5.1. Urbanization

Urbanization is a historical movement portraying the increase in the numbers of city dwellers in relation to the general population [VER 07]. In the face of this historical movement, a new field, urbanism, emerged over time, covering the study of the urban phenomenon, the urbanization process and the organization of cities and their territories. This includes the implementation of urban policies in terms of developing public and private spaces, organizing the built environment, socio-economic services and networks in order to achieve a certain harmony between uses and for the sustainable well-being of users.

The urban planners’ goal is thus to give a reading of the city and its territory. These readings should be consistent across the territories, in relation to neighboring territories and in relation to larger-scale territories. More specifically, town planning can cover the regulatory aspects and the operational aspects. On the one hand, the regulatory aspects restrict or, conversely, encourage certain actions. Thus, for instance, we have town plans. On the other hand, in relation to the operational aspects, urban planning covers carrying out certain actions on the ground by concrete activities, such as building a new road.

5.2. Urbanization of information systems

Corporate management draws on the principles of urban planning and translates them within its business for its information system [LON 09]. Like a city that expands in parallel with the growth of its population, an information system expands in parallel with the growth in size of the business, the data to be processed and the computerization of business activities.

The urbanization of an information system is an advanced process that provides a framework of analysis in the interests of rationalizing, transforming and improving the information system. As such, it is the creator of value. Just like town planners, whose terminology they adopt, the information systems planners call for engineering focused on the organization of the territory and understanding how it has developed over time. Thus, the urbanization of the information system looks at the information system’s history and dynamics. It seeks to analyze the current information system in terms of the inherited information system while planning the target information system. Urbanization of the information system does not wipe out the past and start afresh, but it takes into account the existing system and the technological opportunities to develop the information system.

Behind the often complex technical aspects, the process of urbanization is in particular an aid to strategic decision-making. Urban planning means, first of all, seeking, in an organized framework, the optimal allocation of financial, human, application-driven and infrastructure resources. In this, urbanization is essential for a professional approach in terms of information systems management. Urbanization of the information system is a prerequisite to enhancing the upgradability, sustainability and autonomy of the organization’s information system, through strengthening the organizational capacity for integrating heterogeneous solutions. This approach targets an information system capable of supporting the business strategy through a series of coherent information systems development projects.

Information systems urbanization entails the mastery of specific techniques and methods and compliance with precise rules. The two main rules are: weak links [ORT 90] and strong ties. The rule about weak links helps ensure that each function block has a limited number of communications with other blocks in the information system and that these communications are simple and effective. The strong ties rule ensures that the function block only includes objects (applications and components) that directly relate to the functions that the block is designed to handle. Consequently, each object (application or component) must belong to one, and only one, function block. The association of these two rules makes it possible to add, remove or change one application without disrupting the other applications with which it communicates, according to a modular logic. In the urbanization of a city, changing an application would be comparable to knocking down a building, and it should be possible to do this without disrupting the lives of the entire neighborhood. This means the information systems planner is able to give analysis elements on the modularity and development potential of the information system.

5.3. Urbanization: approaches and objectives

There are two approaches to urbanization: top-down or bottom-up. The top-down approach is based on a technical process and typically consists of two steps. In the first step, the information systems planner works for the Executive and his/her proposal is purely informative. Thus, the urbanization process has no impact on the actual development of the information system. In the second step, the Executive will make use of what the planners have produced to set strategic orientation plans for the business departments.

The bottom-up approach is based on pooling and sharing, and involves dialog with the stakeholders. The planners’ work will thus be useful in supplying the elements of understanding necessary to develop reasoned, well-argued debate between all stakeholders involved in information systems governance.

Irrespective of the approach taken, information systems urbanization sets out three main objectives: to understand the existing information system, to define the target information system and the associated trajectory, and to provide the tools to steer its development.

5.3.1. Understanding the existing information system

This entails identifying the functions covered by the “as is information system”, how they are translated within applications, how they are implemented in the technical infrastructure and what data is processed in the information system.

The deliverables are of two kinds. On the one hand, a repository that will centralize all the information about the information system. On the other hand, a mapping process that will give a visual representation of the information system. Among the different representational models of an information system (see Chapter 4) in the context of information systems urbanization, the map is often called an information system “land use plan” (LUP) and it primarily adopts a functional point of view, linking a business perspective with an IT perspective.

The function is defined here as an underlying capability of the information system that is needed to carry out one or more activities. In the information systems urbanization process, a group of concurrent functions at the same capacity of the information system is called a “function block”, giving a coarser granularity to the information system’s functions. The choice of level of granularity of the function block aims to facilitate the reuse of a function block in various processes, and to strengthen the modularity of the information system and thus the replacement of one block by another block offering equivalent functionality. The function block is then identified by the functions it brings together, the objects of the information system that it handles, and the services the block provides to other blocks of the information system, via its interfaces. Coarsening the granulometry still further, a set of function blocks groups itself into an island, islands into divisions and divisions into areas. It becomes clear that mapping plays an essential role in the urbanization process. The information system is thus portrayed as a set of maps whose parameters must be mastered.

5.3.2. Defining the target information system and the associated trajectory

Defining the target information system means first of all being in a position to identify the business strategy in order to envision the extent to which the information system can be of use to it. This process should extend to a study of the organization in context in order to establish a broad vision of the information system “to be”.

Any approach to information systems urbanization thus entails a description of the business goals, before being able to identify the objectives of the information system to be urbanized and consequently ensuring strategic alignment of the information system with business strategy, or in other words to establish a connection between these two kinds of goals. This clarification process happens through a quest for rationalization and simplification of the information systems structure by eliminating duplicates and establishing cross-functional checks. The deliverables for this phase of the process are the blueprint, the roadmap (technical documents that define the possible trajectory) and maps of the target information system.

5.3.3. Providing the tools to steer development

Steering the development of the information system is done through a continuation of the given urbanization framework or by its controlled development. Continuation of the given planning framework is done by maintaining and disseminating the maps and other documents connected to the urbanization process. Furthermore, managing the development of the information system requires good IS governance and good communication around the urbanization process.

The deliverables from this phase are framework documents to check compatibility with the defined rules and projects. These documents set out the main features of the information systems urbanization process and the various functional and technical choices to be made, together with a work schedule. Beyond these documents, information systems planners participate in the selection of information systems projects and must supervise the various information systems projects from conception, in order to ensure the coherence of the project in relation to the target information system defined in the information systems urbanization process.

CIGREF (Club informatique des Grandes entreprises françaises) and IFACI (Institut français des auditeurs et contrôleurs internes) have adopted the principles contained in ISO 9001 to set a framework for a quality approach, in order to organize business information systems urbanization [IGC 11]. The advantage of this approach is that it equally applies at the global corporate level, at the information systems management level, at the level of information systems urbanization and at the level of information systems project management. It suggests three types of processes: steering processes, support processes and “core business” operational processes.

The steering processes can be split into two:

• – steering and measuring the effectiveness of the information systems urbanization policy;
• – participation in strategy and project selection committees, in order to contribute to decision-making on information systems projects.

The operational processes include two processes directly related to planning, three processes linked to transversal activities and two processes linked to project management processes. In the two operational processes that have a direct bearing on the information systems layout plan, we have, on the one hand, the activities of defining and revising the information system’s development trajectory in order to align it to developments in business activities, and, on the other hand, the processes of drawing up and reviewing the urbanization’s reference classifications. The operational transversal activities covers the definition of controls over data and application development processes, of standards for communication exchanges and hardware compatibility. The operational project processes demand participation in the upstream activities of the project management, and the supervision and monitoring of the projects, once launched. Finally, the three main support processes cover the activities of monitoring, tooling, maintenance and dissemination of knowledge about the corporate information system and the processes of promoting and developing information systems urbanization skills.

5.4. The planner’s job

The planner is not the strategist, any more than the town planning office votes in the place of elected local officials. The planner’s job is to ensure that the complete information system develops consistently in line with the corporate goals, the functional domain, external and internal constraints, while fully exploiting technical opportunities. The planner’s achievements will thus be judged in the light of the information system’s agility and responsiveness to any given change.

The planner’s tasks cover three different areas [CIG 15]. (S)he works on the design of the information system, ensures the information system’s coherence and disseminates information about the information system.

NOTE ON TABLE 5.3.– The levels should be interpreted as follows: Level 5: overall responsibility and liability, recognized both within and outside the organization for the application of innovative solutions and vision for the future due to his or her exceptional knowledge and innovative mind. Level 4: extended range of responsibilities, which has a great capacity for integration in complex environments. Full responsibility for the strategic development of staff working in unpredictable and unusual situations. Levels 1 to 3 are not shown, since the skills required at the lower levels (1–3) are not sufficient to take on the responsibilities incumbent on the planner, who thus needs to master the skills at the highest levels (4 and 5) [IGC 15].

As regards the design process of the information system, the planner manages information systems mapping, ensures its integrity in terms of the information systems blueprint and approves the information systems urbanization standards and benchmarks, and puts forward proposals to develop and simplify the information system. Alert to the issues and also well-informed about technological solutions, the planner anticipates and is attentive to past, present and future technologies so as to achieve an efficient and effective information system within the shortest possible timescale. However, the planner is not an architect and should not view his work as being focused on project implementation or on technology at the heart of his work. In this regard, the planner is responsible for delivering information systems mapping, plans and proposals for development of the information system and opportunity studies.

In relation to assuring information systems coherence, the planner evaluates the relevance of information systems projects to the target information system and to the “as is” information system. The planner resists the introduction of local dialects (technical or functional). The planner is responsible for identifying overlaps, contradictions, shareable market propositions and divergent developments.

Finally, as regards communication, the planner promotes information systems mapping to the company’s Executive through consultation and develops the relationship between departmental managers on the one hand, and information systems managers on the other hand. His or her role also includes obtaining the joint consensus of the project owner and project manager, with the support of the decision-makers. The planner must be able to see the full picture, which gives him or her the opportunity to overcome the divisions between functional departments of the company, and to analyze both the potential short-term impact and the medium-term achievable targets. It is a nodal position at the crossroads of strategic, technical and managerial concerns.

5.5. The limits

The limitations of this approach are human, methodological and also financial. In terms of human limitations, any classic approach to urbanization will run into the issue of the complex relationships between the project owner and the project manager. Thus, the qualities needed to exercise the profession of planner are relatively difficult to find. It calls for solid experience in IS, a detailed knowledge of the tasks involved, very good conceptual abilities, an analytical mind and strong communication and negotiation skills. In terms of tasks, it is necessary to have the ability to model and prioritize processes.

In terms of methodological limitations, information systems modeling is often perceived as a purely descriptive exercise. This approach is of limited value. Producing pretty charts is no use at all if they do not result in progress at the technical level. Conversely, modeling and mapping are at risk of being fruitless when faced with severely limited realities. What planning process can we actually conceive when the company has an ERP for its information system?

Finally, in terms of the financial limitations, urbanization involves the use of expertise that is difficult to find and expensive. It is thus a high consumer of resources, and organizations in practice rarely pursue the process to the end.

5.6. Exercise: the urbanization of France’s government information systems

States (like businesses) take a close interest in information systems urbanization. As part of its general review of public policies (RGPP – Révision générale des politiques publiques) launched in 2007 and the modernization of public action (MAP – Modernisation de l’action publique) in 2012, the French government has focused on the urbanization of its public information system [DIS 12]. The urbanization approach led by the Inter-Ministerial Directorate for Digital Affairs and State Information and Communication System (DINSIC – Direction interministérielle du numérique et du Système d’information et de communication de l’État) should thus bring transparency, agility, least cost and interoperability. To achieve this outcome, the DINSIC is promoting a long-term, ongoing process that is understood and accepted by all the information system’s stakeholders (operators, project managers, project owners). The DINSIC nevertheless intends to remain pragmatic and to prioritize project-related opportunities, rather than being universalistic.

In this urbanization context, a new role is emerging within the State’s civil service function: the Functional Area Manager (RZF – Responsable de zone fonctionnelle). The RZF is a stakeholder, usually a management committee, a department or an operator, with responsibility for a clearly defined area of the LUP of the government information system. RZFs have overall responsibility for strategic project management within their functional area.

As such, more than 150 functional areas have been defined by a functional splitting of the government information system. They are divided into areas covering everything from transversal activities through all public services and areas covering the major operational areas of the various ministries and local communities.

This inter-ministerial approach to urbanization establishes the principles constituting the general doctrine to be applied by all stakeholders, inventorizes the activities of the information systems management committee, the project manager and the operators, and consolidates the knowledge base of various information systems components, based on an industrial process for knowledge maintenance. Within this knowledge, the issue of data processed and shared by all State actors is the key. Armed with this understanding, it becomes possible to contemplate reuse of these data by breaking down the silos into which, traditionally, each ministry and each community has been organized. “Reference data” are thus identified, and specific IT tools known as “data repositories” are set up to manage these data over time and across operational areas. But it is not automatic. France’s data protection agency (CNIL – Commission nationale de l’informatique et des libertés), which is responsible for ensuring that IT is at the service of every citizen, reminds us that data sharing has not necessarily been authorized by public service users at the time of being recorded. However, this user authorization is obligatory. This issue more or less directly makes the front page of the newspapers whenever a crime is committed. With hindsight, we discover that one section of the administration was aware of a risk, but that another section did not have access to this information and thus was not able to take timely action.