Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.1
Many managers in today’s globalized business world will already have some sense of the impact of culture on attitudes and behavior. Their experience will have taught them that communication and other forms of behavior can vary considerably from that used in their own cultural context. Managers working with foreign nationals may observe, for instance, that negotiating and trouble-shooting can be approached in ways that are alien from their own natural response.
The Gulf context provides an additional challenge, in that expatriate employees in general can act and speak in ways very different from local employees working in the same organizations. These differences result from people’s assumptions that stem from the cultural values instilled in them and by the behavioral norms sanctioned or prohibited within the cultures in which they were raised. The difference in these basic assumptions, and therefore what is or isn’t considered to be acceptable behavior, results from the various ways certain cultures choose to solve the problems associated with organizing a society. These societal decisions include how power is distributed, the roles that groups and individuals should take, the value that should be attributed to ambition and caring for others, and the importance of rules and regulations. We will discuss each of these issues in this chapter.
Some elements of cultural differences are easy to recognize. These include such things as varying ways of dressing and eating, divergent styles of art, dancing, and other creative pursuits, and the observation of different holidays. However, many cultural differences are less visible and easy to overlook until they give rise to some kind of conflict or mis-understanding. These elements include such things as how people view the self, friendships, the differences between the genders and generations, and conceptions of justice, competition, cleanliness, and death. Indeed it is these hidden elements of culture that are actually most important in terms of beliefs, behavior, interaction, and communication.
A Framework for Looking at Culture
Although analyzing any culture in depth can be challenging, a comprehensive framework devised by Dutch social psychologist Geert Hofstede offers help in doing so. Hofstede’s analysis is one of the best-known macro-theories of culture, taking into account the main differences that exist between cultures.2
Hofstede’s research spanning more than 50 years began with a study he conducted when he was employed by IBM. In that initial study, he surveyed the values of IBM employees in over 50 countries. Since then, he and his research team have continued to collect extensive amounts of data from additional countries, with data now available for more than 100 different national cultures.3 Hofstede’s original framework consisted of four cultural dimensions taken from cultural anthropology, with a fifth dimension later added as a result of data collected on Asian cultures, and a sixth dimension most recently added as a result of further research.
Hofstede’s six cultural dimensions, or scales, allow for a description of cultural patterns that can help us to investigate, describe, and then understand the influence of cultural differences in multicultural interactions. Based on responses to Hofstede’s survey, each country is assigned a score from 1 to 100 for each dimension, and the score indicates the dominance of the particular trait within a given culture. For example, if a culture scores 90 on the cultural dimension that reflects the importance of individuals (Individualism), and another culture scores only 10, we can understand that the first culture is much more likely than the second culture to consider the rights of the individual. A description of each of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions follows.
Power Distance
We can define power distance as the degree to which the less powerful members of any organization or community accept an unequal distribution of power and are willing to consent unquestioningly to the authority of those above them on the hierarchy.4 In countries with high power distance, such as the Philippines, France, and the Arab countries, people will take for granted that the person above them in the hierarchy can control them, and they will tend to accept such control without question. In countries with low power distance, such as the Scandinavian nations, the United Kingdom, and the United States, people consider it necessary to have a more equal distribution of power.
Individualism Versus Collectivism
Collectivism is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. In more individualistic cultures, ties between people tend to be less binding and people are expected to take care of themselves and their own immediate families. Collectivist cultures, on the other hand, integrate individuals into groups, starting with the extended family, and individuals must display total loyalty to the group in return for continued protection.5 More individualist cultures, such as the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, place greater value on individual rights and personal achievements. More collectivist countries, such as Indonesia, Thailand, and Korea, require people to place the group, whether this is family, community, organization, or nation, before the individual.
Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance refers to a society’s tolerance for ambiguity and reflects the degree to which a society’s members will tolerate uncertainty and a lack of structure. Uncertainty avoiding cultures attempt to avoid unstructured situations by imposing strict codes of behavior and rules, by discouraging opinion and behavior that diverges from what is laid down as correct, and by encouraging the belief that an absolute truth can be applied to each and every situation.6 Examples of countries with high uncertainly avoidance, and therefore a low tolerance of risk, include Greece, Portugal, and Belgium. In contrast, people in low uncertainty cultures feel comfortable with unknown situations and prefer to have fewer rules and regulations governing situations. Sweden, India, Singapore, and the United Kingdom are all examples of low uncertainty cultures that display a relatively high tolerance of risk.
Masculinity Versus Femininity
This dimension refers to how a society views pursuing ambition and the attainment of success compared to caring for the individuals within a society.7 The term “masculine culture” is used to refer to societies such as Japan, the United States, and Italy that prize competitiveness, achievement, ambition, and power—characteristics typically ascribed to males. Common traits of such cultures include significant differentiation between gender roles, the dominance of men in leadership roles, and the obligation for men to be assertive and ambitious. Women who achieve leadership positions in such cultures may also need to be assertive and ambitious in order to be successful, and other women may be ambitious on behalf of the male members of their family, such as their husbands or sons. In such cultures, people will often live to work in order to achieve success and their professional ambitions, rather than working to live.
“Feminine culture,” on the other hand, is the term used to refer to those cultures that prioritize quality of life, caring for others, and relationships between people—characteristics typically associated with females. In such cultures, gender roles are more diversified, people consider that family and work commitments should be balanced, sympathy for the weak is prized, and many women hold political and leadership roles. Examples of feminine cultures include Scandinavia, Canada, and the Netherlands. Given that Hofstede’s choice of the masculine and feminine terms underscores the traditional role of men as ambitious and women as caring, some scholars have replaced the terms for this dimension with “quantity of life” (masculine) versus “quality of life” (feminine).
Long-Term Orientation
This dimension refers to how concerned cultures are with the past, present, and future. Long-term orientation societies tend to focus more on future achievement, perseverance, thrift, classifying the members of a society in terms of their status, and associating certain situations with an acute sense of shame. Short-term cultures, on the other hand, tend to focus on the present while maintaining a keen respect for tradition, social obligations, preserving “face,” and personal stability.8 Far Eastern countries such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Japan display long-term orientation while Nigeria, the Philippines, Norway, the United States, and the United Kingdom display short-term orientation.
Indulgence Versus Restraint
Indulgence refers to a culture’s tendency to permit a fairly unrestricted fulfillment of the basic human desires for fun and enjoyment of life, while restraint refers to a cultural mindset that is wary of personal gratification of needs and regulates behavior by imposing rules.9 Latin America, the United States, and the Nordic countries are examples of indulgent countries, whereas some Muslim countries, the Far East, and Eastern Europe represent restrained cultures.
Cultural Traits in the Gulf
Managers from other countries will find that they need to become more aware of their own culturally determined assumptions since many features of Gulf culture may vary considerably from that of the their home countries. Using Hofstede’s framework, we will now look specifically at some of the cultural trends that are found in the Gulf and explore how these compare to Western cultures. Our discussion will focus on the implications that these differences have for workforce relations and communication.
High Power Distance
The GCC countries display high power distance, with Saudi Arabia and the UAE both scoring 80 as measured by Hofstede’s framework. This is a much higher score than those of many Western countries, such as Austria (11), Denmark (18), Ireland (28), Norway and Sweden (31), the United Kingdom (35), and the United States (40). Not only do the local populations display high power distance, but the countries from which the majority of expatriate workers originate also rank high in terms of their unquestioning acceptance of authority. For example, the Philippines has a score of 94, Egypt and Iraq, 80, and India and Nigeria, 77.
This power distance trait plays a crucial role in how employees view managers, carry out their duties, and expect to be treated by management. Managers accustomed to their employees interacting with them as equals, offering feedback and suggestions, and perhaps questioning managerial decisions, will find that the typical workforce in the Gulf is far more compliant and ready to assume they will be given directions that are to be followed to the letter. Managers who think they are empowering workers by giving them greater control may, in fact, find their workers confused and disorientated by a lack of clear and authoritarian direction. Subordinates from high power distance cultures normally expect to be told what to do rather than to be consulted, and they typically respect those who display a strongly controlling approach.
Low Individualism
All the Gulf countries represent highly collectivist societies; Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the UAE all score 25 on the dimension of individualism. In comparison, the United States scores 91. The dominance of this cultural trait means that, once formed, groups tend to remain stable; and members of the same group are quick to offer each other help.10 This willingness to help each other is strengthened by the fact that, as collectivists, a slur against one member of a group is considered as a slur against the entire group, so defense or protection of a member of one’s own group is readily offered.11
Part of this tendency to ensure group stability is that members strive to maintain harmonious ways of interacting with each other, and they therefore tend to downplay anything that may be seen as a source of conflict or tension. Another aspect of this cultural trait is that Middle Easterners typically prefer to conduct interactions with people they know and with whom they have developed a relationship of trust.12 We will discuss the importance of relationship building in more detail in Chapter 3.
Given the importance of trust and emphasis on the group, managers will find they have far more success in executing a task when some personal connection has already been established. This behavior differs from that of more individualist cultures where people tend to deal with the individual and the task at hand rather than considering the group to which the individual belongs. So managers may find that they often have to deal not just with the issue or the individual in front of them, but must also take into account the web of connections and history relating to the individual or task. For a person from a more task-focused, individualist culture, this approach can require some patience since it will seem to involve so many apparently irrelevant details.
High Uncertainty Avoidance
In the Gulf cultures, as in many Eastern cultures, uncertainty is viewed as a threat and differences from the norm tend not to be tolerated. The scores on uncertainty avoidance for the countries in the region are amongst the highest in the world, for example, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE all score 80 on this dimension (compared to 46 for the United States). Uncertainty and confusion are seen as sources of stress rather than being accepted as a part of life. The response to this is to regulate as much as possible in order to be able to govern all possible situations.
Managers, especially those from Northern European countries, may be surprised by the abundance of regulations and bureaucratic procedures that govern living and working in the Gulf. Endorsement and stamping of official documents, regulations governing entry to and exit from the various countries, and signing of documents all along the hierarchy, even for what one may consider trivial matters, are practices characteristic of a bureaucracy that must be accommodated.
The tendency to create complex bureaucracies in the attempt to avoid uncertainty is documented in the Global Competitiveness Report that identified inefficient bureaucracy as among the most problematic features of doing business in all the GCC countries.13 Hofstede describes high uncertainty avoidance cultures as having “an emotional need for rules—even if not obeyed,”14 and managers should be conscious of the many rules that exist and the complex bureaucracy that results.
High Masculinity
Only three Gulf countries have been investigated by Hofstede for the masculinity/femininity cultural trait. The UAE ranks midway (50) on this dimension indicating that it values competitiveness and success to the same degree that it values quality of life and caring for others. Saudi Arabia (60) displays greater masculinity, and therefore a greater interest in success and ambition, while Kuwait (40) displays less.
Again, the home countries of many Gulf expatriate workers display scores that fall either in the middle of the masculinity/femininity dimension or toward the higher end of the scale: Iraq (70), Philippines (64), India (56), Bangladesh (55), Syria (52), Pakistan (50), and, Egypt and Jordan (45). In the case of Iraq and the Philippines, for instance, this high masculinity score indicates the presence of strong competitiveness, maximum differentiation between genders, the view that men should be assertive and ambitious, as well as an admiration for strength. This is in stark contrast to the cultural tendencies of the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, and the Latin countries, all of which score at the bottom end of the scale (e.g., Sweden is at 5). Managers from such femininityoriented countries may find it challenging to work with or manage people from cultures that are considerably more masculine than their own.
Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation
Saudi Arabia is the only country in the Gulf where the long-term versus short-term orientation dimension has been investigated by the Hofstede team. A relatively low score of 36 on this dimension means that Saudi nationals consider the past as sacrosanct, do not like societal change, generally do not plan for the future, and focus on the short term rather than the long term. Although data for other Gulf countries is not yet available, the cultural similarities between them on most of the other dimensions (apart from the masculinity–femininity dimension) would suggest that they are likely to share a similar short-term orientation.
Most of the other cultures that make up the diverse workforce in the GCC also have a short-term leaning, for example, Jordan (16), Lebanon (14), and the Philippines (26). As a result, for managers from countries such as the United States (26) and Canada (36), the impact of this cultural trait may cause fewer difficulties than some of the other dimensions we have discussed because of the relative similarities between their cultures and that of their employees. There are two notable exceptions, however; India has a score of 51 and Russia an extremely high score of 81, indicating a strong long-term orientation. Employees from these countries tend to be happy to consider change and look to the future rather than to the past.
Balanced Indulgence Versus Restraint
Finally, on the indulgence versus restraint dimension, again only Saudi Arabia has been investigated and it has a mid-range score of 52.15 According to Hofstede’s analysis, Saudi Arabia, and, we might assume, the other Gulf nations, is neither an indulgent (hedonistic) or restrained (controlled) culture. Some of the other major groups working in the region show much lower scores, for example, India scores 26, Russia, 20, Lebanon, 25, and the Philippines, 42. This suggests that people from these cultures place less emphasis on leisure time and having fun than is likely to be the case for their counterparts from countries such as the United States (68), Denmark (70), and Australia (71). Managers from Western countries may find that their Gulf region employees appear to take life more seriously than they do.
Further Points on Gulf Culture
Cultural Perspectives on Time
The way in which cultures think about time has been described by scholars as falling into one of two perspectives referred to as monochronic and polychronic.16 Monochronic cultures view time as linear, they tend to make and adhere strictly to schedules, and they prefer to move sequentially from one task to another. Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, see time as cyclical, are given to multitasking, and do not view time as a limited resource. For managers from monochronic cultures such as North America and Northern Europe, it is important to bear this distinction in mind. The Gulf represents a polychronic culture and its people view multitasking as acceptable so during a meeting, for instance, they may engage in other activities such as answering a phone call or handling a question from an employee who is otherwise not involved in the meeting. Managers from monochronic cultures may at first find this disconcerting as they will prefer to focus on one task at a time in a linear way and are less likely to be tolerant of interruptions.
Punctuality does not have the same value in polychronic cultures as it does in monochronic cultures. As a result, managers from monochronic cultures may have to deal with what appears to them to be delayed starts and last-minute changes to schedules. On the other hand, Gulf Arabs, with their polychronic approach to time, will find it difficult to understand why their monochronic business partners object to a change in schedule, and they will view this as a sign of inflexibility.
Islam
When discussing culture in the Gulf, it is impossible not to mention the role played by religion. Islam is the religion of almost all Gulf nationals, and it has a pervasive influence on their lifestyles. It also has an influence on the way in which business is conducted in the region.
The Islamic day of rest is Friday, and throughout the GCC the weekend comprises Friday and Saturday. Government offices are closed on Friday, and the most important religious point in the day is during the time of the third prayer, beginning just after noon. During Ramadan, the month of fasting and special prayer, the pattern of life changes a great deal. The working day is typically shortened; there is no need for a lunch break as Muslims are required to fast from sunrise till sunset. Managers will need to be particularly careful in their expectations at this time since many members of their workforce will be fasting and perhaps unable to work at their normal standard of performance. Fasting is enforced by law and everyone, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, is forbidden from eating in public. Although rare, breaking the ban on fasting in public during day-light hours, can potentially lead to arrest or to problems with the authorities. Drinking, chewing gum, and smoking are also banned in public places, and it is considered insensitive to draw attention to eating and drinking during this time. Most workplaces set aside a designated area in which non-Muslims may eat and drink, and hotel restaurants remain open but may be screened off from public view.
Islam forbids Muslims from consuming alcohol. However, with the exception of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the Emirate of Sharjah in the UAE, alcohol is available for purchase by non-Muslims in specially licensed stores and for consumption in bars, hotels, and restaurants throughout the Gulf. There is, however, a certain opposition to the sale of alcohol among some locals in the Gulf,17 and it is always best to treat the issue of alcohol delicately and avoid referring to it openly. That is, while Gulf Arabs are typically tolerant of different ways of life, they will not appreciate being exposed to things that are considered to be unacceptable within Islam.
Haram is the Arabic word for forbidden or not good, and its opposite is halal, meaning good or acceptable. The consumption of food items, most notably pork, is haram; and although pork is available for non-Muslims in some countries in the region, non-Muslims should avoid talking about it in conversation with Muslims. In general, visitors from outside of the region should remember that Muslims tend to place great importance on the issue of what is haram and halal both in terms of consumption and of personal care.18
Another aspect of Islamic principles is the prescription of modesty in dress. In Saudi Arabia, for instance, all women are required to wear an abaya in public, that is, a long, loose, lightweight black coat, and ideally they should also cover their heads with the shayla (a long chiffon head-scarf). In other parts of the Gulf, this is unnecessary for foreign women, but they should cover their knees and their upper arms. Men should also dress relatively formally for work purposes since conservative dress is appreciated. It is worth remembering that many people in the region consider it shameful not to dress respectably, most especially for professional purposes. This is particularly true during the month of Ramadan when Muslims are more focused on religion and conservatism is more pronounced.
Arabic in the Gulf
Gulf Arabic, also referred to as Khaliji Arabic, is the version of Arabic that is spoken in Eastern Arabia around the coast of the Gulf. While Saudi Arabia has its own distinct dialect (Saudi Arabic), the dialects of the other Gulf countries share many similarities. In Bahrain, the Sunni dialect is considered by many people to be a prestigious form of local Arabic, but in general, a homogeneous Gulf Arabic is shared across the region.19 Apart from its value as the native language of Gulf Arabs, Arabic enjoys a high status given that it is the language of the Koran and religious rites.
It should be noted that, despite the diversity of language use throughout the Gulf and the dominance of English as the language of business, Gulf Arabs will appreciate indications of respect for their language such as when foreigners are familiar with some Arabic words and have their business cards printed in Arabic as well as English. A common greeting for Muslims is “assalamu alaikum” meaning “peace be with you” and the response is “wa alaikum assalam,” meaning “peace be upon you, too.” Because Arabic is the official language of all GCC countries, all formal documents such as contracts must be translated into Arabic.
Wasta—The Underlying Power of Personal Connection
Given the collectivist culture of the region and the importance of relationships of trust, personal connections are highly valued. Having a personal relationship with an individual implies a willingness to consider the person a potential ally as well as a person who should be helped in times of need. Such understanding of mutual assistance and support is a powerful dynamic and exerts a major impact on how business and social relations are conducted throughout the Arab world.20 In Arabic this practice is termed wasta, which can be regarded as roughly equivalent to the English expression “It’s not what you know, but who you know.”
The concept and practice of wasta is so common that the word has crept into U.S. military circles as a result of U.S. military presence in the Middle East.21 In the Gulf it is sometimes referred to as “vitamin W.” It operates in an analogous way to similar networks of alliances in other cultural contexts such as, for instance, what is often referred to as the “old boys” networks in the United States and the United Kingdom. Wasta can have far reaching consequences, and managers may find that they need to alter their behavior toward a particular person on the basis that he or she has wasta, that is, a high level of influence with some key stakeholder.
Wasta has been described by some as having a negative impact on companies in situations in which an individual may be recruited or promoted on the basis of personal connections rather than ability alone.22 Traditionally young men in the GCC countries were reluctant to apply for a position in the normal way as it indicated they did not have the wasta, that is, the connections within the community, to secure a job. However, this has changed in recent times and it has become more common to apply for positions in the normal way.23 However, wasta can also operate in a positive way when personal connections may help solve problems and expedite procedures. That is, a personal connection may serve to establish a company’s or an individual’s reliability and trustworthiness, thus dispensing with a usual lengthy protocol.
While some view wasta as essentially cronyism or nepotism, it originates from a collectivist desire to offer help to members of one’s circle. It is therefore a reflection of a code of honor that requires the extension of assistance to others. This historical code of mutual help stems from the harsh desert conditions that rendered the granting of help to others of paramount importance.24 However it manifests itself in business, it is useful for managers to be aware of the dynamic underlying it and to handle it sensitively.