Index

  • SYMBOLS
  • (backslash), 10
  • - operator, 12
  • / operator, 12
  • // operator, 12
  • //= (floor division) assignment operator, 14
  • _ (binary One Complement) bitwise operator, 15, 52
  • | (binary OR) bitwise operator, 15, 52
  • + operator, 11, 12
  • += (add AND) assignment operator, 14
  • +KA (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • /= (divide AND) assignment operator, 14
  • = (subtract AND) assignment operator, 14
  • = assignment operator, 14
  • != comparison operator, 13
  • == comparison operator, 13
  • % operator, 12
  • %= (modulus AND) assignment operator, 14
  • & (binary AND) bitwise operator, 15, 52
  • * operator, 12
  • ** operator, 12
  • **= (exponent AND) assignment operator, 14
  • *= (multiply AND) assignment operator, 14
  • ^ (binary XOR) bitwise operator, 15, 52
  • < comparison operator, 13
  • << (binary Left Shift) bitwise operator, 15, 52
  • <= comparison operator, 13
  • <>= comparison operator, 13
  • > comparison operator, 13
  • >= comparison operator, 13
  • >> (binary Right Shift) bitwise operator, 15, 52
  • A
  • A (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • A → B: m (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • A[m] (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • a+ file operator, 19
  • addition + operator, 12
  • Adleman, Leonard (researcher), 34, 226
  • AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), 36, 156, 167, 180–187
  • AES-GCM, 261
  • Affine cipher, 90–93
  • algorithms
    • ARX algorithms, 149
    • asymmetric algorithms, 36
    • DEC algorithm, 2
    • deterministic algorithm, 101
    • ENC algorithm, 2
    • exploring, 2
    • GEN algorithm, 2
    • Mersenne Twister algorithm, 116
    • published and proprietary encryption, 61–62
    • RSA algorithm, 104, 226–235, 242
    • Secure Hash Algorithms (SHAs), 203–204, 205, 209
    • symmetric algorithms, 36
  • Alice and Bob, as most famous cryptographic couple, 33–34
  • analytical attacks, 48
  • AND, 50–55
  • and (logical AND), 14
  • Append file operator, 19
  • arbiter, 35
  • arbitrated authentication, 35–36
  • ARC4 (ARCFOUR), 147–148
  • arithmetic operators, 11–13
  • Artjuhov, M. M., 100
  • ARX algorithms, 149
  • ASCII encoding, 70
  • assignment operator, 10, 14
  • associativity (as group axiom), 106
  • asymmetric algorithms, 36
  • Atbash cipher, 77
  • attack models, 49–50
  • attacks
    • analytical attacks, 48
    • birthday attack, 59, 207–209
    • brute-force attacks, 47–48
    • length extension attack, 209–210
    • reflection attack, 211
    • reordering attack, 211
    • replay attack, 211
    • side-channel attacks, 48
    • social engineering, 48
  • Authenticate Then Decrypt, 211
  • authentication
    • arbitrated authentication, 35
    • data origin authentication, 34–35
    • direct authentication, 35
    • entity authentication, 35–36
    • inter-realm authentication, 40
    • message authentication codes, 60
  • B
  • backslash ( ), 10
  • Base64 encoding text, 70
  • bcrypt library, 69
  • Bernstein, Daniel, 149
  • bin() function, 52
  • binary data, 71
  • binary digests, 204–205
  • binascii library, 140
  • birthday attack, 59, 207–209
  • bitwise operators, 15, 52
  • blind signatures, 33
  • block cipher mode, 158
  • block ciphers
    • AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), 36, 156, 167
    • block modes of operation, 158
    • CBC mode (formerly Cipher Block Chaining), 159–160
    • CFB mode (Cipher Feedback mode), 160–162
    • CTR mode (Integer Counter mode or Segmented Integer Counter mode), 162–164
    • DIY block cipher using Feistel networks, 165–166
    • ECB mode (formerly Electronic Codebook), 158–159
    • OFB mode (Output Feedback mode), 162–163
    • overview, 156–158
    • tricks with stream modes, 164–165
  • block modes of operation, 180–187
  • Blowfish, 36
  • Bob and Alice, as most famous cryptographic couple, 33–34
  • Boolean test, 16
  • break loop, 18
  • brute-force attacks, 47–48
  • buffer sequence type, 20, 21
  • Bundle, Pip as similar to, 5
  • C
  • CA-A (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • CA<<A>> (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • Caesar cipher, 74–76
  • CBC mode (formerly Cipher Block Chaining), 159–160, 180, 185–186
  • CBC-MAC (cipher block chaining message authentication code), 206–207
  • CCA (Chosen-Ciphertext), 50
  • Cert -CK CA(+KA) (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • certificate, self-signed, 45–46
  • certificate authorities (CAs), 42
  • certificate chains, 42–44
  • certificate hierarchy, 42–44
  • certificate revocation, 44–45
  • CFB mode (Cipher Feedback mode), 160–162
  • ChaCha cipher, 151–156
  • ChaCha20 stream cipher, 145
  • channels
    • adding symmetric encryption, 215–218
    • communication channels, 211
    • concatenate message and MAC, 218–221
    • creating client socket, 213–214
    • creating server socket, 212–213
    • creating threaded server with TCP, 214–215
    • sending secure messages over IP networks, 212–221
    • setting up secure one, 210–221
  • chmod command, 3
  • Choctaw Indian language, as historical cipher, 73
  • Chosen-Ciphertext (CCA), 50
  • Chosen-Plaintext (CPA), 50
  • Chromebook, installing Python on, 4–5
  • CIA Triad, 35–36
  • cipher block chaining message authentication code (CBC-MAC), 206–207
  • Cipher Block Chaining (now CBC mode), 159–160
  • Cipher Feedback mode (CFB), 160–162
  • cipher space, use of term, 49
  • ciphers
    • Affine cipher, 90–93
    • ARC4 (ARCFOUR), 147–148
    • Atbash cipher, 77
    • block ciphers, 156–169
    • Caesar cipher, 74–76
    • ChaCha cipher, 151–156
    • column transposition, 87–90
    • Hill 2x2, 83–87
    • historical ones, 72–93
    • Playfair, 79–82
    • ROT-13, 76
    • Salsa20 cipher, 149–151
    • stream ciphers, 141–156
    • substitution ones, 73–77
    • Vernam cipher, 148–149
    • Vignère cipher, 77–79, 129–137
  • ciphertext (C)C, 2
  • Ciphertext Only (COA), 49
  • classical cryptography
    • data obfuscation (DO), 69–72
    • historical ciphers, 72–93
    • password best practices, 66–69
  • client
    • creating one for constructing plaintext communications application, 250–251
    • modifying of for implementing PKI in application using RSA certificates, 257
  • client file, modifying of in implementing Diffie-Hellman key exchange, 264–266
  • client socket, creating, 213–214
  • clock synchronization, 42
  • closure (as group axiom), 106
  • Cocks, Clifford (mathematician and cryptographer), 224–226
  • codes
    • commenting on, 10
    • message authentication codes, 60
  • collision resistance, 59
  • column transposition, 87–90
  • comments, on code, 10
  • “Communication Theory and Secrecy Systems” (Shannon), 50
  • comparison operators, 13
  • Composer, Pip as similar to, 5
  • concatenate message and MAC, for incorporating message hashing, 200
  • conditionals, use of, 16–17
  • continue loop, 18
  • count() method, 25
  • CPA (Chosen-Plaintext), 50
  • cryptanalysis
    • defined, 47
    • with Python, 123–137
    • understanding of, 47–49
  • cryptographic family, 33–34
  • cryptographic library, configuring your first, 47
  • cryptographic one-way hashes, 59–60
  • cryptographic protocols, 32–33, 46–47. See also specific protocols
  • cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG), 115, 141–144, 146
  • cryptography
    • history of, 31, 242
    • origin of term, 32
    • study of, 32–49
    • understanding of, 32–47
  • Cryptography library, 174–175, 189
  • Cryptography package, installing, 7–8
  • Cryptosteganography library, 175
  • cryptosteganography module, 175, 188, 189, 192
  • CTR (counter) style, 157
  • CTR mode (Integer Counter mode or Segmented Integer Counter mode), 162–164
  • custom functions, 26–27
  • D
  • data
    • binary data, 71
    • obfuscating of, 69–72
  • data obfuscation (DO), 69–72
  • data origin authentication, 34–35
  • De Cannière, Christophe, 145
  • De Vita Caesarum, Divus Iulis ("The Lives of the Caesars, the Deified Julius" commonly known as The Twelve Caesars), 74–76
  • DEC algorithm, 2
  • decode() method, 71
  • decoding, 71
  • decryption
    • Authenticate Then Decrypt, 211
    • constructing BLOB decryption with RSA certificates, 232–235
    • constructing simple text decryption with RSA certificates, 231–232
    • of files using AES, 169
  • def keyword, 26
  • DES, 36, 156
  • deterministic algorithm, 101
  • dictionaries, 25–26
  • Diffie, Whitfield, 162, 224
  • Diffie-Hellman class file, creating, 270–275
  • Diffie-Hellman key exchange
    • implementing of, 261–276
    • overview, 242–245
    • purpose of, 34
    • as used by TLS, 33
  • digest() method, 204
  • dir(), 28
  • direct authentication, 35
  • division / operator, 12
  • DO (data obfuscation), 69–72
  • double quote ("), 11
  • downloading and installing, Python, 3–8
  • E
  • ECB mode (formerly Electronic Codebook), 158–159, 180, 181–185
  • ECC keys, generating, 240–241
  • Ehrsam, W. F., 159
  • Electronic Codebook (now ECB mode), 158–159
  • electronic money, 33
  • elements, orders of, 107–109
  • El-Gamal encryption, 235–238
  • elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
    • generating ECC keys, 240–241
    • key lengths and curves, 241–242
    • overview, 238–240
  • elliptic curves, 238–239
  • Ellis, James, 225
  • else loop, 18–19
  • ENC algorithm, 2
  • encode() methods, 71
  • encoding matrix, 117
  • Encrypt and Authenticate, 210–211
  • Encrypt Then Authenticate, 211
  • encryption
    • constructing BLOB encryption with RSA certificates, 232–235
    • constructing simple text encryption with RSA certificates, 231–232
    • El-Gamal encryption, 235–238
    • MAC encryption, 200–201
    • symmetric encryption, 8, 36, 39, 49, 176, 215–218
  • encryption key (K), 2
  • encryption protocols, as another name for cryptographic protocols, 32
  • entity authentication, 35
  • eSTREAM, 145
  • Euler's theorem, 100, 111–114
  • exponent ** operator, 12
  • extend() method, 24
  • F
  • FA (frequency analysis), 48–49, 120–123
  • FCS (Frame Check Sequence), 58–59
  • Federal Information Processing Standards Publication (FIPS PUB 180-4), 205
  • Feistel cipher/Feistel network, 165–166
  • Ferguson, Niels, 162
  • Fermat's little theorem, 100, 110–111
  • Fernet
    • file cryptography using, 175–179
    • image cryptography using, 179–180
  • Fernet library, 175
  • file operations, 19
  • files
    • decryption of using AES, 169
    • downloading using Python, 27–28
    • encryption of using AES, 169
    • use of, 19
  • FIPS PUB 180-4 (Federal Information Processing Standards Publication), 205
  • Flexible Image Transport System (FITS), 3, 195–197
  • floor division// operator, 12
  • for loop, 17
  • forgeries, crafting of, 209–210
  • forward secrecy (FS), 60
  • Frame Check Sequence (FCS), 58–59
  • frequency, determination of, 126–129
  • frequency analysis (FA), 48–49, 120–123
  • functions, custom functions, 26–27
  • G
  • GEN algorithm, 2
  • greatest common divisor (GCD), 96–97, 111
  • group axioms, 106
  • group law, 106
  • group theory
    • orders of elements, 107–109
    • overview, 106–107
  • groups, concept of, 106
  • H
  • hash code, 67
  • hash function, 58
  • Hash-based Message Authentication Code (HMAC)
    • binary digests, 204–205
    • CBC-MAC, 206–207
    • described, 60
    • message digest with SHA, 203–204
    • overview, 201–202
    • using HMAC to sign message, 202–203
  • hashlib module, 28–29
  • Header + Data Units (HDUs), 195
  • Hellman, Martin, 162, 224
  • helper file
    • creating one for constructing plaintext communications application, 251–252
    • modifying of for implementing PKI in application using RSA certificates, 258–259
    • modifying of in implementing Diffie-Hellman key exchange, 266–270
  • hexdigest, conversion to plaintext, 140–141
  • hexdigest() method, 204
  • hexlify module, 140
  • hidden secret, for incorporating message hashing, 201
  • Hill 2x2, 83–87
  • H(m) (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • I
  • IDEA, 36
  • identity (as group axiom), 106
  • identity operators, 16
  • IF statement, 16
  • image cryptography
    • AES and block modes of operation, 180–187
    • applying examples, 186
    • exploring simple CBC mode example, 185–186
    • exploring simple ECB mode example, 181–185
    • file cryptography using Fernet, 175–179
    • overview, 175–176
    • steganography, 187–197
    • using Fernet, 179–180
  • images
    • cryptography libraries, 174–175
    • image cryptography, 175–187
    • simple image cryptography, 171–174
    • storing binary file inside, 192–194
    • storing message inside, 188–191
    • using cryptography with, 171–197
    • working with large ones, 195–197
  • immutable, 24
  • import command, 28
  • import math call, 28
  • in membership operator, 15
  • indentation, misuse of, 10
  • index() method, 25
  • indices
    • negative index, 22
    • positive index, 22
  • infinite one-time pad, 164
  • infrastructure, 255–256
  • installing
    • additional packages, 5–8
    • Chryptography package, 7–8
    • IPython, 8
    • Matplotlib, 5–7
    • Pip, 5–7
    • Python, 3–8
    • testing, 9
    • Wireshark, 253–254
  • Integer Counter mode, 162–164
  • integer factorization, 97
  • inter-realm authentication, 40
  • inverse (as group axiom), 106
  • IPython, 8
  • is identity operator, 16
  • is not identity operator, 16
  • is_prime() function, 103
  • K
  • -KA (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • KA,B (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • Kerberos protocol, 36, 39–40
  • Kerckhoffs, Auguste, 61
  • key distribution problem, 223
  • key escrow, 33
  • key exchange, 34
  • key space, use of term, 49
  • Known-Plaintext (KPA), 50
  • Koblitz, Neal, 239
  • L
  • lambda functions, 125
  • length extension attack, 209–210
  • libraries
    • bcrypt library, 69
    • binascii library, 140
    • configuring your first cryptographic library, 47
    • cryptography libraries, 174–175
    • Fernet library, 175
  • linear equations, solving systems of, 117–119
  • linear-feedback register (LPSR), 146
  • list() function, 25
  • list sequence type, 20–21, 24, 25
  • logical operators, 13–14
  • loops, use of, 17–19
  • M
  • (m 1, …, m n) (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • MAC encryption, for incorporating message hashing, 200
  • macOS, installing Python on, 4
  • Matplotlib
    • described, 3, 5
    • installing, 5–7
  • MD5, 203
  • MDC (modification digest code), 34–35
  • membership operators, 15
  • Merkle, Ralph, 224
  • Mersenne Twister algorithm, 116
  • Message Authentication Codes (MACs)
    • birthday attack, 59, 207–209
    • cipher block chaining message authentication code (CBC-MAC), 206–207
    • crafting forgeries, 209–210
    • hash-based ones, 201–205
    • NIST compliance, 205–206
    • overview, 200–201
  • message digest, 67
  • message hashing, 200
  • message integrity
    • Message Authentication Codes (MACs), 200–210
    • setting up secure channel, 210–221
  • message space, use of term, 49
  • "A method for obtaining digital signatures and public key cryptosystems" (Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman), 34
  • Meyer, C. H., 159
  • Miller, Gary L., 100
  • Miller, Victor S., 239
  • Miller-Rabin primality test, 100–104
  • minus - operator, 12
  • (m)K (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • modification digest code (MDC), 34–35
  • modular arithmetic, 96–97
  • modular inverses
    • Fermat's little theorem to find inverse, 110–111
    • overview, 109–110
  • modules, defined, 28
  • modulus % operator, 12
  • multiple-domain Kerberos, 40–41
  • multiplication * operator, 12
  • mutable, 24
  • N
  • names
    • as case sensitive in Python, 9
    • examples of, 9
    • numbers as not starting, 9
  • National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST), 205
  • Needham, Roger (protocol inventor), 36
  • Needham-Schroeder protocols, 36–38
  • Network Time Protocol (NTP), 42
  • NIST compliance, 205–206
  • not (logical NOT), 14
  • not in membership operator, 15
  • NPM, Pip as similar to, 5
  • NumPy, 3, 5–7, 117
  • O
  • OFB (output feedback) style, 157
  • OFB mode (Output Feedback mode), 162–163
  • one-time pad (OTP), 51, 141
  • one-time pad (OTP) function, 56–58
  • one-way hashes
    • cryptographic one-way hashes, 59–60
    • overview, 58–59
  • online word list, use of, 125–126
  • open method, 27, 28
  • operators
    • arithmetic operators, 11–13
    • bitwise operators, 15, 52
    • comparison operators, 13
    • identity operators, 16
    • logical operators, 13–14
    • membership operators, 15
    • relational operators, 13
    • use of, 11–12
  • OR, 50–55
  • or (logical OR), 14
  • OTP (one-time pad), 51, 141
  • OTP (one-time pad) function, 56–58
  • Otway-Rees protocol, 38
  • Output Feedback mode (OFB mode), 162–163
  • output feedback (OFB) style, 157
  • P
  • passwords
    • best practices for, 66–69
    • hashing of, 67
    • salting of, 67–68
    • storage of, 66
    • stretching of, 68
    • tools for, 68–69
  • PEM (privacy enhanced electronic mail), 70–71
  • perfect forward secrecy (PFS), 60–61
  • perfect secrecy, 51, 56
  • perfect security, 50–51
  • Pip, installing, 5–7
  • PKI (public-key infrastructure)
    • described, 223–224
    • implementing of in application using RSA certificates, 255–261
  • plaintext
    • constructing plaintext communications application, 248–253
    • conversion of hexdigest to, 140–141
  • Playfair, 79–82
  • plus + operator, 11, 12
  • preimage resistance, 59
  • Preneel, Bart, 145
  • prime factorization, 97
  • prime number theorem, 98
  • prime numbers
    • Fermat's little theorem, 100
    • generating large ones, 104–106
    • Miller-Rabin primality test, 100–104
    • overview, 97–98
    • prime number theorem, 98
    • school primality test, 98–99
  • Print() function, 13
  • privacy enhanced electronic mail (PEM), 70–71
  • protocols
    • cryptographic protocols, 32–33, 46–47
    • Kerberos protocol, 36, 39–40
    • multiple-domain Kerberos, 40–41
    • Needham-Schroeder protocols, 36–38
    • Network Time Protocol (NTP), 42
    • Otway-Rees protocol, 38
    • public-key protocol, 36–37
    • symmetric key protocol, 36
    • Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 212
    • User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 212
  • pseudorandom number generation (PRNG), 115, 141–144
  • pseudorandomness
    • breaking C's rand() function, 116
    • overview, 115
  • public key MAC encryption, for incorporating message hashing, 200–201
  • public-key certificates, 42
  • public-key infrastructure (PKI)
    • described, 223–224
    • implementing of in application using RSA certificates, 255–261
  • public-key protocol
    • as second protocol of Needham-Schroeder protocols, 36–37
    • as similar to protocol proposed by Otway and Rees, 38
  • public-key transformation
    • constructing BLOB encryption and decryption with, 232–235
    • constructing simple text decryption with RSA certificates, 231–232
    • exploring basics of RSA, 226–229
    • generating RSA certificates, 229–230
    • overview, 224–226
  • PyFITS, described, 3
  • Python
    • basics of, 9–29
    • downloading and installing, 3–8
    • installing additional packages, 5
    • installing Cryptography package, 7–8
    • reasons to use, 2–3
    • upgrading packages, 5
    • using AES with, 167–169
  • Python 2, as unsupported, 3
  • Q
  • quotes
    • double quote ("), 11
    • single quote ('), 11
  • R
  • R file operator, 19
  • r+ file operator, 19
  • RA (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • Rabin, Michael, 100
  • rainbow table, 67
  • RC4, 147
  • reflection attack, 211
  • relational operators, 13
  • remove() method, 25
  • reordering attack, 211
  • replay attack, 211
  • requests module, 27
  • reserved words, 9
  • reverse cipher, creating, 29
  • reverse() method, 25
  • reverseCipher function, 29
  • Rivest, Ron, 34, 226
  • ROT-13, 76
  • RSA algorithm, 104, 226–235, 242
  • RSA certificates
    • constructing BLOB encryption and decryption with, 232–235
    • constructing simple text encryption and decryption with, 231–232
    • generating, 229–231
    • implementing PKI in application using, 255–261
  • RSAES-OAEP, 231
  • S
  • Salsa20 cipher, 149–151
  • Schneier, Bruce, 162
  • school primality test, 98
  • Schroeder, Michael, 36
  • SEC (Standards of Efficient Cryptography), 241
  • secondary resistance, 59
  • secret sharing, 33
  • secret splitting, 33
  • Secure Hash Algorithms (SHAs), 203–204, 205, 209
  • securing elections, 33
  • security protocols, as another name for cryptographic protocols, 32
  • Segmented Integer Counter mode, 162–164
  • self-signed certificate, 45–46
  • semantics, understanding Python semantics, 20
  • sequence types, 20–26
  • server
    • creating one for constructing plaintext communications application, 248–250
    • modifying of for implementing PKI in application using RSA certificates, 256–257
  • server file, modifying of in implementing Diffie-Hellman key exchange, 262–264
  • server socket, creating, 212–213
  • SHA, 203–204
  • Shamir, Edi, 34, 226
  • Shannon, Claude (father of information theory), 31, 50
  • Shannon's theorem, 50–51
  • shared key (SK), 34
  • side-channel attacks, 48
  • SIMD (single instruction, multiple data), 151–152
  • single quote ('), 11
  • Skipjack, 36
  • Smith, J. L., 159
  • social engineering, 48
  • sort() method, 25
  • Spartan scytale, 73
  • Standards of Efficient Cryptography (SEC), 241
  • Steganographia (Trithemius), 187–188
  • steganography
    • overview, 187–188
    • storing binary file inside image, 192–194
    • storing message inside image, 188–191
    • working with large images, 195–197
  • str sequence type, 20
  • stream ciphers
    • ARC4, 147–148
    • ChaCha cipher, 151–156
    • overview, 141–147
    • Salsa20 cipher, 149–151
    • Vernam cipher, 148–149
  • stream modes, 164–165
  • stretching (of passwords), 68
  • strings
    • use of, 11
    • using quotes to define, 21
  • subtraction - operator, 12
  • symmetric algorithms, 36
  • symmetric encryption, 8, 36, 39, 49, 176, 215–218
  • symmetric key, 35
  • symmetric key confidentiality, for incorporating message hashing, 201
  • symmetric key protocol, 36
  • symmetric public key confidentiality, for incorporating message hashing, 201
  • T
  • tA (notation in cryptographic protocols), 37
  • Ticket Granting Servers (TGS), 40
  • timestamping, 33
  • Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 212, 214–215
  • Transport Layer Security (TLS), 33
  • Triple DES, 156
  • Trithemius, Johannes (author), Steganographia, 187
  • Trivium, 145
  • trusted third party (TTP), 35
  • Tuchman, W. L., 159
  • tuple() function, 25
  • tuple sequence type, 20, 21, 24, 25
  • The Twelve Caesars, 74–76
  • U
  • Ubuntu, installing Python on, 4
  • unhexlify module, 140
  • Unicode sequence type, 20
  • User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 212
  • V
  • validation, formal validation of cryptographic protocols, 46–47
  • values, as stored in variables, 10
  • variables, use of, 10–11
  • Vernam, Gilbert, 148
  • Vernam cipher, 148–149
  • Vignère cipher, 77–79, 129–137
  • W
  • W file operator, 19
  • W+ file operator, 19
  • while loop, 18
  • whitespace, as meaningful, 10
  • Windows, installing Python on, 4
  • Wireguard, 145
  • Wireshark, installing and testing, 253–254
  • X
  • X.509, 41–42
  • XOR, 50–55
  • xrange sequence type, 20, 21
  • Z
  • zero-knowledge proofs, 33
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