The strength of a person is in his intelligence and his tongue.
—Arabic Proverb
People who travel to different parts of the world often notice that the way they do things is very different from the behavior of people in the country they are visiting. A simple illustration of such differences can be seen when North Americans visiting Greece are surprised by the fact that it is “culturally allowed” to slightly push others out of the way in crowded situations. In the United States, this would be considered offensive. Differences such as these are embedded in what is referred to as the distinction between high context and low context cultures. Greece is a high context culture in which a gentle push would be an acceptable nonverbal equivalent of the words “Please allow me to pass.” In North America, a low context culture, people would expect the polite verbal request and would not be able to appropriately process the nonverbal message of pushing.
In this chapter we focus on features of Gulf communication that may perplex new managers, especially those of Western origin. The distinction between high context versus low context cultures and the impact of this dimension on preferred communication styles provides a useful way of doing this.
Context—High Context and Low Context Cultures
The North American cultural anthropologist Edward Hall described the notion of high context and low context communication as follows:
A high context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. A low context (LC) communication is just the opposite; i.e., the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.1
Hall also elaborated on differences between high context and low context cultures and their communication characteristics.2 The most significant features of communication in high context cultures can be described as follows:
High context cultures rely heavily on nonverbal elements such as facial expression, eye movement, and tone of voice to convey meaning.
The context in which the communication takes place and the relationships between the people involved are of great importance.
Less importance is placed on the words, and often the true meaning of a message lies in how it is said rather than in the actual meaning of the words used. For example, a polite response such as “Yes, of course, I will help you,” may be said in a vague way and the real message would be understood as “I most probably won’t help you.”
In low context cultures, communication is characterized as follows:
The words used generally have greater significance than any accompanying body language.
Messages are ideally expressed in a concise, direct, and explicit way.
The task or goal of a discussion is given greater importance than the relationships between the persons involved.
Hall suggests that the difference in the preferred styles of communication of high context and low context societies is perhaps one of the greatest differences between the Eastern and Western worlds. This difference can certainly cause difficulties in work-related discussions when people from both high context and low context cultures are involved, as many of their communication strategies are diametrically opposed to each other. This means, for instance, that when people from the Gulf, a high context culture, are working with people from the United States, Germany, or the United Kingdom, all of which are low context cultures, the ways they approach a discussion will be very different.3
Arab cultures in general are considered to be high context cultures, and they place great importance on the context of the communication. Context essentially refers to “how much you have to know before effective communication can occur; how much shared knowledge is taken for granted by those in conversation with each other; how much reference there is to tacit common ground.”4 Gulf Arabs communicate with each other largely on the basis of a pre-existing shared understanding, and foreign managers need to be conscious of this since they will not necessarily be familiar with all the undercurrents and nuances that are readily apparent to a local person.
Establishing a Relationship Before Starting a Discussion
Establishing a personal relationship in order to develop trust is an essential prerequisite for any successful interaction in the Gulf. Gulf Arabs like to know a good deal about the other person’s context before they can really communicate with him or her. This personal connection and the trust implied in it, recreates the conditions to which Gulf Arabs are accustomed and need when conducting a meaningful conversation. Building trust often starts with small talk that helps develop interpersonal relationships. This small talk is not typically related to personal aspects of an individual’s life; indeed, such personal information is generally considered private and not appropriate in general conversation. Instead, sharing cultural interests or commonly accepted facts known to both parties can be a noncontroversial way of letting Gulf Arabs know more about yourself. General topics such as food, traditions, everyday habits, or the general business context in which both parties are working are generally not threatening to commonly shared values and can contribute to relationship building. The British linguist Brigitte Planken has referred to such topics as “safe talk,” that is useful for the creation of rapport, which is of paramount importance in the Gulf.5
Some Points About Arabic Communication
Arabic has a rich oral tradition in which creative metaphors, analogies, and story telling all play an important role.6 A focus on grandeur in verbal expression means that Arabic is viewed as “an art form, a religious phenomenon, and an identity tool.”7
Arabic speaking style tends to be holistic and circular rather than discrete or linear: “Instead of presenting a case by building an argument point by point, the Arabic speaker tends to present the whole picture. The end result. The catastrophe. The victory.”8 Given that the persuasive power of discourse lies in the presentation of the idea itself and not in its proof, emotions play an important role in Arabic rhetoric.9 This means that Arabs will often aim to “speak to the heart” of the listener. This does not mean, however, that Arabs readily display their emotions in their everyday interactions. Indeed, many Gulf Arabs tend to be very conservative in showing their emotions in public arenas.
Repetition, which we will talk about more in Chapter 5, is a notable feature of the narrative quality of Arabic discourse.10 Another important characteristic is that speakers tend to discuss things in a nonlinear way, that is, they do not necessarily proceed from a single point to another single point. Moreover, given that Arabs are high context people, they often support what they say with nonverbal signs and implicit messages such as, for instance, a facial expression or particular tone of voice.11
The great focus that high context societies place on the context of the message or discussion can present challenges when Arabs need to write, rather than talk about, a message, especially in formal situations. This is because in written messages many of the necessary contextual cues are absent. Moreover, when the highly contextualized nature of Arabic speech is subjected to different cultural standards of logic or persuasion, the contrast becomes even more evident. This dilemma has been observed in English language classrooms where it has frequently been noted that Arab students who have superb essay writing skills in Arabic may construct essays in English that would be viewed as out of focus by native English speakers.12
The Prominence of Honor in Gulf Communication
Throughout the Gulf there is a strong tendency to work to preserve one’s personal honor. This means that it is customary to place more emphasis on the emotional work of protecting one’s honor and that of other participants in the interaction than on the cognitive work that is inherent in a discussion. While a Western person may be totally focused on the meaning and implications of a message—the cognitive element—the Gulf Arab will also focus on the impact of the message on the people involved in the discussion. This tendency is illustrated by a study comparing Qataris with those from the United States. It found that Qataris, members of an honor culture, shared less information in their discussion than did the Americans. The Americans, on the other hand, displayed more competitiveness, ambition, and stronger negative emotions in their speech. This is a significant point of difference as any show of competitiveness or negative response could be interpreted by Gulf nationals as threatening the honor of the people involved in the discussion.13
The issue of honor is pervasive in Gulf society. It represents a secular rather than a religious value, and family structure is mainly preserved through honor.14 In multicultural work contexts, it is important to understand the role that honor plays in determining what people will be comfortable talking about and how they conduct themselves. One important point is that a male visitor to the region should never ask male Arabs about their female family members, as this may be viewed as a threat to the family’s honor. Women, however, may more freely ask other women questions. Another important aspect of honor relates to a person’s word. A handshake in agreement means much more than a written contract, and the oral contract it implies is seen as binding.
Saving Face and “Facework”
In high context societies, people are often silent about their feelings and thoughts.15 Their messages tend to be indirect and subtle, and one has to “read between the lines” in order to understand the true meaning behind the words. The main reason high context individuals are often ambiguous and cautious in what they say is because they want to “save face,” that is, they do not want to cause embarrassment to others or to themselves. Face is defined “as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact.”16 While the issue of face features in all cultures,17 it has considerable importance in collectivist cultures like those in the Gulf. This is because “collectivists tend to have an interdependent view of the self, which fosters a sensitivity to the needs of others and, at the same time, a need for sensitivity from others.”18 This notion of face plays a role both in gaining trust and in maintaining honor, and concern for face is very evident in how Gulf people conduct their interpersonal relationships.
In order to maintain the trust that is so important in relationships, Gulf Arabs will be careful to treat others with dignity and respect so that no one involved in the interaction will be threatened by a loss of face. This means that their communication style tends to be characterized by patience, self-control, and a willingness to compromise.19 In order to avoid face-threatening situations, Arabs carry out what is known as facework. While all cultures use facework to a greater or lesser degree, it is of particular importance for high context cultures that place considerable value on maintaining relationships. This concern for face may generate a different dynamic in discussions than normally would be the case in low context cultures. For example, Gulf people will be more inclined to indicate agreement when they don’t actually agree in order to not cause offence, or they will choose to avoid the topic altogether. To illustrate this, in a study comparing UK and Gulf nationals, it was observed that “in fear of losing face and in a desire to remain humble, Arabs are more likely to ignore something they disagree with, than openly reject or criticise it.”20
Face and the Avoidance of Uncertainty
Face is also related to Hofstede’s cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance that we discussed in Chapter 2, and which refers to “the level of stress in a society in the face of an unknown future.”21 Uncertainty avoiding cultures, such as those of the Gulf, try to minimize unknown or unstructured situations by developing strict rules to govern their behaviors. The more a culture tends to avoid uncertainty, the more likely it is to engage in facework, and this is particularly true of Arab cultures. Arabs employ numerous ritualistic facework strategies, that is, repetitive actions that tend to create predictability in interactions. By using such rituals and hence generating greater predictability within the conversation, it is easier to maintain face as the element of the unknown is reduced and people are better prepared to effectively handle each stage of the communication. Given the importance of facework and verbal rituals that this implies, it is generally not effective for managers to adopt a more casual approach to conversation that is common in low context cultures.
Another example of how the cultural trend of reducing uncertainty is managed is the commonly used expression “Inshallah,” which means, “God willing.” Some people interpret this expression as being used to downplay personal responsibility in a given matter and leaving things to chance rather than taking specific action. However, its common use actually originates in the need to reduce uncertainty and to ensure a sense of security by leaving things in the control of a greater power. It also serves to keep communication open and positive as it acts as a safety valve. That is, any failure to keep a promise or carry out an action will not be attributed to a personal reluctance on the part of the speaker, which might otherwise cause that person and the people interacting with them to lose face.
Face Versus Honor
Although for the Gulf Arab both face and honor play a role in communication, honor is generally given more importance than face. On the one hand, the preservation of face means that Gulf people will seek to preserve harmony in their interactions. On the other hand, the high value placed on honor can lead people to act assertively, and sometimes aggressively, in the face of conflict. While Gulf people prefer to act politely and appreciate high levels of civility from the people they encounter in working environments, their sense of honor is crucial. It is, therefore, essential to avoid risking damage to a person’s sense of honor. For managers from other parts of the world, it is advisable to be formal, to try to understand and follow the communication rituals that exist, and to be conscious of the multiple aims of reducing uncertainty, saving face, and preserving honor.
Oral Versus Written Agreements
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, people from high context societies consider a handshake or a spoken agreement as binding. Conversely, low context societies place more importance on the written contract. For low context societies, the written word is binding, while for high context societies it often is not. As a result, among Gulf Arabs “contracts are viewed as memorandums of understanding rather than binding, fixed agreements.”22 This important distinction changes the emphasis that is placed on a written business contract. That is, while people from low context societies seek clarity and detail in a written business contract, high context societies require less detail and are more comfortable if the text is open to interpretation. This difference in emphasis on written agreements should be understood by both parties and would need to be thoroughly discussed between the high context and low context participants in any business arrangement.
Nonverbal Communication
In contrast to their low context counterparts, high context societies don’t just listen to the words that are being spoken; they place great emphasis on the other features involved in the communication. This means that nonverbal communication is extremely important for high context individuals, and they use nonverbal communication extensively to enhance their intended meaning. For example, while a high context speaker may use positive-sounding words with little conviction to signal a rejection in a nonthreatening way, the same words may sound overtly positive to a low context listener who is not accustomed to listening for additional clues as to what the speaker really means. The real and significant meaning of such an interaction should be recognized as a negative message, a “no,” that is being expressed obliquely rather than directly in order to preserve the speakers’ face. The physical cues, that is, the nonverbal element of the communication, play a major role in how the message is formulated and meant to be understood.
Nonverbal communication tends to play a much more minor role in low context cultures; this means that people from low context societies must develop a keener sensitivity to the nonverbal elements of a message that is being conveyed by a Gulf Arab or any person from a high context culture.
Touch
The issue of touch is very important in nonverbal communication as touch, or the absence of it, plays a significant role in how we communicate. For example, shaking hands to many throughout the world indicates a willingness to interact with each other, or it functions as a sign of agreement. In the Gulf, however, touching is only acceptable between family members and, in the case of nonfamily members, between people of the same sex. Even in emergency situations, such as accidents and in hospitals, touching the opposite sex is considered offensive.23
When dealing with females from the Gulf, the issue of touch is particularly sensitive. Because of the strong proscription against any form of contact between unrelated males and females, males should be particularly wary of making any physical contact with a Gulf female. In general, for instance, a man should not offer his hand to a Gulf woman. This can lead to embarrassment, although many Gulf women will respond graciously by not offering their hand but instead placing it across their heart in a sign of friendship. This response is a means of saving face in that the woman physically expresses her commitment to friendly discussion while signaling her discomfort with any form of physical contact with an unrelated man.
Personal Space
Another important element of nonverbal communication is the issue of personal space. We are all culturally influenced by how much personal space we need to feel comfortable while in conversation with others. Studies of the degree of personal space expected within different cultures reveals that North Americans typically like to have a great deal of space around them, while people from Southern Mediterranean cultures prefer less, and Arabs tend to feel comfortable with even less.24 These differences need to be kept in mind when trying to establish a comfortable arrangement for a discussion. A commonly told story is that of a businessman from the United States in discussion with an Arab businessman. The Arab man, feeling uncomfortable with too much physical gap between himself and his counterpart, moves closer to the American. The American, preferring more personal space, moves away. A “dance” ensues as each moves toward or away from the other in the attempt to set up the physical environment with which he is most comfortable. It is therefore useful for foreign managers to closely observe what degree of physical space and contact seems appropriate for the other person.
But the Gulf Workforces Are Full of Non-Gulf People!
The well-known proverb “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” may be difficult to apply in the Gulf. This is because the vast majority of people working in the Gulf come from different parts of the world, and it may not be easy to know which “Romans” to imitate. This problem is complicated by the fact that in the Gulf, as in other high context cultures, it is common procedure to regulate behavior by correcting people individually and verbally rather than by written rules and signs. In high context cultures rules of behavior are implicit, well known, and shared among members of the group. Low context societies, on the other hand, tend to prefer to have formally established and openly publicized rules. Given this, it may be difficult for managers new to the region to clearly identify what kind of behavior is expected in a particular situation.
This situation of not knowing which model to follow is very different from that experienced in other countries with large numbers of expatriates in the workforce, such as Singapore. In Singapore, the local way of doing things dominates and expatriates are expected to adapt to this norm. In the Gulf, given that the local culture does not tend to dominate in workplace communication outside of the public sector, managers may find a range of informal, implicit codes in operation and perhaps struggle to find an appropriate cultural anchor around which to develop their management style.