- Reviews for How Linux Works
- Title Page
- Copyright
- About the Author
- Acknowledgments
- Preface
- Chapter 1: The Big Picture
- Chapter 2: Basic Commands and Directory Hierarchy
- 2.1 The Bourne Shell: /bin/sh
- 2.2 Using the Shell
- 2.2.1 The Shell Window
- 2.2.2 cat
- 2.2.3 Standard Input and Standard Output
- 2.3 Basic Commands
- 2.3.1 ls
- 2.3.2 cp
- 2.3.3 mv
- 2.3.4 touch
- 2.3.5 rm
- 2.3.6 echo
- 2.4 Navigating Directories
- 2.4.1 cd
- 2.4.2 mkdir
- 2.4.3 rmdir
- 2.4.4 Shell Globbing (“Wildcards”)
- 2.5 Intermediate Commands
- 2.5.1 grep
- 2.5.2 less
- 2.5.3 pwd
- 2.5.4 diff
- 2.5.5 file
- 2.5.6 find and locate
- 2.5.7 head and tail
- 2.5.8 sort
- 2.6 Changing Your Password and Shell
- 2.7 Dot Files
- 2.8 Environment and Shell Variables
- 2.9 The Command Path
- 2.10 Special Characters
- 2.11 Command-Line Editing
- 2.12 Text Editors
- 2.13 Getting Online Help
- 2.14 Shell Input and Output
- 2.14.1 Standard Error
- 2.14.2 Standard Input Redirection
- 2.15 Understanding Error Messages
- 2.15.1 Anatomy of a Unix Error Message
- 2.15.2 Common Errors
- 2.16 Listing and Manipulating Processes
- 2.16.1 ps Command Options
- 2.16.2 Process Termination
- 2.16.3 Job Control
- 2.16.4 Background Processes
- 2.17 File Modes and Permissions
- 2.17.1 Modifying Permissions
- 2.17.2 Working with Symbolic Links
- 2.18 Archiving and Compressing Files
- 2.18.1 gzip
- 2.18.2 tar
- 2.18.3 Compressed Archives (.tar.gz)
- 2.18.4 zcat
- 2.18.5 Other Compression Utilities
- 2.19 Linux Directory Hierarchy Essentials
- 2.19.1 Other Root Subdirectories
- 2.19.2 The /usr Directory
- 2.19.3 Kernel Location
- 2.20 Running Commands as the Superuser
- 2.20.1 sudo
- 2.20.2 /etc/sudoers
- 2.20.3 sudo Logs
- 2.21 Looking Forward
- Chapter 3: Devices
- 3.1 Device Files
- 3.2 The sysfs Device Path
- 3.3 dd and Devices
- 3.4 Device Name Summary
- 3.4.1 Hard Disks: /dev/sd*
- 3.4.2 Virtual Disks: /dev/xvd*, /dev/vd*
- 3.4.3 Non-Volatile Memory Devices: /dev/nvme*
- 3.4.4 Device Mapper: /dev/dm-*, /dev/mapper/*
- 3.4.5 CD and DVD Drives: /dev/sr*
- 3.4.6 PATA Hard Disks: /dev/hd*
- 3.4.7 Terminals: /dev/tty*, /dev/pts/*, and /dev/tty
- 3.4.8 Serial Ports: /dev/ttyS*, /dev/ttyUSB*, /dev/ttyACM*
- 3.4.9 Parallel Ports: /dev/lp0 and /dev/lp1
- 3.4.10 Audio Devices: /dev/snd/*, /dev/dsp, /dev/audio, and More
- 3.4.11 Device File Creation
- 3.5 udev
- 3.5.1 devtmpfs
- 3.5.2 udevd Operation and Configuration
- 3.5.3 udevadm
- 3.5.4 Device Monitoring
- 3.6 In-Depth: SCSI and the Linux Kernel
- 3.6.1 USB Storage and SCSI
- 3.6.2 SCSI and ATA
- 3.6.3 Generic SCSI Devices
- 3.6.4 Multiple Access Methods for a Single Device
- Chapter 4: Disks and Filesystems
- 4.1 Partitioning Disk Devices
- 4.1.1 Viewing a Partition Table
- 4.1.2 Modifying Partition Tables
- 4.1.3 Creating a Partition Table
- 4.1.4 Navigating Disk and Partition Geometry
- 4.1.5 Reading from Solid-State Disks
- 4.2 Filesystems
- 4.2.1 Filesystem Types
- 4.2.2 Creating a Filesystem
- 4.2.3 Mounting a Filesystem
- 4.2.4 Filesystem UUID
- 4.2.5 Disk Buffering, Caching, and Filesystems
- 4.2.6 Filesystem Mount Options
- 4.2.7 Remounting a Filesystem
- 4.2.8 The /etc/fstab Filesystem Table
- 4.2.9 Alternatives to /etc/fstab
- 4.2.10 Filesystem Capacity
- 4.2.11 Checking and Repairing Filesystems
- 4.2.12 Special-Purpose Filesystems
- 4.3 Swap Space
- 4.3.1 Using a Disk Partition as Swap Space
- 4.3.2 Using a File as Swap Space
- 4.3.3 Determining How Much Swap You Need
- 4.4 The Logical Volume Manager
- 4.4.2 Working with LVM
- 4.4.3 The LVM Implementation
- 4.5 Looking Forward: Disks and User Space
- 4.6 Inside a Traditional Filesystem
- 4.6.1 Inode Details and the Link Count
- 4.6.2 Block Allocation
- 4.6.3 Working with Filesystems in User Space
- Chapter 5: How the Linux Kernel Boots
- 5.1 Startup Messages
- 5.2 Kernel Initialization and Boot Options
- 5.3 Kernel Parameters
- 5.4 Boot Loaders
- 5.4.1 Boot Loader Tasks
- 5.4.2 Boot Loader Overview
- 5.5.1 Exploring Devices and Partitions with the GRUB Command Line
- 5.5.2 GRUB Configuration
- 5.5.3 GRUB Installation
- 5.6 UEFI Secure Boot Problems
- 5.7 Chainloading Other Operating Systems
- 5.8 Boot Loader Details
- 5.8.1 MBR Boot
- 5.8.2 UEFI Boot
- 5.8.3 How GRUB Works
- Chapter 6: How User Space Starts
- 6.2 Identifying Your init
- 6.3 systemd
- 6.3.1 Units and Unit Types
- 6.3.2 Booting and Unit Dependency Graphs
- 6.3.3 systemd Configuration
- 6.3.4 systemd Operation
- 6.3.5 systemd Process Tracking and Synchronization
- 6.3.6 systemd Dependencies
- 6.3.7 systemd On-Demand and Resource-Parallelized Startup
- 6.3.8 systemd Auxiliary Components
- 6.4 System V Runlevels
- 6.5 System V init
- 6.5.1 System V init: Startup Command Sequence
- 6.5.2 The System V init Link Farm
- 6.5.3 run-parts
- 6.5.4 System V init Control
- 6.5.5 systemd System V Compatibility
- 6.6 Shutting Down Your System
- 6.7 The Initial RAM Filesystem
- 6.8 Emergency Booting and Single-User Mode
- 6.9 Looking Forward
- Chapter 7: System Configuration: Logging, System Time, Batch Jobs, and Users
- 7.1 System Logging
- 7.1.1 Checking Your Log Setup
- 7.1.2 Searching and Monitoring Logs
- 7.1.3 Logfile Rotation
- 7.1.4 Journal Maintenance
- 7.1.5 A Closer Look at System Logging
- 7.2 The Structure of /etc
- 7.3 User Management Files
- 7.3.1 The /etc/passwd File
- 7.3.2 Special Users
- 7.3.3 The /etc/shadow File
- 7.3.4 Manipulating Users and Passwords
- 7.3.5 Working with Groups
- 7.4 getty and login
- 7.5 Setting the Time
- 7.5.1 Kernel Time Representation and Time Zones
- 7.5.2 Network Time
- 7.6 Scheduling Recurring Tasks with cron and Timer Units
- 7.6.1 Installing Crontab Files
- 7.6.2 System Crontab Files
- 7.6.3 Timer Units
- 7.6.4 cron vs. Timer Units
- 7.7 Scheduling One-Time Tasks with at
- 7.7.1 Timer Unit Equivalents
- 7.8 Timer Units Running as Regular Users
- 7.9 User Access Topics
- 7.9.1 User IDs and User Switching
- 7.9.2 Process Ownership, Effective UID, Real UID, and Saved UID
- 7.9.3 User Identification, Authentication, and Authorization
- 7.9.4 Using Libraries for User Information
- 7.10 Pluggable Authentication Modules
- 7.10.1 PAM Configuration
- 7.10.2 Tips on PAM Configuration Syntax
- 7.10.3 PAM and Passwords
- 7.11 Looking Forward
- Chapter 8: A Closer Look at Processes and Resource Utilization
- 8.1 Tracking Processes
- 8.2 Finding Open Files with lsof
- 8.2.1 Reading the lsof Output
- 8.2.2 Using lsof
- 8.3 Tracing Program Execution and System Calls
- 8.3.1 strace
- 8.3.2 ltrace
- 8.4 Threads
- 8.4.1 Single-Threaded and Multithreaded Processes
- 8.4.2 Viewing Threads
- 8.5.1 Measuring CPU Time
- 8.5.2 Adjusting Process Priorities
- 8.5.3 Measuring CPU Performance with Load Averages
- 8.5.4 Monitoring Memory Status
- 8.5.5 Monitoring CPU and Memory Performance with vmstat
- 8.5.6 I/O Monitoring
- 8.5.7 Per-Process Monitoring with pidstat
- 8.6 Control Groups (cgroups)
- 8.6.1 Differentiating Between cgroup Versions
- 8.6.2 Viewing cgroups
- 8.6.3 Manipulating and Creating cgroups
- 8.6.4 Viewing Resource Utilization
- 8.7 Further Topics
- Chapter 9: Understanding Your Network and Its Configuration
- 9.1 Network Basics
- 9.2 Packets
- 9.3 Network Layers
- 9.4 The Internet Layer
- 9.4.1 Viewing IP Addresses
- 9.4.2 Subnets
- 9.4.3 Common Subnet Masks and CIDR Notation
- 9.5 Routes and the Kernel Routing Table
- 9.6 The Default Gateway
- 9.7 IPv6 Addresses and Networks
- 9.7.1 Viewing IPv6 Configuration on Your System
- 9.7.2 Configuring Dual-Stack Networks
- 9.8 Basic ICMP and DNS Tools
- 9.8.1 ping
- 9.8.2 DNS and host
- 9.9 The Physical Layer and Ethernet
- 9.10 Understanding Kernel Network Interfaces
- 9.11.1 Manually Configuring Interfaces
- 9.11.2 Manually Adding and Deleting Routes
- 9.12 Boot-Activated Network Configuration
- 9.13 Problems with Manual and Boot-Activated Network Configuration
- 9.14 Network Configuration Managers
- 9.14.1 NetworkManager Operation
- 9.14.2 NetworkManager Interaction
- 9.14.3 NetworkManager Configuration
- 9.15 Resolving Hostnames
- 9.15.1 /etc/hosts
- 9.15.2 resolv.conf
- 9.15.3 Caching and Zero-Configuration DNS
- 9.15.4 /etc/nsswitch.conf
- 9.16 Localhost
- 9.17 The Transport Layer: TCP, UDP, and Services
- 9.17.1 TCP Ports and Connections
- 9.17.2 UDP
- 9.18 Revisiting a Simple Local Network
- 9.19 Understanding DHCP
- 9.19.1 Linux DHCP Clients
- 9.19.2 Linux DHCP Servers
- 9.20 Automatic IPv6 Network Configuration
- 9.21 Configuring Linux as a Router
- 9.22 Private Networks (IPv4)
- 9.23 Network Address Translation (IP Masquerading)
- 9.24 Routers and Linux
- 9.25 Firewalls
- 9.25.1 Linux Firewall Basics
- 9.25.2 Setting Firewall Rules
- 9.25.3 Firewall Strategies
- 9.26 Ethernet, IP, ARP, and NDP
- 9.27 Wireless Ethernet
- 9.27.1 iw
- 9.27.2 Wireless Security
- 9.28 Summary
- Chapter 10: Network Applications and Services
- 10.1 The Basics of Services
- 10.2 A Closer Look
- 10.3 Network Servers
- 10.3.1 Secure Shell
- 10.3.2 The sshd Server
- 10.3.3 fail2ban
- 10.3.4 The SSH Client
- 10.4 Pre-systemd Network Connection Servers: inetd/xinetd
- 10.5 Diagnostic Tools
- 10.5.1 lsof
- 10.5.2 tcpdump
- 10.5.3 netcat
- 10.5.4 Port Scanning
- 10.6 Remote Procedure Calls
- 10.7 Network Security
- 10.7.1 Typical Vulnerabilities
- 10.7.2 Security Resources
- 10.8 Looking Forward
- 10.9 Network Sockets
- 10.10 Unix Domain Sockets
- Chapter 11: Introduction to Shell Scripts
- 11.1 Shell Script Basics
- 11.1.1 Limitations of Shell Scripts
- 11.2 Quoting and Literals
- 11.2.1 Literals
- 11.2.2 Single Quotes
- 11.2.3 Double Quotes
- 11.2.4 Literal Single Quotes
- 11.3 Special Variables
- 11.3.1 Individual Arguments: $1, $2, and So On
- 11.3.2 Number of Arguments: $#
- 11.3.3 All Arguments: $@
- 11.3.4 Script Name: $0
- 11.3.5 Process ID: $$
- 11.3.6 Exit Code: $?
- 11.4 Exit Codes
- 11.5 Conditionals
- 11.5.1 A Workaround for Empty Parameter Lists
- 11.5.2 Other Commands for Tests
- 11.5.3 elif
- 11.5.4 Logical Constructs
- 11.5.5 Testing Conditions
- 11.5.6 case
- 11.6 Loops
- 11.6.1 for Loops
- 11.6.2 while Loops
- 11.7 Command Substitution
- 11.8 Temporary File Management
- 11.9 Here Documents
- 11.10 Important Shell Script Utilities
- 11.10.1 basename
- 11.10.2 awk
- 11.10.3 sed
- 11.10.4 xargs
- 11.10.5 expr
- 11.10.6 exec
- 11.11 Subshells
- 11.12 Including Other Files in Scripts
- 11.13 Reading User Input
- 11.14 When (Not) to Use Shell Scripts
- Chapter 12: Network File Transfer and Sharing
- 12.1 Quick Copy
- 12.2 rsync
- 12.2.1 Getting Started with rsync
- 12.2.2 Making Exact Copies of a Directory Structure
- 12.2.3 Using the Trailing Slash
- 12.2.4 Excluding Files and Directories
- 12.2.5 Checking Transfers, Adding Safeguards, and Using Verbose Mode
- 12.2.6 Compressing Data
- 12.2.7 Limiting Bandwidth
- 12.2.8 Transferring Files to Your Computer
- 12.2.9 Further rsync Topics
- 12.3.1 File Sharing Usage and Performance
- 12.3.2 File Sharing Security
- 12.4 Sharing Files with Samba
- 12.4.1 Server Configuration
- 12.4.2 Server Access Control
- 12.4.3 Passwords
- 12.4.4 Manual Server Startup
- 12.4.5 Diagnostics and Logfiles
- 12.4.6 File Share Configuration
- 12.4.7 Home Directories
- 12.4.8 Printer Sharing
- 12.4.9 The Samba Client
- 12.5 SSHFS
- 12.6 NFS
- 12.7 Cloud Storage
- 12.8 The State of Network File Sharing
- Chapter 13: User Environments
- 13.1 Guidelines for Creating Startup Files
- 13.2 When to Alter Startup Files
- 13.3 Shell Startup File Elements
- 13.3.1 The Command Path
- 13.3.2 The Manual Page Path
- 13.3.3 The Prompt
- 13.3.4 Aliases
- 13.3.5 The Permissions Mask
- 13.4 Startup File Order and Examples
- 13.4.1 The bash Shell
- 13.4.2 The tcsh Shell
- 13.5 Default User Settings
- 13.5.1 Shell Defaults
- 13.5.2 Editor
- 13.5.3 Pager
- 13.6 Startup File Pitfalls
- 13.7 Further Startup Topics
- Chapter 14: A Brief Survey of the Linux Desktop and Printing
- 14.1 Desktop Components
- 14.1.1 Framebuffers
- 14.1.2 The X Window System
- 14.1.3 Wayland
- 14.1.4 Window Managers
- 14.1.5 Toolkits
- 14.1.6 Desktop Environments
- 14.1.7 Applications
- 14.2 Are You Running Wayland or X?
- 14.3 A Closer Look at Wayland
- 14.3.1 The Compositing Window Manager
- 14.3.2 libinput
- 14.3.3 X Compatibility in Wayland
- 14.4 A Closer Look at the X Window System
- 14.4.1 Display Managers
- 14.4.2 Network Transparency
- 14.4.3 Ways of Exploring X Clients
- 14.4.4 X Events
- 14.4.5 X Input and Preference Settings
- 14.5 D-Bus
- 14.5.1 System and Session Instances
- 14.5.2 D-Bus Message Monitoring
- 14.6 Printing
- 14.6.1 CUPS
- 14.6.2 Format Conversion and Print Filters
- 14.7 Other Desktop Topics
- Chapter 15: Development Tools
- 15.1 The C Compiler
- 15.1.1 Compiling Multiple Source Files
- 15.1.2 Linking with Libraries
- 15.1.3 Working with Shared Libraries
- 15.1.4 Working with Header (Include) Files and Directories
- 15.2 make
- 15.2.1 A Sample Makefile
- 15.2.2 Built-in Rules
- 15.2.3 Final Program Build
- 15.2.4 Dependency Updates
- 15.2.5 Command-Line Arguments and Options
- 15.2.6 Standard Macros and Variables
- 15.2.7 Conventional Targets
- 15.2.8 Makefile Organization
- 15.3 Lex and Yacc
- 15.4 Scripting Languages
- 15.4.1 Python
- 15.4.2 Perl
- 15.4.3 Other Scripting Languages
- 15.5 Java
- 15.6 Looking Forward: Compiling Packages
- Chapter 16: Introduction to Compiling Software from C Source Code
- 16.1 Software Build Systems
- 16.2 Unpacking C Source Packages
- 16.3 GNU Autoconf
- 16.3.1 An Autoconf Example
- 16.3.2 Installation Using a Packaging Tool
- 16.3.3 configure Script Options
- 16.3.4 Environment Variables
- 16.3.5 Autoconf Targets
- 16.3.6 Autoconf Logfiles
- 16.3.7 pkg-config
- 16.4 Installation Practice
- 16.4.1 Where to Install
- 16.5 Applying a Patch
- 16.6 Troubleshooting Compiles and Installations
- 16.6.1 Specific Errors
- 16.7 Looking Forward
- Chapter 17: Virtualization
- 17.1 Virtual Machines
- 17.1.1 Hypervisors
- 17.1.2 Hardware in a Virtual Machine
- 17.1.3 Common Uses of Virtual Machines
- 17.1.4 Drawbacks of Virtual Machines
- 17.2 Containers
- 17.2.1 Docker, Podman, and Privileges
- 17.2.2 A Docker Example
- 17.2.3 LXC
- 17.2.4 Kubernetes
- 17.2.5 Pitfalls of Containers
- 17.3 Runtime-Based Virtualization
- Index
How Linux Works
3rd Edition
What Every Superuser Should Know
by Brian Ward
San Francisco
-
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