. Limitless or unregulated competition can cause much harm	Cooperation is boundless. It has no limitations. One can go to any extent to help others
Competition requires qualities such as strong aspirations, self-confidence, the desire to earn name and fame in society, the spirit of adventure, and the readiness to suffer and struggle	As C.H. Cooley has pointed out, cooperation requires qualities such as kindness, sympathy, concern for others, mutual understanding, and some amount of readiness to help others
Competition may cause satisfaction as well as dissatisfaction, anxiety, indefiniteness and uncertainty	Cooperation brings people satisfaction and contentment

7.5.5. Provides for New Experiences

As Ogburn and Nimkoff have pointed out, competition provides the individuals better opportunities to satisfy desires for new experiences and recognition. As far as the group is concerned, competition means experimental change.

Competition is different from cooperation, as explained in Table 5.7.

8. ISOLATION

Isolation is the absence of communicative interaction or social contact. It is a situation deprived of social contacts. In this state of isolation, an individual or group is separated from the society. The public or other groups will not contact with them. The isolated members’ social movements are restricted. There is less chance of social interaction. An isolated individual or isolated group gets frustrated, and they may develop psychological and emotional defects. Isolation of the individual is considered to be a negative value that may or may not have complementary advantages.

8.1. Definition

Social isolation can be defined structurally as the absence of social interactions, contacts, and relationships with family and friends, with neighbours on an individual level, and with ‘society at large’ on a broader level. The most parsimonious definition of social support is ‘the resources provided by other persons’.

8.2. Types of Isolation

There are two main types of isolation: spatial isolation and organic isolation.

Type	Description
Spatial isolation	Spatial isolation is external. It is an enforced deprivation of contacts as for criminals. The individual in such cases is deprived of the protection of his or her group. The individual subjected to special isolation becomes aggressive and shows a greater tendency for anti-social behaviour.
Organic isolation	Organic isolation means isolation caused by certain organic defects of the individual such as deafness or blindness. It is not imposed by an external authority but is organic. The deaf and the blind are handicapped in public communication. They have narrow circle of friends. They may became suspicious, distrustful, irritable, and give to registration

8.3. Effects of Social Isolation on Health

Social isolation has its own harmful impacts in the society, since social isolation is major risk factor in the development of disease and disability that result in any course of existing discare. It is always added in to measure the quality of life, and express the outcome of health.

Social isolation is one of the major health problems seen among older adults, which leads to many health problems. Geriatric community is getting affected the most due to social isolation. Since the number of geriatrics is increasing, their health and quality of life is impacted due to society isolation. Government health professionals can take measures to increase early detection of social isolation problems and refer such risk cases to available community health resources to prevent further social isolation and prevent many health-related illnesses.

8.4. Social Isolation and Nursing Diagnosis

Social isolation and nursing diagnosis is explained by North American Nursing Diagnosis Association. It is defined as loneliness experienced by an individual in a negative or threatening state. There are many contributing factors, such as delay in accomplishing the developmental tasks, alternations in physical appearance, mental status, social behaviour, social values, inadequate personal resources, and inability to engage in satisfying personal relationships. The assessment of social isolation and diagnosis should be done properly and should be validated. A nurse should be able to identify the signs and symptoms of an individual, for example, feeling of abandonment, rejection, dread, demonstrating or ventilating desire for ventilation, becoming restless, irritable, less physically active, developing a sleep or eating disorder. Therefore, it is important to do a valid nursing diagnosis on social isolation that may affect the life of the older adults.

• Nursing students on learning the social process should understand and gain knowledge about forms of social process and different concepts under this process such as cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, conflict, competition, isolation and their types, characteristics, nature, functions, importance and effects on the society, respectively.
• They should implement their nursing care by identifying to which form of social process that they encounter with while practicing in the society.

I. LONG ESSAY

• What is a social process? How far is conflict a social process, and what is its place in social life?
• Evaluate the role of cooperation and competition in social life.

II. SHORT ESSAY

• What part do assimilation and accommodation play in the social process?
• Define social process and explain its types.
• Explain the difference between conflict and competition.
• Define isolation and explain the steps of isolation.
• Discuss the cause, nature, and types of conflict.
• Discuss the difference between competition and cooperation.
• Define assimilation. Explain factors promoting assimilation.
• Define cooperation. Explain the types of cooperation.

III. SHORT ANSWERS

• Explain importance of cooperation.
• Explain characteristics of accommodation.
• Explain characteristics of conflict.
• Explain forms of competition.
• Explain negative effects of conflict.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The factors hindering assimilation are:
   1. physical differences
   2. cultural differences
   3. inter-marriage
   4. economic equality
2. A social process takes place where there is:
   1. integration
   2. competition
   3. assimilation
   4. none of the above
3. Socialization is a process involving:
   1. setting up the social norms
   2. gradual changing of organism
   3. declaring everything as belonging to the society
   4. training to adopt to society
4. Assimilation is essentially a:
   1. social process
   2. political process
   3. historical process
   4. psychological process
5. An association is characterized by:
   1. norms
   2. customs
   3. folkways
   4. usage
6. Competition means:
   1. ways of emerging forth as superior
   2. accommodation
   3. assimilation
   4. fixation of status in society
7. Which among the following is based on direct cooperation?
   1. family
   2. parliament
   3. government
   4. general assembly
8. Which of the following is dysfunctional social process:
   1. competition
   2. cooperation
   3. assimilation
   4. integration
9. Which of the following is not a characteristic of conflict:
   1. conflict is a conscious action
   2. conflict is an impersonal activity
   3. conflict is a lack in continuity
   4. conflict is universal
10. Which of the following is not a form of conflict:
    1. war
    2. litigation
    3. feud
    4. examination
11. The conflict between capitalists and worker is an example:
    1. personal conflict
    2. class conflict
    3. racial conflict
    4. political conflict
12. Cooperation is crossed by conflict was said by:
    1. MacIver
    2. Cooly
    3. Gillin and Gillian
    4. Kart Mark
13. The factors hindering assimilation are:
    1. physical differences
    2. cultural differences
    3. inter-marriage.
    4. economic equality
14. Role of conflict is a major phenomenon of:
    1. primitive society
    2. agrarian society
    3. tribal society
    4. industrial society
15. Which among the following involves competition:
    1. wrestling match
    2. football matches
    3. a tribal archery competition
    4. candidates taking the IAS examination
16. The essential element of cooperation is that:
    1. People should work under the same roof.
    2. People should work together to gain a common end.
    3. People should profess the same religious faith.
    4. People should belong to the same nation.
17. Which of the following is not a characteristic of conflict:
    1. Conflict is a conscious action
    2. Conflict is an impersonal activity
    3. Conflict lacks continuity
    4. Conflict is universal
18. The causes of conflict may be that:
    1. The culture of a group differs from the culture of the other group.
    2. Men differ in their attitudes and ideas.
    3. Men possess different interest.
    4. People are primitive in their outlook.
19. The conflict between capitalists and worker is an example of:
    1. personal conflict
    2. class conflict
    3. racial conflict
    4. political conflict

ANSWERS

1. b 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. b 8. a 9. b 10. d 11. b 12. a 13. b 14. d 15. d 16. b 17. b 18. a 19. d

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