3

Man, Society, and Environment

1. INTRODUCTION

Everywhere man lives in social groups and in society. Society has become an essential condition for human life to arise and to continue. The sociality of man is virtually the central problem of sociology. The essential fact is that man always belongs to a society or a group of one kind or the other, and without it he cannot exist. Man is not only social but also cultural. It is culture that provides opportunities for man to develop his personality. The development of personality is not an automatic process. Every society prescribes its own ways and means of giving social training to its newborn members so that they may develop their personality. This social training is called socialization.

Human society is made of individuals. Every human being has a personality of his own, and he exhibits considerable variation from everybody around him. We are not ruled by instincts alone, but have learnt to modify our instincts according to our needs and the needs of the society in which we live. This is a highly complex process, the mechanism of which is not clearly known till now. Even with individuality, man is essentially social and without society he has no existence. For his emotional, intellectual, and even physical development, society is an absolute necessity. Man’s social nature is not a new development. Probably, we are born with it, and it existed with us all throughout.

Aristotle recognized this fact when he proclaimed that man is a social animal. This social necessity of man may be proved by various means. Two little girls aged two and eight, were rescued from the cave of a wolf. Amana, the younger girl, died within a few months, but Kamala, the older girl, survived for several years. Kamala had no human behaviour. She used to move, eat, and make sounds just like a wolf. During the nine years that she survived, she gradually picked up human habits, and started speaking a few words.

In another case, a six-month-old illegitimate American child, Anna, was kept locked up in a room from the age of six months to five years. She was given only milk during this period and was kept away from all human contact. When brought out, Anna could neither walk nor talk. She avoided people. She lived for four more years. She learnt social skills like wearing clothes, talking, and eating only.

There are several more examples of this type. But these cases show very clearly that human nature is not inherent. Rather, it develops only in association with other human beings. Man becomes human only when he lives in society. Sumner and Keller have held that they do not believe that man was outfitted with any innate quality of sociability implanted in his germplasm, but that the tendency to associate is acquired rather than inherited and that man’s association with his kind is a product of social, rather than of organic, evolution.

2. THEORIES OF MAN AND SOCIETY

2.1. Organism Theory

• Nicholson, Spengler, Spencer, and others are the major proponent of this theory.
• Just like a body is made of individual units (cells), society is also made up of units (human beings).
• Society also goes through the cycle of individual life, that is, birth, growth, maturity; sdecline, and death.
• Both have systems of control. In an individual, it is the nervous system that controls the activities of the entire body. In a society, it is the government and other agencies that control.
• Just as the individual body has a circulatory system, a society too has a system of transportation and communication.

Organism theory has its limitations too (Table 3.1).

2.2. Group Mind Theory

• This is related to the organism theory Plato in his Republic and Hegel in his Political Philosophy has mentioned this. Others, like T.H. Green, F.H. Burdle, Emerson, Wundt, and Durkheim have supported this view.
• William McDougall in his book on group mind has elaborated this theory. According to him, every group has a mind of its own, and in this mind are its culture, traditions, and values.

 

TABLE 3.1 Limitations of Organism Theory body

System	Society
The brain is a concrete organ in the human being, which is capable of thinking, acting, and controlling	But in a society, the mechanism is something very different and these two cannot be compared
In the case of an organism or individual, birth and death are two distinct incidents	But this is not so in the case of society
The cell unites to form organs	In a society, this does not happen. Individuals remain as separate units and they may be dispersed over different places
The organisms have a definite life cycle	But a society does not have any such definite cycle. It is an ever-changing entity

• The life of the individual in a group is facilitated and directed by this. The group mind is not a collection of the minds of the individuals of the group. It has an existence of its own, and has the power of influencing the minds of the individuals.
• It is because of this that the individual thinks and acts differently when he or she is a part of the group. The behaviour of man in a crowd proves the influence of group mind.
• Sociologists like Mclver do not subscribe to this theory He does not agree with the view that the society has a brain of its own that is common to all its members. Thus, to him, group mind is a myth.

2.3. Social Contract Theory

• According to Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau, society is an entity created by man voluntarily in order to achieve his ends.
• For Hobbes, the primitive man was solitary, brutish, selfish, and nasty and because of this evil nature, he had to live in constant fear of his neighbours. To be free from fear, he made compromises with others and formed society.
• For Locke, the primitive man lived in a state of ideal freedom. He was absolutely happy and lived in complete harmony with his neighbours. To preserve this freedom and happiness, he made a contract with his neighbours and formed society.
• For Rousseau, the primitive man was a noble savage, peaceful and unsophisticated. But when the number of people increased, quarrels and conflicts arose. This necessitated the formation of contract by which he linked himself with others, but preserved the individual’s freedom.
• Through this contract, a general will evolve that represented the will of everyone and was sovereign in nature. If conflicts arose between the individual will and the common will, the former was subjected to the latter,
• The main criticism against this theory is that it considers society as an artificially created system. This is not the case at all. The social system grows spontaneously and cannot be artificially created.

3. NATURE OF SOCIETY

A human society is a particular group of people sharing good interpersonal relationship with each other, and they live in the same geographical area. They have the same political system along with their own cultural system as dominant and it is valued by them.

Human societies by nature are characterized by different patterns of relationships between persons sharing different cultural practices. Although people in the society have different cultural practices, they all live together in harmony, help each other, and respect each other’s cultural practices, traditions, and customs.

Different types of such societies exist in the community, which are as follows:

• pastoral society
• horticultural society
• feudal society
• agrarian society
• industrial society
• post-industrial society
• Western society
• knowledge society

3.1. Pastoral Society

A pastoral society includes a group of people who are priests or religious leaders, and their main function is to take care of the people in the society, by helping them to solve their problems, for example, in a church, the leader of the church is the pastor and the people who are attached to that particular church can seek the help of the pastor. It is the duty of the pastor to help those people and serve them. They do counselling for all age groups especially children and adolescents. In such society, people involve their religious leaders for all good and bad events in families, for example, baptism, marriages, death ceremony, and so on.

Pastors usually lived a nomadic life, and they did not live in one place permanently. They regularly shifted from one place to another. They flourished naturally in whichever place they went, and they relied more on domesticated herds. They did their work by themselves, for example, cooking, gardening, washing, cultivating farms, growing fruit-bearing trees and vegetables, and rearing cattle. They had surplus food production with few people to charge, and they were able to support large population and even supply food to schools, to pastoral community, poor, and needy. People in the community believed the pastoral activities and they gifted them with land, cattle, and all the facilities required. Such pastoral communities grew up fast; these pastoral families gained wealth and power that passed on from one generation to other, and they centralized the wealth and power they developed the hereditary chieftainship, which formed typical form of government in the pastoral societies. Although the quantity of food produced was high, the division of labour seems to be unequal in these pastoral societies.

3.2. Horticultural Societies

The people in this type of societies are the horticulturists, who grow farm with fruits, tress, and vegetables in their land. They do their work by themselves just like pastoral societies. They apply slash and burn method to till the crops, which is a method of farming that involves clearing the land by destroying and burning all the trees and plants on it, farming there for a short time, and moving on to clear new piece of land. The cut-off wild vegetations are burned and used as manures and fertilizers; once the land is greatly used and becomes barren, they shift to new land and leave the barren land to get rejuvenated. They return back to the old land once it is ready for cultivation; therefore, people in such societies live near to their cultivated land quite for long time. This made them create semi or permanent villages and the population in the villages ranged from 300 to 2000 people, depending upon availability of land for farming.

There were surplus quantities of food production done by these societies with complex division of labour. People who sustained their power and wealth in these societies were craftsmen, shamans or religious leaders, and traders. In this society also inequality in division of labour existed, which lead to unequal distribution of wealth and power.

3.3. Feudal Societies

Feudalism existed in such societies where farmers, peasants, and craftsmen were given land, and it was protected by their landlords. In feudal society a vassal was a man who gave the military service to a lord, in return for that he was protected by the lord and received the land to live on. In return of such military service landlords exploited them, treated them unfairly, and made them provide adequate food, cattle, crops, crafts, and homage services. Caste system was much prevalent in such societies, where the peasants’ families cultivated their landlords’ lands for many generations.

3.4. Agrarian Societies

The people in this type of society who owned their land had wide knowledge of agriculture technology, and they cultivated crops in vast areas. In this society only the agricultural revolution that took place 8500 years ago showed the trends in agricultural technological inculcation, which helped the people cultivate crops, raise cattle, and produce surplus quantity of food. Prior to the usage of food storage, women’s roles were tremendously equal; they cultivated crops like men, even hunted for food, but once the food stores were well developed, women in food provision had lesser role. They finally became subordinate to men. As this society started expanding, conflicts naturally developed from the neighbouring villages; in order to get protected from the enemies the farmers sought the help of warriors and in return the farmers gave food and shelter to them. Finally, a social system of high-status rulers developed, which organized the warriors to permanently protect the society from invasion.

3.5. Industrial Societies

A new system of society that developed between 15th and 16th centuries that replaced the feudalism was of capitalism. Capitalism means the economic and the political system in which the property, business, and industry are owned by private individuals and not by the state officials. It all started with Europeans’ explorations over America, which quickly worked out to develop the capitalism in the society. Industrial business competition existed in free market after the introduction of foreign materials, silks, and spices that stimulated the high commercial activity in the European society. This type of society relied mainly on fuel for the industrial production that increased the efficiency, and the trade allowed them to gain more profit in their business; therefore, the food production also increased than before. Due to these fuel usage, not only the agricultural goods production increased, but also the manufactured goods.

3.6. Post-industrial Societies

Information and the communication technology anchored and dominated this society that applied the latest technology in production of the goods. This caused major change in the work mode that shifted from manufacture and production towards service mode. The service mode of work was introduced in United States of America, where almost half of the labour was shifted towards service industries, which included government sector, research and education, health-care services, sales, law and order, and even banking services.

3.7. Western Societies

This type of society encourages the democratic government. People under this society have the freedom of choosing their own religion and have strong economical and stable political government. It supports and favours capitalism in their society, with majority of its people involving in the international trade. Moreover, most of the people are strongly influenced by the judo-Christian values and customs. This society actually originated geographically from countries like western Europe, north America, Australia, and New Zealand, and their basic lifestyle and activities of daily living are adapted from the western Europe.

3.8. Knowledge Society

This formed an electronic society with emergence of information and communication technology (ICT) along with invention of electronic goods since the beginning of the 12th century. In the electronic world information are passed in fast manner, which facilitated the trade and increased the production of goods. There was increased capacity to store large quantity of information that could be transmitted from one place to another quickly, which promoted increased trade and productivity. This society was digitalized with internet facilities and increased knowledge on economic activity increased the wealth and power of the people in this society.

3.9. Information Society

This society has impact of the ICT that allowed the inculcation of computers, telecommunication in the schools, homes, government offices and in workplace. It also developed cyberspace technology and increased more types of social forms. International Telecommunications Union World Summit on the Information Society was formed in Geneva and Tunis (2003–2005), which allowed the society to frame the social policies for the people in the society for their health and welfare.

These include the following:

• promotion of ICT for development
• information and communication infrastructure
• access to information and knowledge
• capacity building
• building confidence and security in the use of ICTs
• enabling environment
• ICT applications in the areas of government, business, learning, health, employment, environment, agriculture, and science
• cultural and linguistic diversity and local content
• media
• ethical dimensions of the information society
• international and regional cooperation

4. RELATION BETWEEN SOCIETY AND INDIVIDUAL

The concept of social mind is doubtful. The social contract and organic theories contradict each other. According to one theory, there is no synthesis between society and the individual, and according to the other, there is no difference between the two. The theories bear witness to the intimate relations between society and the individual, but apart from this they are lopsided. In the words of Maclver and Page, no one can really be an absolute individualist any more than anyone can be an absolute socialist. The individual and society interact with one another and depend on one another.

Man is definitely a social animal. He always has a serious urge to live together in a group. By living together every man enjoys the fruit of common life. For survival every man needs society. Every human child requires care of parents and the society for its existence and growth. All the inherent capacities develop for the child only if the child is exposed to society.

Society gives an excellent atmosphere for the growth and development of human personality. Nourished social life helps each man with lots of opportunities to do best to his self and to the society. Also, the society provides sense of insurance, security, and satisfaction of their needs.

Society acts as a store house, resource for each human being, whereby each human is benefited from the knowledge provided by the society. Benefits are transferred from one generation to other, and each individual feels very much secured since the social relations provide support at times of difficulty and insecurity. This explains that man and society are inseparable. By nature man is bound to society; relationship between society and man is like two sides of same coin, both are reciprocal and complementary. Society is composed of people and each individual is an inseparable part of the whole society.

A society refers to the whole, and individuals represent only its parts. It is clear that both human and the social factors are social products. There is no contradiction between the human and the society. Herbert Spencer, famous advocate for organismic theory, has explained and compared that social relations with human is equal to relationships of individual with his own body parts, like how the body cannot exist without its parts, likewise society and individuals cannot exist if there is no relationship. Both are interdependent.

The overall goal of the society is to provide good and happy life for all individuals. It gives opportunities for all humans to develop their own personalities. Society always makes sure that harmony exist between individuals in spite of their occasional conflicts and worries. Society has helped humans in numerous ways; many scholars have contributed their knowledge and wisdom to nourish the society.

5. RELATION BETWEEN SOCIETY AND COMMUNITY

The main differences between society and community are the following:

• Society is a web of social relationships. It includes every relationship which established among the people. This social relationship may be direct or organized or unorganized, conscious or unconscious, but community consists of group of individuals.
• A definite geographical area is not necessary for society. It is universal and pervasive; however, a definite geographical area is essential for a community.
• Community sentiment or a sense of ‘we feeling’ is not essential in a society; community sentiment is indispensable for a community. There can be no community in the absence of community sentiment.

Figure 3.1 Differences between Society and Community

• Society is wider. There can be more than one community in a society. Community is smaller than society. There cannot be more than one society in a community.
• Society is abstract. It is a network of social relationships which cannot be seen or touched. On the other hand, community is concrete. It is a group of people living in a particular area.
• In a community, common interests and common objectives are necessary. People in a community live together for achievement of common interests and common objectives. On the other hand, common interests and common objectives are not necessary in a society.
• Society involves both likeness and difference. Both common and diverse interests are present in society. However, likeness is more important than difference in community.

6. BRIEF REVIEW OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Environment has influences from the birth of a child to the death, either positively or negatively, and a person cannot stay away from his or her environment.

6.1. Effects of Environment on Childhood

As soon as the baby comes out of the mother’s womb, it has to adjust to its environment for its existence and survival. Its main tasks are breathing, sucking milk, and excretory activities. If the environment is favourable, it develops a positive attitude towards all these. If the environment is hostile, it develops a negative attitude. If the result is positive, it starts to laugh, cry, smile, and recognize others, and slowly it becomes able to understand other people. Through expression and language it communicates positively and thus becomes an important part of the environment.

As the body grows, the child has to achieve new tasks, such as eating different types of food, toilet training, adjustment, and so on. In all these activities, environment plays a major role. The child spends majority of his or her life in school and home and so they have a great influence on him or her. In keeping with the environment, the child learns good or bad habits. The child’s environment is the basis of socialization and determines his or her personality. Piaget, a social psychologist, has explained the growth of child in six stages (Table 3.2).

 

TABLE 3.2 Six Stages of Child Growth According to Piaget

Stages	Description
Stage I	Develops reflexes such as sucking
Stage II	Develops motor habits and perception
Stage III	At the age of six months, the infant grasps what it observes, and uses its sensory perceptions such as seeing, hearing, touching and smelling
Stage IV	9th to 10th months: It learns to search for the objects that it has seen
Stage V	11th to l4th months: It takes account of changes in position
Stage VI	15th to 16th months: The child now has the ability to internalize objects and develops what is called primary identification

6.2. Effects of Environment on Adolescence

Adolescence is commonly viewed as a period of preparation for adulthood. During this period, a person reaches physical maturity, develops more sophisticated understanding of roles and relationships, and acquires refined skills needed for successful discharging of adult work and family roles. The developmental tasks during this period constitute of coping with physical changes and emerging sexuality, developing interpersonal skills for relationships with opposite sex, and acquiring a set of values for successful functioning in adulthood. Adolescents are given increased freedom to choose employment, family life, friends, and so on, to varying degrees. The period of adolescence is regarded as highly sensitive and delicate, and this age is also called the age of tensions, emotions, problems, and relations.

An adolescent is highly influenced by the people in and around his own family, such as teachers, friends, and peer groups. He or she may even select one of them as his or her role model. He or she is influenced by the environment in which he or she is living. If it is positive, it leads to creative ideas, and if negative it may lead to destructive alternatives. Thus, environment has a great role in the development of the person in his or her adolescent stage and helps him or her shape his or her personality.

6.3. Effects of Environment on Adult Age

Adulthood is characterized by both change and stability in many basic physical, psychological, and social processes. Adults are moulded more easily than children because of three reasons:

1. Adults are motivated to work towards a goal.
2. The new role to be internalized has similarities.
3. They can communicate easily through speech.

In an adult, change takes place in the individual’s body, mental capacities, and views about life, emotionality, work, political attitude, and feeling about the self. Sometimes, changes may be due to certain events in life, such as marriage, birth of child, new job, illness, and divorce. Adults have to adjust themselves to the new environment. If they cannot do so, they develop depression, disorganization, tension, and so on.

6.4. Effects of Environment on Old Age

Due to a decrease in birth rate and life expectancy going up, we have a large number of old people. This age is considered as the last segment of life but in this period also environment has its influences on the people. These influences may be in the form of divorce, ill treatment by children, death of spouse, retirement, loneliness, physical disability, and so on, which cause mental tension. Anxiety for the future and failures of the past, become an important part of the social environment of an old person.

7. RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INDIVIDUAL

The society is a collection of its members. The members of the society have certain rights and duties. The definition of rights of the individual is power or securities of a kind such that the individual can rightly demand of others that they should normally not interfere with them. Rights have their place in determining the way in which one’s country is governed, and it is in respect of the possession of these by its citizens that a form of state is called democratic. There are different types of views concerning rights (Table 3.3).

 

TABLE 3.3 Views Concerning Rights

Concept	Description
Natural law	The view that, according to the constitution of nature or the will of God, all individuals have certain definite rights, which it is always wrong to violate
State contract	The view that the state is based on a kind of contract and that therefore the individual retains those rights, and only those, violation of which would lead to a failure of the contract
State law	The view that the individual has no rights except those which the state gives him rights being created by the recognition of the state
Utilitarian view	The utilitarian view is that the rights an individual possesses depend solely on the general good

7.1. Fundamental Rights

Fundamental rights are provided to all the individuals to develop their personalities and attain their goals in life. The constitutions across the world provide protection of fundamental rights. The World Human Rights Commission raises citizen concerns about human rights.

In Articles 12–36, under Part III of the Indian Constitution, seven fundamental rights were mentioned:

1. Right to equality
2. Right to liberty
3. Right against exploitation
4. Right to freedom of religion
5. Right to property
6. Cultural and educational rights
7. Right to constitutional remedies

Right to property was later abolished through the 44th Amendment in the Constitution. Table 3.4 presents the fundamental rights enjoyed by the citizen of India.

7.1.1. Rights of Individuals

Generally, rights are of two types: (i) civil rights and (ii) political rights.

Civil rights enable an individual to lead a normal life. The important civil rights are as follows:

• Right to life
• Right to liberty
• Right to work
• Right to education
• Right to property
• Right to speak with press
• Right to association
• Right to equality
• Right to free movement
• Right to have a family

 

TABLE 3.4 Fundamental Rights

Concept	Description
Right to equality	It is an important basis of democracy. It provides equal rights to all the citizens of India. It includes the following: Discrimination on the basis of religion, castes, sex, and so on is abolished It is promised that every individual is equal before law and, in services controlled by the state, and every individual will be given equal opportunity without any discrimination
Right to liberty	It can be classified into freedom of expression freedom to assemble together peacefully (without alms, weapons, etc.) liberty to form groups and organizations liberty to travel and slay anywhere in India liberty to follow any occupation or profession and to earn livelihood, or to start a trade or industry protection of life and body In the interest of the society and the safety of the nation, some restrictions have also been imposed. The right does not give unbridled liberty
Right against exploitation	Employing a child below 14 years is a punishable offence. This is defined as traffic in human being
Right to freedom of religion	The Constitution protects religious freedom but the government reserves the right to regulate economic, financial, and political activities connected with religion and to constitute certain reforms. It provides freedom to accept and propagate any religion
Cultural and educational rights	Every individual has the right to perpetuate his language, script or culture. Minorities have been given the light to start educational institutions on the basis of their religion or language. The state cannot discriminate against such institutions
Right to constitutional remedies	If the state denies a fundamental right to an individual, he may request the judiciary to protect his right

Figure 3.2 Civil Rights

The important political rights are as follows:

• Right to vote
• Right to contest an election
• Right to public office
• Right to petition
• Right to criticize government

Figure 3.3 Political Rights

7.2. Fundamental Duties and Responsibilities of the Individual

An individual as a citizen of a country must think and act positively. When he or she enjoys certain rights, he must know that he or she also has certain obligations or duties to perform for the good of the society and for that of the nation. In the 42nd Amendment, the fundamental duties or responsibilities of the individual were added. After the Fourth Chapter of the Constitution a new Chapter 4(a) was added. In the Indian Constitution, only the rights of the individual had been recognized till then. The 42nd Amendment was a consequence of realizing the importance of the duties or responsibilities of the individual. Rights and duties are closely related. In fact, they are two sides of the same coin. Some rights of the individuals become the duties of others. Some duties of individuals become the rights of others.

The fundamental rights of the citizens are as follows:

• Follow the constitution; respect its ideals, institutions, national flag, and national anthem.
• Remember the high ideal that motivated the freedom struggle and its followers.
• Protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
• Protect the nation and serve it when called upon.
• Establish equality and fraternity among all citizens and rise above all discriminations on the basis of religion, language, area, or colour. Leave all customs which are against honouring the women.
• Understand the proud traditions of our culture and protect it.
• Protect the natural environment comprising forests, lakes, rivers, and wild animals. Be kind to animals and all living beings.
• Along with scientific attitude, humanism, and attainment of knowledge, add the sentiment of reformation.
• Protect public property and avoid violence.
• Try to go towards progress in all personal social activities so that the nation may go forward and attain great heights.

7.3. Responsibility of Health

The world today is accepting health as a fundamental right, but we cannot neglect individual duty in this respect. Under this, good habits, nourishment, recreation, exercise, care of skin, eyes, and ears, immunization, and other such personal responsibilities may be included.

8. PERSONAL DISORGANIZATION

Personal disorganization represents the behaviour of the individual which deviates from the social norms. It results in social disapproval, which may express itself in a wide variety of degree. The individual may also react in different ways. Social reality presents an endless confusion of social disapproval from time to time. It may be mild or violent. Accordingly, individuals respond either positively or negatively to social disapproval.

• The most visible aspect of personal disorganization in complex societies is that in which there is mild social disapproval to which the individual responds positively. This kind of personal disorganization does not deeply disturb the social order.
• The second aspect of social disorganization is that in which there is violent social disapproval and yet the individual responds positively.
• In the third aspect in which the individual’s response to social disapproval is subjective the person retreats into an individually defined inner world. His or her innovations lose their social character. He or she becomes enmeshed in the development of mechanisms, which further isolate him or her from the normal influences of group life. This type of personal disorganization results in psychosis through which the individual tries to escape from the web of social relations and in suicide.

8.1. Personal Disorganization and Social Disorganization

Social disorganization consists of the co-ordination of individual responses as a result of the operation of consensus and control. Personal organization refers to the coordination and integration of the attitude systems within the personality. A change in the cultural context which destroys the functioning of coordination that constitutes the social order represents social disorganization. Similarly, any variant behaviour which disturbs the integration of the attitude systems within the personality represents personal disorganization.

8.1.1. Social Disorganization

Definition

1. According to Emile Durkheim, social disorganization is a ‘state of disequilibrium and a lack of social solidarity or consensus among the members of a society’.

   Social disorganization implies breakdown in the organization of society. Social organization and social disorganization are the dual aspects of the whole functioning of society.

2. According to Elliott and Merrill, social disorganization represents ‘a breakdown in the equilibrium of forces, decay in the social structure so that old habits and forms of social control no longer function effectively’.

   Social organization consists of the coordination of individual responses as a consequence of the operation of conventionalized patterns of consensus and control. Any change in the cultural context which impedes or destroys the functioning of the patterns of coordination which constitute the social order represents social disorganization. By social disorganization it means such serious maladjustment between the various elements in the total cultural configuration to endanger the survival of the group or as seriously to interfere with the satisfaction of the fundamental desires of its members with the result that social cohesion is destroyed.

   Social organization is not something static. In one sense it is a hypothesis and ideal construct. It stresses the unchanging patterns of culture as against the changing aspects. The process of change is always found in every society.

According to Elliott and Merrill social disorganization is the totality of human personalities and conscious and unconscious attitudes, their crystallized and uncrystallized ideas and institutions which in complex interrelationships make up the framework of human existences. Social organization refers to the way people relate themselves to one another. It also refers to the way in which people and groups making up a society are somehow held together. Social organization and social structure are interchangeable concepts, both referring to any interrelated system of role and statuses. The concept social organization has two meanings: first, what social organization consists of, and secondly, what is the stage when we say that there is social organization in society as opposed to disorganization. This stage has to be defined in reference to some objectives set by society. In this sense social organization may be conceived when human actions are not contrary to the ideals laid down by society and society is progressing towards particular goals set by it. These ideals may be with regard to residential stability, property ownership, business enterprise, and religious discipline.

Social disorganization is the normal consequence of social change as well as the natural condition to social change. The terms social problems and social disorganization are closely related. When social problems arise to the extent that the smooth functioning of the society is threatened, social disorganization is in existence. According to Elliott and Merrill, social disorganization represents a breakdown in the equilibrium of forces, decay in the social structure so that old habits and forms of social control no longer function effectively. By contrast, social organization consists of the coordination of individual responses as a consequence of the operation of conventionalized patterns of consensus and control and change in the cultural context, which impedes or destroys the functioning of the patterns of coordination that constitute the social order that represents social disorganization.

Figure 3.4 The Fundamental Rights of the Citizens

9. SOCIALIZATION PROCESS

Social order is maintained largely by socialization. If the members of a social group violate its rules, socialization is not possible. It is said that the process of socialization starts long before a child is born. The social circumstances preceding his or her birth lay down, to a great extent, the kind of life he or she is to lead. Socialization is a process of learning to perform skills and social roles. The term socialization refers to all the processes by which an infant acquires skills, roles, norms, values, and personality patterns.

Kingsley Davis defines socialization as the subtle alchemy by which a human organism is transmuted into a social being. The process of training the child to develop its capacities is a difficult task. In all societies, primitive or modern, we find difficult ways of training younger generations. Such a process of development of the individual from his or her childhood to adulthood is called socialization. Thus, a person becomes a social person through the process of socialization. It is the learning process by means of which the individuals acquire the existing culture of groups.

Socialization is the process whereby an individual learns to behave in accordance with social traditions and mores. The human child possesses a tendency to imitate others. The child develops according to the environment in which he or she lives. The individual tries to win the praise of the group in which he or she lives. Since man is a social being, he instinctively tries to adopt the culture of society Man becomes what he is by socialization and it is by virtue of this that he is believed to be superior to animals. Socialization brings balance to his personality because the social aspects of personality are very important. Through socialization, the individual learns to control himself in the interest of society and realizes his responsibility towards others. Socialization develops community feeling in him, and he learns to cooperate with others.

Individuals influence each other by means of imitation, suggestion, and sympathy. In addition to these, social institutions and associations also carry out the individual’s socialization. The individual is influenced by many processes in society—praise and blame, cooperation and conflict, submission and ascendancy. These help to form his personality and individuality. Table 3.5 provides the agencies involved in the process of socialization.

 

TABLE 3.5 Agencies of Socialization

Concept	Description
Family	The family plays perhaps the most dominant role in the individual’s socialization. The child finds much to learn in the behaviour of the family members, parents, relatives, and friends. He or she imitates them in their mannerisms, behaviour, clichés, and so on. He or she tries to avoid such activities as result in punishment or as are considered bad in the family
School	The child in the school is, in addition to the effect of education, vulnerable to the influence exerted by the personalities of his or her teachers and friends. In much the same way, young men and women learn to conduct themselves and to give expression to their views, such as a person being an outcome of education and constant association with teachers, the unique environment, fellow collegiate, and so on
Occupation and marriage	Following college education, the individual’s behaviour depends on relationships involved in occupation and marriage. He or she is strongly influenced by the personality of his or her life partner and colleagues, and his or her future depends upon this to a large extent

9.1. Need for Socialization

Socialization is not an exclusive but a prominent source of the individual’s development, because heredity also has its importance. However, the development of the individual, without the spread of culture through socialization, is impossible. The self of the individual develops only after socialization. Every social relationship of the individual contributes to his or her process of socialization. The problem of man’s socialization is very complex, and it has not yet been completely solved in any human society.

Socialization is influenced by several factors (Table 3.6).

 

TABLE 3.6 Factors Influencing Socialization

Concept	Description
Imitation	It is copying by an individual of the actions of another. Mead defines it as a self-conscious assumption of another’s acts or roles. Thus, when a child attempts to walk, he or she tries to walk as his or her father does, be it consciously or unconsciously. In imitation, the person who is imitating an action performs exactly the same activity as the one having been performed before him or her
Suggestion	According to McDougall, suggestion is the process of communication resulting in acceptance with conviction of the communicated proposition in the absence of logically adequate grounds for its acceptance. It the process of communicating information, which has no logical or self- evident basis. Suggestion influences individual behaviour. Propaganda and advertising are based on the fundamental psychological principles of suggestion
Identification	A child cannot differentiate between his or her organism and environment. Most of his or her actions are random. As his or her age increases, he or she comes to know the nature of things which satisfy his or her needs
Language	Language is the medium of social intercourse and cultural transmission. At first, a child uses random syllables that have no meaning but gradually learns his or her mother tongue. The language moulds the personality of the individual from infancy

In brief, socialization is a process which begins at birth and continues unceasingly until the death of the individual. In the words of Davis, the improvement through socialization offers one of the greatest possibilities for the future alteration of human society.

10. INDIVIDUALIZATION

Individualization is a process that tends to make the individual more or less independent of his group, and to create in him or her a self-consciousness of his or her own. According to Maclver, individualization is the process in which men become more autonomous or self-determining, in which they advance beyond inner imitations or acceptance of standards which come to them only through an outer sanction, in which they become less bound by tradition and custom in the regulation of their views, less submissive to authority and dictation in matters of thought and opinion, recognizing that each is a unique focus of being and can achieve the ends of his life only as these grow clear in his own consciousness and become the objectives of his own will. Individualization helps the man know himself and his inner responsibility.

Socialization brings man into relation with others; individualization makes him autonomous or self-determining. Not only the individual himself but also society helps him in acquiring the inner sense of responsibility and knowing himself. Ideas are merely the mental expressions of the process of individualization. The development of the self is the most important result of the process of socialization. The child gradually distinguishes the familiar person from the unfamiliar person. Then it develops the perception of the self. The child constantly uses the pronouns ‘I’ and ‘me’. Thus, the child learns to look upon himself as an object to himself. He begins to think of himself, his or her body, his or her behaviour, and his or her appearance to other persons.

The child learns not only those others are important to him to satisfy his needs but also that he or she is important to others. At this stage, he or she develops acquisitive nature. He or she also develops conscience and internal restraints. Consequently, the child avoids doing mistakes. He or she incorporates standards into his or her self-structure and corrects his or her faults. Thus, as an individual, he or she develops awareness about his or her own character. He or she thinks that he or she is distinct from others. He or she evaluates himself or herself as superior to others. This is what we call self-glorification.

Individualization is a kind of introspection and inwardness about the self. It is a kind of feeling about one’s own personality. It is shaped in different individuals based on the environmental conditions, family background, influence of community, and his or her own wishes. So, individualization is the process of developing one’s own self. It makes the individual take decisions by himself or herself and begins to act independently. In other words, it is self-determination.

11. ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

The environment has been described as a global life support system. Human beings require a viable environment that incorporates the local ecosystem, including air, water, and soil, and the availability of safe and adequate food. In addition, a viable environment requires sustainable development, which has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

11.1. Definition

The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined environmental health as those aspects of human health and diseases that are determined by factors in the environment. It includes both direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiations, and some biological agents, and the effects on health and well-being of the broad physical, psychological, social, and aesthetic environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use, and transportation.

11.2. Environmental Health

According to WHO data, approximately 25 per cent to 33 per cent of the global burden of disease is due to environmental exposure and environmental preventable illnesses in the world. In recent years, greater attention has been paid to the health risks posed by environmental conditions. This attention is evident in the number of national health objectives that focus on environmental health issues. Many environmental forces influence human health. Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi cause communicable diseases. Animals contribute to the spread of these diseases. Plants may contribute to accidental poisoning or to allergic reactions. Industry, vehicles, and buildings add to air and water pollution and excess noise. Climate and terrain contribute to natural disaster; they may promote air and water pollution, which have long-term health effects.

11.3. Components of the Human Environment

The environmental context that influences human health incorporates a number of components. These include the natural and constructed, or built, environment as well as the social and psychological environments.

11.3.1. Natural Environment

The natural environment consists of those features of the environment that exist in a natural state, unmodified in any significant way by human beings. Elements of the natural environment include weather and climate, terrain (e.g., mountains, rivers, and oceans), natural flora and fauna (plants and animals), biological agents, natural resources (air, wood, water, and fuel). Climate has multiple effects on human health. For example, from 1979 to 1999, more than 8,000 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of exposure to heat. On the other hand, from 1979 to 2002, hypothermia, primarily due to cold weather, accounted for an average of 689 deaths per year, mostly among elderly persons. In addition, poor weather conditions contribute to 28 per cent of motor vehicle accidents.

Although there have always been deaths due to hypo- and hyperthermia and motor vehicle accidents caused by weather conditions, the potential for illness and injury due to temperature extremes and adverse weather conditions has increased recently as a result of global climate changes. Global climate change results from several inter-related mechanisms. These include ocean oscillations, greenhouse gases, and stratospheric ozone depletion that result in global warming, leading to polar meltdown, rising sea levels, and increased tectonic and volcanic activities.

11.3.2. Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases are collection of gases released naturally and as a by-product of human industrial processes that accumulate in the troposphere (the portion of the earth’s atmosphere that reaches from the earth’s surface to the tropopause, where the stratosphere begins). Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation from the earth and trap solar heat, leading to increased tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the primary greenhouse gas contributing to this phenomenon, and atmospheric CO₂ levels are expected to increase by 66 per cent between 1850 and 2050. Approximately three-fourths of the CO₂ build-up results from the burning of fossil fuels.

The loss of ozone layer in the stratosphere also contributes to global warming. Stratospheric ozone forms a protective layer around the earth’s atmosphere and prevents a significant portion of ultraviolet light from reaching the earth’s surface. Although the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer, is sought to be halted by an international agreement, it is anticipated that it will take approximately 50 years for any noticeable benefit to occur. In the meantime, global temperatures will continue to rise and exposure to increasing levels of ultraviolet radiation will result in increased prevalence of skin cancers, particularly malignant melanomas, and cataracts.

11.3.3. Built Environment

The built environment includes all buildings, spaces, and products that are created or modified by people. Elements of the built environment include homes, schools, workplaces, roads, and features such as urban sprawl and air pollution. The built environment has both direct and indirect effects on health. Direct effects derive from exposure to hazardous conditions arising from the built environment. Indirect effects are the results of the effects of the built environment on the natural environment (e.g., contamination of air and water) or on human health-related behaviour. Examples of direct health effects include lead poisoning arising from ingestion, or inhalation of lead from older structures painted with lead-based paints, or respiratory disease due to air pollution.

Figure 3.5 Components of the Human Environment

11.4. Environmental Pollution and Ill-Effects on Health

It is a known fact that people’s health depends upon the quality of environment in which they live. But unfortunately, the environment is deteriorating due to human deeds such as modernization, urbanization, population explosion, deforestation, and so on. The health and safety environment is therefore the concern not only of the environmentalists but also of the health personnel. The environmental science is an age-old science and its impact on health was documented during the ancient period in India. In Great Britain, it was observed by Edwin Chadwick in 1842 and he gave a detailed report of the sanitary conditions. Similar conditions were observed and reported in the USA around the same time and also in other countries. Since then, a lot of measures have been taken by the government of various countries to improve environment sanitation.

12. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ON MAN

Environment is the sum of all natural and man-made, living and non-living, visible and tangible things that surround a given host at a given time. The relation of life and environment is extremely intimate. According to physical scientists, the word environment means nature, and according to sociologists it means physical and social conditions. The concept of environment is broad.

All human behaviours take place in an environment and everything around us is environment. In sociology; the environment is fully studied and there are different aspects of the total environment according to sociologists. There are different classifications of environment (Table 3.7).

The factors affecting environmental health have been discussed in Table 3.8.

12.1. Environment and Adaptation

Human beings are the most intelligent of all organisms, and due to their high degree of intelligence and other capacities, they are able to make better adaptation to the environment. Fairchild has defined adaptation as a process of acquiring fitness to live in a given environment. Adaptation has different levels (Table 3.9).

 

TABLE 3.7 Classifications of Environment

Concept	Description
Natural environment	In the natural environment are included all natural conditions, forces, and objects, which influence life but are not influenced by man
Social environment	In the social environment are included social organizations, institutions, and relationships, in the midst of which man lives from birth to death
Cultural environment	In the cultural environment are included customs, traditions, folkways, mores, and values
Physical environment	This term is applied to non-living things or physical factors which directly or indirectly regulate body mechanism and affect health
Biological environment	The biological environment is the universe of living things which surrounds man and includes man himself. The living things are virus and other microbial agents, insects, rodents, animals and plants
Psychological environment	The psychological environment includes a complex of psychological factors which are defined as those factors affecting personal health
Psycho-social environment	Psycho-social factors can also affect man’s health and well-being. For example, poverty, urbanization, migration, and exposure to stressful situations such as bereavement, desertion, loss of employment, and birth of a handicapped child may produce anxiety, depression, anger, and frustration
Micro environment	Micro environment refers to immediate environment or personal environment and usually includes home environment, occupational environment, and socio-cultural environment
Macro environment	Macro environment refers to external environment, which is outside the home environment

 

TABLE 3.8 Factors Affecting Environmental Health

Concept	Description
Population explosion	The rapid increase in our population is having harmful and unfavourable effect on our environment. It is creating problems due to overcrowding, depletion of natural resources and development of man-made resources by industrialization, green revolution, and so on
Industrialization	The industries have multiplied not only in magnitude but also in variety. All the industries generate lots of waste products such as gases, effluents, solid matters, thermal waste, and so on, which cause harmful effects on human health
Urbanization	People from villages migrate to towns and cities for employment, education, and so on. This results in overcrowding and the coming up of slums most of the time on unauthorized lands
Modern agricultural practices	Chemical fertilizers are used to increase agricultural production to meet agricultural demands of an ever-increasing population. In addition, insecticides are added and sprayed to destroy pests and micro-organisms. These also cause harmful effects on living organisms
Deforestation	Deforestation refers to the reducing or removing of forest. It reduces the amount of water being transferred from the ground to the air because of reduced trees. This phenomenon is causing change in the climate. All these situations have adverse effect on the environmental health
Radioactive substances	Radioactive substances are used in laboratories, hospitals, power plants and plants, where nuclear bombs are manufactured
Natural calamities	Natural calamities are grave disasters of misfortune which may occur by natural causes or by disruption of the environment. These calamities include floods, earthquakes, droughts, cyclones, volcanoes, landslides, avalanches, and tidal waves in the seas

 

TABLE 3.9 Levels of Adaptation

Concept	Description
Physical adaptation	Physical adaptation means adjustment to the physical environment. This adaptation is not voluntary, because physical conditions are inevitable and the organism has to make adjustment in order to survive. For example, if there is hot sun, one has to protect oneself from it. In cold season, warm clothes are needed
Biological adaptation	Every organism is used to living in a particular environment. If it is taken out of that environment, life or even survival may be difficult. For example, a freshwater fish cannot survive in sea water. A person adapted to hot climate will try to make adjustments in cold climate by adapting himself or herself
Social adaptation	Social adaptation is the process of adjusting to the socio–cultural environment. This adjustment is peculiar to human society because culture and organized society are limited to human beings only. Social adjustments are not inherited, but learned

13. PROTECTING HEALTH FROM CLIMATE CHANGE

World Health Day, celebrated on 7 April, marks the founding of the WHO and is an opportunity to draw worldwide attention to a subject of major importance—global health—every year. In 2008, World Health Day focused on the need to protect health from adverse effects on climate change. The theme ‘Protecting health from climate change’ put health at the centre of the global dialogue on climate change. WHO selected this theme in recognition of the fact that climate change is posing ever-growing threats to global public health security. Through increased collaboration, the global community will be better prepared to cope with climate-related health changes worldwide. WHO decided to concentrate on the following:

• collaborative action in strengthening surveillance
• control of infectious diseases
• ensuring safer use of diminishing water supplies
• coordinating health action in emergencies

13.1. Meteorological Environment

Meteorological environment includes temperature, humidity, wind, and rainfall. These factors keep on changing between different places at the same time or at the same place at different times. The behaviour of meteorological factors at a particular time of a place denotes the weather of the place.

Climate has a profound influence on all aspects of life patterns of populations. It shapes the physical, biological, and social environment of places. It affects the health and nutritional status of populations and also the spectrum of diseases to which they are exposed.

13.2. Types of Climate

13.2.1. Tropical Type

In the tropical region, the sun is always shining vertically overhead and the temperature is uniformly high all round the year.

13.2.2. Desert Type

Desert climate is very dry. The temperature is very high during the day and evaporation is excessive. The afternoons are characterized by dust storms, but nights are cold and become very chilly during winter season.

13.2.3. Mediterranean Type

This climate is usually characterized by short, wet, and mild winters, and long, warm, and dry summers. Mediterranean regions situated near deserts have hot summers and those near sea coasts have cool summers.

13.2.4. European Type

Proximity to the ocean keeps the summers cold and the warm currents that wash the shores make the winters warm. There is mild rainfall throughout the year.

13.2.5. Monsoon Type

Monsoon lands have typically three main seasons—winter, summer, and rains. Winter is relatively cold and dry, and summer is hot and dry.

13.3. Elements of Climate

Meteorological factors, such as temperature, humidity, wind, and rainfall keep on changing between different places at the same time or at the same place at different times.

13.3.1. Atmospheric Pressure

The atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, close to sea level, averages 760 mmHg per square inch of earth’s surface. The greater the humidity of a place on a particular day, the lower the weight of the air column as indicated by the reading of the atmospheric pressure. A depression in atmospheric pressure is obviously an indicator of ensuing rainfall.

13.3.2. Air Temperature

Several geographical factors, such as altitude, latitude, direction of wind, and proximity to sea, influence the air temperature of a place. Air temperature does not remain the same even at the same place; it undergoes seasonal as well as diurnal variations in response to various meteorological factors.

Figure 3.6 Types of climate

13.3.3. Air Humidity

Moisture content in the air is expressed in terms of absolute or relative humidity. Absolute humidity is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and relative humidity is the percentage of moisture present in the air, complete saturation being taken as 100 per cent humidity.

13.3.4. Air Movement

Air movement is initiated by disturbance in the atmospheric equilibrium. Constant changes occurring in the temperature and humidity of the air produce variations in the density of air columns.

Climate influences the indoor and outdoor activities and determines the food, shelter, and clothing of people. It affects the health and nutritional status of populations and also the spectrum of diseases to which they are exposed.

13.4. Environmental Health and Nurses’ Role

Community health nurses are most likely to become aware of environmental health problems. Protection of the environment is one of the essential functions of public health, and the involvement of community health nursing activity related to environmental health issues in this function is critical. Community health nursing activity related to environmental health issues occurs at both the individual/family clients’ level and the macro population level. Community health nurses can make use of the dimensional model of community health nursing to address environmental problems. This model focuses on assessment, intervention, planning, and evaluation of environmental interventions. World Health Day 2008 was devoted to the theme of protecting health from the impact of climate change. Major activities were planned around the world in a concerted effort by the WHO and its partners to bring home the fact that global warming is more than just an environmental issue, and that it will affect health and well-being.

Figure 3.7 Elements of Climate

14. PROTECTING MAN’S HEALTH FROM CLIMATE CHANGE

14.1. Climate Change

Climate change is a significant threat to public health and probably among the fastest emerging ones. There is growing evidence that global climate changes will affect the health and well-being of human beings. Climate variability and change have and will cause further deaths and diseases through natural disasters, such as heat waves, floods, and droughts. In addition to these disasters, many diseases are highly sensitive to changing temperatures and precipitations. These include common vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue. Thus, climate change adds to the global burden of diseases.

As per a WHO media release, the health and well-being of the populations must become the defining measures of the impact of climate change and our efforts to address it effectively. Climate change is gradually becoming a central part of planning future projects and being kept on top of the international agenda. It is becoming clearer that sustainable development leads to healthy environments and enhanced public health. There is an immediate need to strengthen the surveillance and control of infectious diseases, safer use of diminishing water supplies, and to take action on health emergencies. However, more focus, as always, should be on prevention, for ‘prevention is better than cure’ is an age-old truth.

14.2. Environmental Health

Socio-economic developments of countries in the Western Pacific region are affected by the globalization of trade and industry development, information and communication, and associated population movement. Rapid urbanization and rural-to-urban migration are also taking place in the developing countries of this region. Such socio-economic developments, and continuing urbanization, have recently introduced more modern environmental risks, such as urban, industrial, and agrochemical pollution and technological emergencies to these developing countries.

However, these countries still suffer from traditional environment risks, such as inadequate water supply and sanitation, and indoor smoke from domestic cooking and heating, using solid fuels. Resolving the double burden of environment risks to health is a major challenge in these developing countries.

14.3. Climate Change and Public Health

There is a widespread scientific consensus that the world’s climate is changing. Some of the effects of climate change are likely to include variable weather, heat waves, heavy precipitation events, flooding, droughts, and intense storms, such as hurricanes, sea level rise, and air pollution. Each of these changes has the potential to affect health. While climate change is recognized as a global issue, its effects will vary across geographic regions and populations.

Although a scientific understanding of the effects of climate change is still in a nascent stage, there is a pressing need to prepare for potential health risks. This public health-preparedness approach applies to other threats also in the absence of complete data, such as terrorism and pandemic influenza. A wide variety of organizations (federal, state, local, multilateral, private, and non-governmental) are working to address the implications of global climate change. Despite this breadth of activities, the public health effects of climate change remain largely unaddressed. Table 3.10 shows what effect a weather event has on health, and the population which is most likely to be affected by the event.

14.4. How Climate Change Will Affect Our Health

Climate change will affect our health in profoundly adverse ways as food, air, and water are some of the most fundamental pillars of health. The warming of the planet will be gradual, but the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as intense storms, heat waves, droughts, and floods, could be abrupt and their consequences will be dramatically felt. The most severe threats are the ones to developing countries, with direct negative implications for the achievements of the health-related millennium developmental goals, and for health equity.

 

TABLE 3.10 Weather Events, Health Effects, and Populations Most Affected

Weather Event	Health Effects	Populations Most Affected
Heat waves	Heat stress	Aged people, athletes, people with respiratory diseases
Extreme weather events (rain, hurricane, tornado, flooding)	Injuries, drowning	Coastal, low-lying land dwellers
Droughts, floods, increased mean temperature	Multiple populations at risk	Vector, food- and water-borne diseases

The health risks posed by climate change are global, and difficult to reverse. Recent changes in climate in the South East Asia region have had diverse impacts on health. According to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 18 heat waves were reported in India between 1980 and 1998. A heat wave in 1998 caused 1300 deaths, whereas another one in 2003 caused more than 3000 deaths. Heat waves in South East Asia cause high mortality in rural populations, and among the elderly and outdoor workers. Examples of this are the reported cases of heatstroke in metal workers and in rickshaw pullers in Bangladesh.

In 2007, four monsoon depressions—double the normal number—caused severe floods not only in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal, but also in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. In November 2008, tropical cyclone Sidr wreaked havoc in Bangladesh.

Malnutrition (estimated to kill 3.7 million people a year globally), diarrhoea (1.9 million), and malaria (0.9 million) are among the many risk factors and illnesses that are currently among the most important contributors to the global burden of diseases and are sensitive to climate, notably to temperature changes. If temperatures continue to go further up, this will have adverse effects on food production, water availability, and the spread of disease vectors.

14.5. Main Outcomes Threatened by Climate Change

• Meeting increasing energy demands by greater use of fossil fuels will add to the number of respiratory disorders such as asthma.
• Human-induced climate change significantly increases the likelihood of heat waves, which in turn increases the possibility of heat strokes, cardiovascular and respiratory disorders.
• More variable precipitation patterns are likely to compromise the supply of fresh water, increasing the risk of water-borne diseases like cholera and outbreaks of diarrhoeal diseases.
• Rising temperatures and variable precipitation may lead to decrease in production of staple foods in many of the poorest regions, thereby increasing risks of malnutrition.
• The increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events will lead to loss of life, injuries, and disability.
• Changes in climate are likely to lengthen the transmission season of important vector-borne diseases (like dengue and malaria) and alter their geographic range. Such diseases have the potential to reach the regions that lack either population immunity or a strong public health infrastructure.
• Rising sea levels increase the risk of coastal flooding, which may lead to displacement of population. The most vulnerable areas are the Ganges—Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh, small islands like those in the Maldives and in Indonesia, and the entire coastline of the Indian Ocean.
• Loss of livelihood will increase psychological stress in the affected populations.

14.6. WHO Is Protecting Health from Climate Change

Ever since global climate change began to emerge as a major issue in the late 1980s, WHC) has guided and coordinated the research agenda on this threat, and contributed to major assessments, such as those of the IPCC. It has also assembled and reported the evidence of the links between climate change and human health, quantified past and projected future impacts, and identified vulnerable populations. It has worked with member countries around the world to raise awareness of the impacts of climate change on health and give guidance on assessing risks and developing national and local response to specific threats, such as heat waves, floods, and vector-borne diseases.

15. NURSES’ ROLE AFTER LEARNING ABOUT MAN, SOCIETY, AND ENVIRONMENT

The study of man and society helps the nurses in the following:

• Learn about the nature of different human behaviours in the society.
• Understand the basic nature of society.
• Gain knowledge of different sociological views and their influence on society and man.
• Know about normal adjusting mechanism of human minds in the society.
• Differentiate and gain knowledge about the normal growth and development of human in various stages from birth till death.

Figure 3.8 Nurse’s Responsibility

• Know about the normal socialization process.
• Identify the abnormal behaviours of man in society, such as the one of staying in isolation, and the reaction of the society towards those abnormal behaviours.
• Understand the basic human rights and responsibilities and create awareness among people in the society.
• Guide each person in the society to become a responsible citizen.
• Differentiate and gain knowledge about the uniqueness of each human behaviour and appreciate individuality in society.

• Nurses should understand the different kinds of theories depicted on man and society and understand the nature of society with its different kinds.
• They should learn about the society the patient belongs to, and it helps them to communicate accordingly.
• They should be able to illustrate the kind of relationship and outline the difference between society, individual, and community.
• They should create awareness among the public about the rights and responsibilities of the individual in the society and correlate the brief review about the growth and development based on it.
• They should integrate the personal and social disorganization with better understanding on socialization and individualization.
• They should learn about the components of human environment and the effects on environment and health.
• They should the practice to protect the mankind and their environment from the ill effects of climatic changes.

I. LONG ESSAY

• Define society and explain the nature of society.
• Explain the theories of man and society.
• Describe the growth and development of child and adolescence.

II. SHORT ESSAY

• Explain differences between society and community.
• Explain effects of environment on adolescence.
• Illustrate fundamental rights.
• Explain the elements of climate.
• Explain the main outcomes threatened by climate change.

III. SHORT ANSWERS

• Describe organism theory.
• Describe group mind theory.
• Describe social contract theory.
• Describe effects of environment on childhood.
• Describe environmental pollution and ill-effects on health.
• Describe role of nurse in learning man, society, and environment.
• Describe meteorological environment.
• Describe climate change and public health.
• Describe the types of climate.
• Describe components of the human environment.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. What does society exclude?
   1. differences
   2. interdependence
   3. reciprocity
   4. time boundaries
2. Origin of society was due to
   1. force
   2. God’s will
   3. evolution
   4. none of the above
3. The theory that draws several points of resemblance between society and human body is called
   1. organic theory
   2. natural theory
   3. group mind theory
   4. idealist theory
4. Man is a social animal because
   1. his nature and need make him so
   2. he has been living in society since the birth of civilization
   3. society was born with him
   4. his forefathers have lived in society
5. Language is important to the society because
   1. it makes social contracts easy
   2. it raised man from a saving to a noble being
   3. it is an invention of society
   4. it easily satisfies man’s need of expression
6. Socialization is a process of converting a biological organism into
   1. a human being
   2. a super human being
   3. a modern man
   4. a civilized person
7. The term society in sociology is used to refer to
   1. the persons living in an area
   2. the persons possessing the same religion
   3. the system of social relationships
   4. the organized relations between individuals
8. Society is web of social relationship was said by
   1. MacIver
   2. Gidding
   3. Ginsburg
   4. Cooley
9. Stratification means
   1. division of society into higher and lower social units
   2. equality of status for all the groups in society
   3. a system of integrated social relationship
   4. equal distribution of duties and privileges
10. The force theory of the origin of society explains that
    1. a natural force united all human beings into a unified group
    2. the weak were subjected to the strong, and thus the stronger applied the force to rule over the weaker
    3. force of religion and caste compelled them to live together
    4. the force of the feeling of mine and thine compelled the individuals to live together

ANSWERS

1. d 2. c 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. a 10. b

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