Home Page Icon
Home Page
Table of Contents for
Table of Contents
Close
Table of Contents
by Simon Monk, Paul Scherz
Practical Electronics for Inventors, Fourth Edition, 4th Edition
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Halftitle Page
About the Authors
About the Technical Editors
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Electronics
CHAPTER 2 Theory
2.1 Theory of Electronics
2.2 Electric Current
2.2.1 Currents in Perspective
2.3 Voltage
2.3.1 The Mechanisms of Voltage
2.3.2 Definition of Volt and Generalized Power Law
2.3.3 Combining Batteries
2.3.4 Other Voltage Sources
2.3.5 Water Analogies
2.4 A Microscopic View of Conduction (for Those Who Are Interested)
2.4.1 Applying a Voltage
2.5 Resistance, Resistivity, Conductivity
2.5.1 How the Shape of a Conductor Affects Resistance
2.5.2 Resistivity and Conductivity
2.6 Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors
2.7 Heat and Power
2.8 Thermal Heat Conduction and Thermal Resistance
2.8.1 Importance of Heat Production
2.9 Wire Gauges
2.10 Grounds
2.10.1 Earth Ground
2.10.2 Different Types of Ground Symbols
2.10.3 Loose Ends on Grounding
2.11 Electric Circuits
2.12 Ohm’s Law and Resistors Ohm’s Law and Resistors
2.12.1 Resistor Power Ratings
2.12.2 Resistors in Parallel
2.12.3 Resistors in Series
2.12.4 Reducing a Complex Resistor Network
2.12.5 Multiple Voltage Dividers
2.13 Voltage and Current Sources
2.14 Measuring Voltage, Current, and Resistance
2.15 Combining Batteries
2.16 Open and Short Circuits
2.17 Kirchhoff’s Laws Kirchhoff’s Laws
2.18 Superposition Theorem
2.19 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
2.19.1 Thevenin’s Theorem Thevenin’s Theorem
2.19.2 Norton’s Theorem Norton’s Theorem
2.20 AC Circuits
2.20.1 Generating AC
2.20.2 Water Analogy of AC
2.20.3 Pulsating DC
2.20.4 Combining Sinusoidal Sources
2.20.5 AC Waveforms
2.20.6 Describing an AC Waveform
2.20.7 Frequency and Period
2.20.8 Phase
2.21 AC and Resistors, RMS Voltage, and Current
2.22 Mains Power
2.23 Capacitors
2.23.1 Determining Capacitance
2.23.2 Commercial Capacitors
2.23.3 Voltage Rating and Dielectric Breakdown
2.23.4 Maxwell’s Displacement Current Maxwell’s Displacement Current
2.23.5 Charge-Based Model of Current Through a Capacitor
2.23.6 Capacitor Water Analogy
2.23.7 Energy in a Capacitor
2.23.8 RC Time Constant
2.23.9 Stray Capacitance
2.23.10 Capacitors in Parallel
2.23.11 Capacitors in Series
2.23.12 Alternating Current in a Capacitor
2.23.13 Capacitive Reactance
2.23.14 Capacitive Divider
2.23.15 Quality Factor
2.24 Inductors
2.24.1 Electromagnetism
2.24.2 Magnetic Fields and Their Influence
2.24.3 Self-Inductance
2.24.4 Inductors
2.24.5 Inductor Water Analogy
2.24.6 Inductor Equations
2.24.7 Energy Within an Inductor
2.24.8 Inductor Cores
2.24.9 Understanding the Inductor Equations
2.24.10 Energizing RL Circuit
2.24.11 Deenergizing RL Circuit
2.24.12 Voltage Spikes Due to Switching
2.24.13 Straight-Wire Inductance
2.24.14 Mutual Inductance and Magnetic Coupling
2.24.15 Unwanted Coupling: Spikes, Lightning, and Other Pulses
2.24.16 Inductors in Series and Parallel
2.24.17 Alternating Current and Inductors
2.24.18 Inductive Reactance
2.24.19 Nonideal Inductor Model
2.24.20 Quality Factor
2.24.21 Inductor Applications
2.25 Modeling Complex Circuits
2.26 Complex Numbers
2.27 Circuit with Sinusoidal Sources
2.27.1 Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex Impedances
2.27.2 Sinusoidal Voltage Source in Complex Notation
2.27.3 Odd Phenomena in Reactive Circuits
2.28 Power in AC Circuits (Apparent Power, Real Power, Reactive Power)
2.28.1 Power Factor
2.29 Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form
2.30 Resonant Circuits
2.30.1 Resonance in RLC Circuits
2.30.2 Q (Quality Factor) and Bandwidth
2.30.3 Bandwidth
2.30.4 Voltage Drop Across Components in RLC Resonant Circuit
2.30.5 Capacitor Losses
2.30.6 Parallel-Resonant Circuits
2.30.7 The Q of Loaded Circuits
2.31 Lecture on Decibels
2.31.1 Alternative Decibel Representations
2.32 Input and Output Impedance
2.32.1 Input Impedance
2.32.2 Output Impedance
2.33 Two-Port Networks and Filters
2.33.1 Filters
2.33.2 Attenuators
2.34 Transient Circuits
2.34.1 Series RLC Circuit
2.35 Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources
2.35.1 Fourier Series
2.36 Nonperiodic Sources
2.37 SPICE
2.37.1 How SPICE Works
2.37.2 Limitations of SPICE and Other Simulators
2.37.3 A Simple Simulation Example
CHAPTER 3 Basic Electronic Circuit Components
3.1 Wires, Cables, and Connectors
3.1.1 Wires
3.1.2 Cables
3.1.3 Connectors
3.1.4 Wiring and Connector Symbols
3.1.5 High-Frequency Effects Within Wires and Cables
3.2 Batteries
3.2.1 How a Cell Works
3.2.2 Primary Batteries
3.2.3 Comparing Primary Batteries
3.2.4 Secondary Batteries
3.2.5 Battery Capacity
3.2.6 Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery
3.3 Switches
3.3.1 How a Switch Works
3.3.2 Describing a Switch
3.3.3 Kinds of Switches
3.3.4 Simple Switch Applications
3.4 Relays
3.4.1 Specific Kinds of Relays
3.4.2 A Few Notes about Relays
3.4.3 Some Simple Relay Circuits
3.5 Resistors
3.5.1 Resistance and Ohm’s Law Resistance and Ohm’s Law
3.5.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel
3.5.3 Reading Resistor Labels
3.5.4 Real Resistor Characteristics
3.5.5 Types of Resistors
3.5.6 Variable Resistors (Rheostats, Potentiometers, Trimmers)
3.5.7 Potentiometer Characteristics
3.6 Capacitors
3.6.1 Capacitance
3.6.2 Capacitors in Parallel
3.6.3 Capacitors in Series
3.6.4 RC Time Constant
3.6.5 Capacitive Reactance
3.6.6 Real Capacitors
3.6.7 Capacitor Specifications
3.6.8 Types of Capacitors
3.6.9 Capacitor Applications
3.6.10 Timing and Sample and Hold
3.6.11 RC Ripple Filter
3.6.12 Arc Suppression
3.6.13 Supercapacitor Applications
3.6.14 Problems
3.7 Inductors
3.7.1 Inductance
3.7.2 Constructing Inductors
3.7.3 Inductors in Series and Parallel
3.7.4 RL Time Constant
3.7.5 Inductive Reactance
3.7.6 Real Inductors
3.7.7 Inductor Specifications
3.7.8 Types of Inductors
3.7.9 Reading Inductor Labels
3.7.10 Inductor Applications
3.7.11 EMI/EMC Design Tips
3.8 Transformers
3.8.1 Basic Operations
3.8.2 Transformer Construction
3.8.3 Autotransformers and Variable Transformers
3.8.4 Circuit Isolation and the Isolation Transformer
3.8.5 Various Standard and Specialized Transformers
3.8.6 Transformer Applications
3.9 Fuses and Circuit Breakers
3.9.1 Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers
CHAPTER 4 Semiconductors
4.1 Semiconductor Technology
4.1.1 What Is a Semiconductor?
4.1.2 Applications of Silicon
4.2 Diodes
4.2.1 How p-n Junction Diodes Work
4.2.2 Diode Water Analogy
4.2.3 Kinds of Rectifiers/Diodes
4.2.4 Practical Considerations
4.2.5 Diode/Rectifier Applications
4.2.6 Zener Diodes
4.2.7 Zener Diode Applications
4.2.8 Varactor Diodes (Variable Capacitance Diodes)
4.2.9 PIN Diodes
4.2.10 Microwave Diodes (IMPATT, Gunn, Tunnel, etc.)
4.2.11 Problems
4.3 Transistors
4.3.1 Introduction to Transistors
4.3.2 Bipolar Transistors
4.3.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors
4.3.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
4.3.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
4.3.6 Unijunction Transistors
4.4 Thyristors
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers
4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches
4.4.4 Triacs
4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs
4.5 Transient Voltage Suppressors
4.5.1 Lecture on Transients
4.5.2 Devices Used to Suppress Transients
4.6 Integrated Circuits
4.6.1 IC Packages
CHAPTER 5 Optoelectronics
5.1 A Little Lecture on Photons
5.2 Lamps
5.3 Light-Emitting Diodes
5.3.1 How an LED Works
5.3.2 Kinds of LEDs
5.3.3 More on LEDs
5.3.4 LED Applications
5.3.5 Laser Diodes
5.4 Photoresistors
5.4.1 How a Photoresistor Works
5.4.2 Technical Stuff
5.4.3 Applications
5.5 Photodiodes
5.5.1 How a Photodiode Works
5.5.2 Basic Operations
5.5.3 Kinds of Photodiodes
5.6 Solar Cells
5.6.1 Basic Operations
5.7 Phototransistors
5.7.1 How a Phototransistor Works
5.7.2 Basic Configurations
5.7.3 Kinds of Phototransistors
5.7.4 Technical Stuff
5.7.5 Applications
5.8 Photothyristors
5.8.1 How LASCRs Work
5.8.2 Basic Operation
5.9 Optoisolators
5.9.1 Integrated Optoisolators
5.9.2 Applications
5.10 Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 6 Sensors
6.1 General Principles
6.1.1 Precision, Accuracy, and Resolution
6.1.2 The Observer Effect
6.1.3 Calibration
6.2 Temperature
6.2.1 Thermistors
6.2.2 Thermocouples
6.2.3 Resistive Temperature Detectors
6.2.4 Analog Output Thermometer ICs
6.2.5 Digital Thermometer ICs
6.2.6 Infrared Thermometers/Pyrometers
6.2.7 Summary
6.3 Proximity and Touch
6.3.1 Touch Screens
6.3.2 Ultrasonic Distance
6.3.3 Optical Distance
6.3.4 Capacitive Sensors
6.3.5 Summary
6.4 Movement, Force, and Pressure
6.4.1 Passive Infrared
6.4.2 Acceleration
6.4.3 Rotation
6.4.4 Flow
6.4.5 Force
6.4.6 Tilt
6.4.7 Vibration and Mechanical Shock
6.4.8 Pressure
6.5 Chemical
6.5.1 Smoke
6.5.2 Gas
6.5.3 Humidity
6.6 Light, Radiation, Magnetism, and Sound
6.6.1 Light
6.6.2 Ionizing Radiation
6.6.3 Magnetic Fields
6.6.4 Sound
6.7 GPS
CHAPTER 7 Hands-on Electronics
7.1 Safety
7.1.1 Lecture on Safety
7.1.2 Damaging Components with Electrostatic Discharge
7.1.3 Component Handling Precautions
7.2 Constructing Circuits
7.2.1 Drawing a Circuit Schematic
7.2.2 A Note on Circuit Simulator Programs
7.2.3 Making a Prototype of Your Circuit
7.2.4 The Final Circuit
7.2.5 Making a PCB
7.2.6 Special Pieces of Hardware Used in Circuit Construction
7.2.7 Soldering
7.2.8 Desoldering
7.2.9 Enclosing the Circuit
7.2.10 Useful Items to Keep Handy
7.2.11 Troubleshooting the Circuits You Build
7.3 Multimeters
7.3.1 Basic Operation
7.3.2 How Analog VOMs Work
7.3.3 How Digital Multimeters Work
7.3.4 A Note on Measurement Errors
7.4 Oscilloscopes
7.4.1 How Scopes Work
7.4.2 Interior Circuitry of a Scope
7.4.3 Aiming the Beam
7.4.4 Scope Usage
7.4.5 What All the Little Knobs and Switches Do
7.4.6 Measuring Things with Scopes
7.4.7 Scope Applications
7.4.8 Measuring Impedances
7.5 The Electronics Laboratory
7.5.1 Work Area
7.5.2 Test Equipment
7.5.3 Multimeters
7.5.4 DC Power Supplies
7.5.5 Oscilloscope
7.5.6 Oscilloscope Probes
7.5.7 General-Purpose Function Generator
7.5.8 Frequency Counter
7.5.9 Computer
7.5.10 Miscellaneous Test Equipment
7.5.11 Multifunction PC Instruments
7.5.12 Isolation Transformers
7.5.13 Variable Transformers, or Variacs
7.5.14 Substitution Boxes
7.5.15 Test Cables, Connectors, and Adapters
7.5.16 Soldering Equipment
7.5.17 Prototyping Boards
7.5.18 Hand Tools
7.5.19 Wires, Cables, Hardware, and Chemicals
7.5.20 Electronics Catalogs
7.5.21 Recommended Electronics Parts
7.5.22 Electronic CAD Programs
7.5.23 Building Your Own Workbench
CHAPTER 8 Operational Amplifiers
8.1 Operational Amplifier Water Analogy
8.2 How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation) How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation)
8.3 Theory
8.4 Negative Feedback
8.5 Positive Feedback
8.6 Real Kinds of Op Amps
8.7 Op Amp Specifications
8.8 Powering Op Amps
8.9 Some Practical Notes
8.10 Voltage and Current Offset Compensation
8.11 Frequency Compensation
8.12 Comparators
8.13 Comparators with Hysteresis
8.13.1 Inverting Comparator with Hysteresis
8.13.2 Noninverting Comparator with Hysteresis
8.14 Using Single-Supply Comparators
8.15 Window Comparator
8.16 Voltage-Level Indicator
8.17 Instrumentation Amplifiers
8.18 Applications
CHAPTER 9 Filters
9.1 Things to Know Before You Start Designing Filters
9.2 Basic Filters
9.3 Passive Low-Pass Filter Design
9.4 A Note on Filter Types
9.5 Passive High-Pass Filter Design
9.6 Passive Bandpass Filter Design
9.7 Passive Notch Filter Design
9.8 Active Filter Design
9.8.1 Active Low-Pass Filter Example
9.8.2 Active High-Pass Filter Example
9.8.3 Active Bandpass Filters
9.8.4 Active Notch Filters
9.9 Integrated Filter Circuits
CHAPTER 10 Oscillators and Timers
10.1 RC Relaxation Oscillators
10.2 The 555 Timer IC
10.2.1 How a 555 Works (Astable Operation)
10.2.2 Basic Astable Operation
10.2.3 How a 555 Works (Monostable Operation)
10.2.4 Basic Monostable Operation
10.2.5 Some Important Notes about 555 Timers
10.2.6 Simple 555 Applications
10.3 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
10.4 Wien-Bridge and Twin-T Oscillators
10.5 LC Oscillators (Sinusoidal Oscillators)
10.6 Crystal Oscillators
10.7 Microcontroller Oscillators
CHAPTER 11 Voltage Regulators and Power Supplies
11.1 Voltage-Regulator ICs
11.1.1 Fixed-Regulator ICs
11.1.2 Adjustable-Regulator ICs
11.1.3 Regulator Specifications
11.2 A Quick Look at a Few Regulator Applications
11.3 The Transformer
11.4 Rectifier Packages
11.5 A Few Simple Power Supplies
11.6 Technical Points about Ripple Reduction
11.7 Loose Ends
11.8 Switching Regulator Supplies (Switchers)
11.9 Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
11.10 Kinds of Commercial Power Supply Packages
11.11 Power Supply Construction
CHAPTER 12 Digital Electronics
12.1 The Basics of Digital Electronics
12.1.1 Digital Logic States
12.1.2 Number Codes Used in Digital Electronics
12.1.3 Clock Timing and Parallel versus Serial Transmission
12.2 Logic Gates
12.2.1 Multiple-Input Logic Gates
12.2.2 Digital Logic Gate ICs
12.2.3 Applications for a Single Logic Gate
12.2.4 Combinational Logic
12.2.5 Keeping Circuits Simple (Karnaugh Maps)
12.3 Combinational Devices
12.3.1 Multiplexers (Data Selectors) and Bilateral Switches
12.3.2 Demultiplexers (Data Distributors) and Decoders
12.3.3 Encoders and Code Converters
12.3.4 Binary Adders
12.3.5 Binary Adder/Subtractor
12.3.6 Comparators and Magnitude Comparator ICs
12.3.7 A Note on Obsolescence and the Trend Toward Microcontroller Control
12.4 Logic Families
12.4.1 CMOS Family of ICs
12.4.2 I/O Voltages and Noise Margins
12.4.3 Current Ratings, Fanout, and Propagation Delays
12.5 Powering and Testing Logic ICs
12.5.1 Power Supply Decoupling
12.5.2 Unused Inputs
12.5.3 Logic Probes and Logic Pulsers
12.6 Sequential Logic
12.6.1 SR Flip-Flops
12.6.2 SR Flip-Flop ICs
12.6.3 D-Type Flip-Flops
12.6.4 Quad and Octal D Flip-Flops
12.6.5 JK Flip-Flops
12.6.6 Practical Timing Considerations with Flip-Flops
12.6.7 Digital Clock Generators and Single-Pulse Generators
12.6.8 Automatic Power-Up Clear (Reset) Circuits
12.6.9 Pullup and Pulldown Resistors
12.7 Counter ICs
12.7.1 Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) ICs
12.7.2 Synchronous Counter ICs
12.7.3 A Note on Counters with Displays
12.8 Shift Registers
12.8.1 Serial-In/Serial-Out Shift Registers
12.8.2 Serial-In/Parallel-Out Shift Registers
12.8.3 Parallel-In/Serial-Out Shift Registers
12.8.4 Ring Counter (Shift Register Sequencer)
12.8.5 Johnson Shift Counter
12.8.6 Shift Register ICs
12.8.7 Simple Shift Register Applications
12.9 Analog/Digital Interfacing
12.9.1 Triggering Simple Logic Responses from Analog Signals
12.9.2 Using Logic to Drive External Loads
12.9.3 Analog Switches
12.9.4 Analog Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
12.9.5 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
12.9.6 Analog-to-Digital Converters
12.10 Displays
12.10.1 LED Displays
12.10.2 Liquid-Crystal Displays
12.11 Memory Devices
12.11.1 Read-Only Memory
12.11.2 Simple ROM Made Using Diodes
12.11.3 Memory Size and Organization
12.11.4 Simple Programmable ROM
12.11.5 ROM Devices
12.11.6 RAM
CHAPTER 13 Microcontrollers
13.1 Basic Structure of a Microcontroller
13.2 Example Microcontrollers
13.2.1 The ATtiny85 Microcontroller
13.2.2 The PIC16Cx Microcontrollers
13.2.3 32-Bit Microcontrollers
13.2.4 Digital Signal Processing
13.3 Evaluation/Development Boards
13.4 Arduino
13.4.1 A Tour of Arduino
13.4.2 The Arduino IDE
13.4.3 Arduino Board Models
13.4.4 Shields
13.4.5 The Arduino C Library
13.4.6 Arduino Example Project
13.4.7 Taking the Arduino Offboard
13.5 Interfacing with Microcontrollers
13.5.1 Switches
13.5.2 Analog Inputs
13.5.3 High-Power Digital Outputs
13.5.4 Sound Interfaces
13.5.5 Serial Interfaces
13.5.6 Level Conversion
13.5.7 LED Display Interfaces
CHAPTER 14 Programmable Logic
14.1 Programmable Logic
14.2 FPGAs
14.3 ISE and the Elbert V2
14.3.1 Installing ISE
14.4 The Elbert 2 Board
14.4.1 Installing the Elbert Software
14.5 Downloads
14.6 Drawing Your FPGA Logic Design
14.6.1 Example 1: A Data Selector
14.6.2 Example 2: A 4-bit Ripple Counter
14.7 Verilog
14.7.1 Modules
14.7.2 Wires, Registers, and Busses
14.7.3 Parallel Execution
14.7.4 Number Format
14.8 Describing Your FPGA Design in Verilog
14.8.1 A Data Selector in Verilog
14.8.2 A Ripple Counter in Verilog
14.9 Modular Design
14.9.1 Counter/Decoder Example
14.9.2 Multiplexed 7-Segment Counter Example
14.9.3 Parameterized Modules
14.10 Simulation
14.11 VHDL
CHAPTER 15 Motors
15.1 DC Continuous Motors
15.2 Speed Control of DC Motors
15.3 Directional Control of DC Motors
15.4 RC Servos
15.5 Stepper Motors
15.6 Kinds of Stepper Motors
15.7 Driving Stepper Motors
15.8 Controlling the Driver with a Translator
15.9 A Final Word on Identifying Stepper Motors
CHAPTER 16 Audio Electronics
16.1 A Little Lecture on Sound
16.2 Microphones
16.3 Microphone Specifications
16.4 Audio Amplifiers
16.4.1 Inverting Amplifier
16.4.2 Noninverting Amplifier
16.4.3 Digital Amplifiers
16.4.4 Reducing Hum in Audio Amplifiers
16.5 Preamplifiers
16.6 Mixer Circuits
16.7 A Note on Impedance Matching
16.8 Speakers
16.9 Crossover Networks
16.10 Simple ICs Used to Drive Speakers
16.11 Audible-Signal Devices
16.12 Miscellaneous Audio Circuits
CHAPTER 17 Modular Electronics
17.1 There’s an IC for It There’s an IC for It
17.2 Breakout Boards and Modules
17.2.1 Radio Frequency Modules
17.2.2 Audio Modules
17.3 Plug-and-Play Prototyping
17.4 Open Source Hardware
APPENDIX A Power Distribution and Home Wiring
A.1 Power Distribution
A.2 A Closer Look at Three-Phase Electricity
A.3 Home Wiring
A.4 Electricity in Other Countries
APPENDIX B Error Analysis
B.1 Absolute Error, Relative Error, and Percent Error
B.2 Uncertainty Estimates
APPENDIX C Useful Facts and Formulas
C.1 Greek Alphabet
C.2 Powers of 10 Unit Prefixes
C.3 Linear Functions (y = mx + b)
C.4 Quadratic Equation (y = ax2 + bx + c)
C.5 Exponents and Logarithms
C.6 Trigonometry
C.7 Complex Numbers
C.8 Differential Calculus
C.9 Integral Calculus
Index
Search in book...
Toggle Font Controls
Playlists
Add To
Create new playlist
Name your new playlist
Playlist description (optional)
Cancel
Create playlist
Sign In
Email address
Password
Forgot Password?
Create account
Login
or
Continue with Facebook
Continue with Google
Sign Up
Full Name
Email address
Confirm Email Address
Password
Login
Create account
or
Continue with Facebook
Continue with Google
Prev
Previous Chapter
Cover Page
Next
Next Chapter
Practical Electronics for Inventors
Contents
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Halftitle Page
About the Authors
About the Technical Editors
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Electronics
CHAPTER 2
Theory
2.1
Theory of Electronics
2.2
Electric Current
2.2.1
Currents in Perspective
2.3
Voltage
2.3.1
The Mechanisms of Voltage
2.3.2
Definition of Volt and Generalized Power Law
2.3.3
Combining Batteries
2.3.4
Other Voltage Sources
2.3.5
Water Analogies
2.4
A Microscopic View of Conduction (for Those Who Are Interested)
2.4.1
Applying a Voltage
2.5
Resistance, Resistivity, Conductivity
2.5.1
How the Shape of a Conductor Affects Resistance
2.5.2
Resistivity and Conductivity
2.6
Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors
2.7
Heat and Power
2.8
Thermal Heat Conduction and Thermal Resistance
2.8.1
Importance of Heat Production
2.9
Wire Gauges
2.10
Grounds
2.10.1
Earth Ground
2.10.2
Different Types of Ground Symbols
2.10.3
Loose Ends on Grounding
2.11
Electric Circuits
2.12
Ohm’s Law and Resistors
2.12.1
Resistor Power Ratings
2.12.2
Resistors in Parallel
2.12.3
Resistors in Series
2.12.4
Reducing a Complex Resistor Network
2.12.5
Multiple Voltage Dividers
2.13
Voltage and Current Sources
2.14
Measuring Voltage, Current, and Resistance
2.15
Combining Batteries
2.16
Open and Short Circuits
2.17
Kirchhoff’s Laws
2.18
Superposition Theorem
2.19
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
2.19.1
Thevenin’s Theorem
2.19.2
Norton’s Theorem
2.20
AC Circuits
2.20.1
Generating AC
2.20.2
Water Analogy of AC
2.20.3
Pulsating DC
2.20.4
Combining Sinusoidal Sources
2.20.5
AC Waveforms
2.20.6
Describing an AC Waveform
2.20.7
Frequency and Period
2.20.8
Phase
2.21
AC and Resistors, RMS Voltage, and Current
2.22
Mains Power
2.23
Capacitors
2.23.1
Determining Capacitance
2.23.2
Commercial Capacitors
2.23.3
Voltage Rating and Dielectric Breakdown
2.23.4
Maxwell’s Displacement Current
2.23.5
Charge-Based Model of Current Through a Capacitor
2.23.6
Capacitor Water Analogy
2.23.7
Energy in a Capacitor
2.23.8
RC Time Constant
2.23.9
Stray Capacitance
2.23.10
Capacitors in Parallel
2.23.11
Capacitors in Series
2.23.12
Alternating Current in a Capacitor
2.23.13
Capacitive Reactance
2.23.14
Capacitive Divider
2.23.15
Quality Factor
2.24
Inductors
2.24.1
Electromagnetism
2.24.2
Magnetic Fields and Their Influence
2.24.3
Self-Inductance
2.24.4
Inductors
2.24.5
Inductor Water Analogy
2.24.6
Inductor Equations
2.24.7
Energy Within an Inductor
2.24.8
Inductor Cores
2.24.9
Understanding the Inductor Equations
2.24.10
Energizing RL Circuit
2.24.11
Deenergizing RL Circuit
2.24.12
Voltage Spikes Due to Switching
2.24.13
Straight-Wire Inductance
2.24.14
Mutual Inductance and Magnetic Coupling
2.24.15
Unwanted Coupling: Spikes, Lightning, and Other Pulses
2.24.16
Inductors in Series and Parallel
2.24.17
Alternating Current and Inductors
2.24.18
Inductive Reactance
2.24.19
Nonideal Inductor Model
2.24.20
Quality Factor
2.24.21
Inductor Applications
2.25
Modeling Complex Circuits
2.26
Complex Numbers
2.27
Circuit with Sinusoidal Sources
2.27.1
Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex Impedances
2.27.2
Sinusoidal Voltage Source in Complex Notation
2.27.3
Odd Phenomena in Reactive Circuits
2.28
Power in AC Circuits (Apparent Power, Real Power, Reactive Power)
2.28.1
Power Factor
2.29
Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form
2.30
Resonant Circuits
2.30.1
Resonance in RLC Circuits
2.30.2
Q
(Quality Factor) and Bandwidth
2.30.3
Bandwidth
2.30.4
Voltage Drop Across Components in RLC Resonant Circuit
2.30.5
Capacitor Losses
2.30.6
Parallel-Resonant Circuits
2.30.7
The
Q
of Loaded Circuits
2.31
Lecture on Decibels
2.31.1
Alternative Decibel Representations
2.32
Input and Output Impedance
2.32.1
Input Impedance
2.32.2
Output Impedance
2.33
Two-Port Networks and Filters
2.33.1
Filters
2.33.2
Attenuators
2.34
Transient Circuits
2.34.1
Series RLC Circuit
2.35
Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources
2.35.1
Fourier Series
2.36
Nonperiodic Sources
2.37
SPICE
2.37.1
How SPICE Works
2.37.2
Limitations of SPICE and Other Simulators
2.37.3
A Simple Simulation Example
CHAPTER 3
Basic Electronic Circuit Components
3.1
Wires, Cables, and Connectors
3.1.1
Wires
3.1.2
Cables
3.1.3
Connectors
3.1.4
Wiring and Connector Symbols
3.1.5
High-Frequency Effects Within Wires and Cables
3.2
Batteries
3.2.1
How a Cell Works
3.2.2
Primary Batteries
3.2.3
Comparing Primary Batteries
3.2.4
Secondary Batteries
3.2.5
Battery Capacity
3.2.6
Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery
3.3
Switches
3.3.1
How a Switch Works
3.3.2
Describing a Switch
3.3.3
Kinds of Switches
3.3.4
Simple Switch Applications
3.4
Relays
3.4.1
Specific Kinds of Relays
3.4.2
A Few Notes about Relays
3.4.3
Some Simple Relay Circuits
3.5
Resistors
3.5.1
Resistance and Ohm’s Law
3.5.2
Resistors in Series and Parallel
3.5.3
Reading Resistor Labels
3.5.4
Real Resistor Characteristics
3.5.5
Types of Resistors
3.5.6
Variable Resistors (Rheostats, Potentiometers, Trimmers)
3.5.7
Potentiometer Characteristics
3.6
Capacitors
3.6.1
Capacitance
3.6.2
Capacitors in Parallel
3.6.3
Capacitors in Series
3.6.4
RC Time Constant
3.6.5
Capacitive Reactance
3.6.6
Real Capacitors
3.6.7
Capacitor Specifications
3.6.8
Types of Capacitors
3.6.9
Capacitor Applications
3.6.10
Timing and Sample and Hold
3.6.11
RC Ripple Filter
3.6.12
Arc Suppression
3.6.13
Supercapacitor Applications
3.6.14
Problems
3.7
Inductors
3.7.1
Inductance
3.7.2
Constructing Inductors
3.7.3
Inductors in Series and Parallel
3.7.4
RL Time Constant
3.7.5
Inductive Reactance
3.7.6
Real Inductors
3.7.7
Inductor Specifications
3.7.8
Types of Inductors
3.7.9
Reading Inductor Labels
3.7.10
Inductor Applications
3.7.11
EMI/EMC Design Tips
3.8
Transformers
3.8.1
Basic Operations
3.8.2
Transformer Construction
3.8.3
Autotransformers and Variable Transformers
3.8.4
Circuit Isolation and the Isolation Transformer
3.8.5
Various Standard and Specialized Transformers
3.8.6
Transformer Applications
3.9
Fuses and Circuit Breakers
3.9.1
Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers
CHAPTER 4
Semiconductors
4.1
Semiconductor Technology
4.1.1
What Is a Semiconductor?
4.1.2
Applications of Silicon
4.2
Diodes
4.2.1
How p-n Junction Diodes Work
4.2.2
Diode Water Analogy
4.2.3
Kinds of Rectifiers/Diodes
4.2.4
Practical Considerations
4.2.5
Diode/Rectifier Applications
4.2.6
Zener Diodes
4.2.7
Zener Diode Applications
4.2.8
Varactor Diodes (Variable Capacitance Diodes)
4.2.9
PIN Diodes
4.2.10
Microwave Diodes (IMPATT, Gunn, Tunnel, etc.)
4.2.11
Problems
4.3
Transistors
4.3.1
Introduction to Transistors
4.3.2
Bipolar Transistors
4.3.3
Junction Field-Effect Transistors
4.3.4
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
4.3.5
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
4.3.6
Unijunction Transistors
4.4
Thyristors
4.4.1
Introduction
4.4.2
Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers
4.4.3
Silicon-Controlled Switches
4.4.4
Triacs
4.4.5
Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs
4.5
Transient Voltage Suppressors
4.5.1
Lecture on Transients
4.5.2
Devices Used to Suppress Transients
4.6
Integrated Circuits
4.6.1
IC Packages
CHAPTER 5
Optoelectronics
5.1
A Little Lecture on Photons
5.2
Lamps
5.3
Light-Emitting Diodes
5.3.1
How an LED Works
5.3.2
Kinds of LEDs
5.3.3
More on LEDs
5.3.4
LED Applications
5.3.5
Laser Diodes
5.4
Photoresistors
5.4.1
How a Photoresistor Works
5.4.2
Technical Stuff
5.4.3
Applications
5.5
Photodiodes
5.5.1
How a Photodiode Works
5.5.2
Basic Operations
5.5.3
Kinds of Photodiodes
5.6
Solar Cells
5.6.1
Basic Operations
5.7
Phototransistors
5.7.1
How a Phototransistor Works
5.7.2
Basic Configurations
5.7.3
Kinds of Phototransistors
5.7.4
Technical Stuff
5.7.5
Applications
5.8
Photothyristors
5.8.1
How LASCRs Work
5.8.2
Basic Operation
5.9
Optoisolators
5.9.1
Integrated Optoisolators
5.9.2
Applications
5.10
Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 6
Sensors
6.1
General Principles
6.1.1
Precision, Accuracy, and Resolution
6.1.2
The Observer Effect
6.1.3
Calibration
6.2
Temperature
6.2.1
Thermistors
6.2.2
Thermocouples
6.2.3
Resistive Temperature Detectors
6.2.4
Analog Output Thermometer ICs
6.2.5
Digital Thermometer ICs
6.2.6
Infrared Thermometers/Pyrometers
6.2.7
Summary
6.3
Proximity and Touch
6.3.1
Touch Screens
6.3.2
Ultrasonic Distance
6.3.3
Optical Distance
6.3.4
Capacitive Sensors
6.3.5
Summary
6.4
Movement, Force, and Pressure
6.4.1
Passive Infrared
6.4.2
Acceleration
6.4.3
Rotation
6.4.4
Flow
6.4.5
Force
6.4.6
Tilt
6.4.7
Vibration and Mechanical Shock
6.4.8
Pressure
6.5
Chemical
6.5.1
Smoke
6.5.2
Gas
6.5.3
Humidity
6.6
Light, Radiation, Magnetism, and Sound
6.6.1
Light
6.6.2
Ionizing Radiation
6.6.3
Magnetic Fields
6.6.4
Sound
6.7
GPS
CHAPTER 7
Hands-on Electronics
7.1
Safety
7.1.1
Lecture on Safety
7.1.2
Damaging Components with Electrostatic Discharge
7.1.3
Component Handling Precautions
7.2
Constructing Circuits
7.2.1
Drawing a Circuit Schematic
7.2.2
A Note on Circuit Simulator Programs
7.2.3
Making a Prototype of Your Circuit
7.2.4
The Final Circuit
7.2.5
Making a PCB
7.2.6
Special Pieces of Hardware Used in Circuit Construction
7.2.7
Soldering
7.2.8
Desoldering
7.2.9
Enclosing the Circuit
7.2.10
Useful Items to Keep Handy
7.2.11
Troubleshooting the Circuits You Build
7.3
Multimeters
7.3.1
Basic Operation
7.3.2
How Analog VOMs Work
7.3.3
How Digital Multimeters Work
7.3.4
A Note on Measurement Errors
7.4
Oscilloscopes
7.4.1
How Scopes Work
7.4.2
Interior Circuitry of a Scope
7.4.3
Aiming the Beam
7.4.4
Scope Usage
7.4.5
What All the Little Knobs and Switches Do
7.4.6
Measuring Things with Scopes
7.4.7
Scope Applications
7.4.8
Measuring Impedances
7.5
The Electronics Laboratory
7.5.1
Work Area
7.5.2
Test Equipment
7.5.3
Multimeters
7.5.4
DC Power Supplies
7.5.5
Oscilloscope
7.5.6
Oscilloscope Probes
7.5.7
General-Purpose Function Generator
7.5.8
Frequency Counter
7.5.9
Computer
7.5.10
Miscellaneous Test Equipment
7.5.11
Multifunction PC Instruments
7.5.12
Isolation Transformers
7.5.13
Variable Transformers, or Variacs
7.5.14
Substitution Boxes
7.5.15
Test Cables, Connectors, and Adapters
7.5.16
Soldering Equipment
7.5.17
Prototyping Boards
7.5.18
Hand Tools
7.5.19
Wires, Cables, Hardware, and Chemicals
7.5.20
Electronics Catalogs
7.5.21
Recommended Electronics Parts
7.5.22
Electronic CAD Programs
7.5.23
Building Your Own Workbench
CHAPTER 8
Operational Amplifiers
8.1
Operational Amplifier Water Analogy
8.2
How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation)
8.3
Theory
8.4
Negative Feedback
8.5
Positive Feedback
8.6
Real Kinds of Op Amps
8.7
Op Amp Specifications
8.8
Powering Op Amps
8.9
Some Practical Notes
8.10
Voltage and Current Offset Compensation
8.11
Frequency Compensation
8.12
Comparators
8.13
Comparators with Hysteresis
8.13.1
Inverting Comparator with Hysteresis
8.13.2
Noninverting Comparator with Hysteresis
8.14
Using Single-Supply Comparators
8.15
Window Comparator
8.16
Voltage-Level Indicator
8.17
Instrumentation Amplifiers
8.18
Applications
CHAPTER 9
Filters
9.1
Things to Know Before You Start Designing Filters
9.2
Basic Filters
9.3
Passive Low-Pass Filter Design
9.4
A Note on Filter Types
9.5
Passive High-Pass Filter Design
9.6
Passive Bandpass Filter Design
9.7
Passive Notch Filter Design
9.8
Active Filter Design
9.8.1
Active Low-Pass Filter Example
9.8.2
Active High-Pass Filter Example
9.8.3
Active Bandpass Filters
9.8.4
Active Notch Filters
9.9
Integrated Filter Circuits
CHAPTER 10
Oscillators and Timers
10.1
RC Relaxation Oscillators
10.2
The 555 Timer IC
10.2.1
How a 555 Works (Astable Operation)
10.2.2
Basic Astable Operation
10.2.3
How a 555 Works (Monostable Operation)
10.2.4
Basic Monostable Operation
10.2.5
Some Important Notes about 555 Timers
10.2.6
Simple 555 Applications
10.3
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
10.4
Wien-Bridge and Twin-T Oscillators
10.5
LC Oscillators (Sinusoidal Oscillators)
10.6
Crystal Oscillators
10.7
Microcontroller Oscillators
CHAPTER 11
Voltage Regulators and Power Supplies
11.1
Voltage-Regulator ICs
11.1.1
Fixed-Regulator ICs
11.1.2
Adjustable-Regulator ICs
11.1.3
Regulator Specifications
11.2
A Quick Look at a Few Regulator Applications
11.3
The Transformer
11.4
Rectifier Packages
11.5
A Few Simple Power Supplies
11.6
Technical Points about Ripple Reduction
11.7
Loose Ends
11.8
Switching Regulator Supplies (Switchers)
11.9
Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
11.10
Kinds of Commercial Power Supply Packages
11.11
Power Supply Construction
CHAPTER 12
Digital Electronics
12.1
The Basics of Digital Electronics
12.1.1
Digital Logic States
12.1.2
Number Codes Used in Digital Electronics
12.1.3
Clock Timing and Parallel versus Serial Transmission
12.2
Logic Gates
12.2.1
Multiple-Input Logic Gates
12.2.2
Digital Logic Gate ICs
12.2.3
Applications for a Single Logic Gate
12.2.4
Combinational Logic
12.2.5
Keeping Circuits Simple (Karnaugh Maps)
12.3
Combinational Devices
12.3.1
Multiplexers (Data Selectors) and Bilateral Switches
12.3.2
Demultiplexers (Data Distributors) and Decoders
12.3.3
Encoders and Code Converters
12.3.4
Binary Adders
12.3.5
Binary Adder/Subtractor
12.3.6
Comparators and Magnitude Comparator ICs
12.3.7
A Note on Obsolescence and the Trend Toward Microcontroller Control
12.4
Logic Families
12.4.1
CMOS Family of ICs
12.4.2
I/O Voltages and Noise Margins
12.4.3
Current Ratings, Fanout, and Propagation Delays
12.5
Powering and Testing Logic ICs
12.5.1
Power Supply Decoupling
12.5.2
Unused Inputs
12.5.3
Logic Probes and Logic Pulsers
12.6
Sequential Logic
12.6.1
SR Flip-Flops
12.6.2
SR Flip-Flop ICs
12.6.3
D-Type Flip-Flops
12.6.4
Quad and Octal D Flip-Flops
12.6.5
JK Flip-Flops
12.6.6
Practical Timing Considerations with Flip-Flops
12.6.7
Digital Clock Generators and Single-Pulse Generators
12.6.8
Automatic Power-Up Clear (Reset) Circuits
12.6.9
Pullup and Pulldown Resistors
12.7
Counter ICs
12.7.1
Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) ICs
12.7.2
Synchronous Counter ICs
12.7.3
A Note on Counters with Displays
12.8
Shift Registers
12.8.1
Serial-In/Serial-Out Shift Registers
12.8.2
Serial-In/Parallel-Out Shift Registers
12.8.3
Parallel-In/Serial-Out Shift Registers
12.8.4
Ring Counter (Shift Register Sequencer)
12.8.5
Johnson Shift Counter
12.8.6
Shift Register ICs
12.8.7
Simple Shift Register Applications
12.9
Analog/Digital Interfacing
12.9.1
Triggering Simple Logic Responses from Analog Signals
12.9.2
Using Logic to Drive External Loads
12.9.3
Analog Switches
12.9.4
Analog Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
12.9.5
Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
12.9.6
Analog-to-Digital Converters
12.10
Displays
12.10.1
LED Displays
12.10.2
Liquid-Crystal Displays
12.11
Memory Devices
12.11.1
Read-Only Memory
12.11.2
Simple ROM Made Using Diodes
12.11.3
Memory Size and Organization
12.11.4
Simple Programmable ROM
12.11.5
ROM Devices
12.11.6
RAM
CHAPTER 13
Microcontrollers
13.1
Basic Structure of a Microcontroller
13.2
Example Microcontrollers
13.2.1
The ATtiny85 Microcontroller
13.2.2
The PIC16Cx Microcontrollers
13.2.3
32-Bit Microcontrollers
13.2.4
Digital Signal Processing
13.3
Evaluation/Development Boards
13.4
Arduino
13.4.1
A Tour of Arduino
13.4.2
The Arduino IDE
13.4.3
Arduino Board Models
13.4.4
Shields
13.4.5
The Arduino C Library
13.4.6
Arduino Example Project
13.4.7
Taking the Arduino Offboard
13.5
Interfacing with Microcontrollers
13.5.1
Switches
13.5.2
Analog Inputs
13.5.3
High-Power Digital Outputs
13.5.4
Sound Interfaces
13.5.5
Serial Interfaces
13.5.6
Level Conversion
13.5.7
LED Display Interfaces
CHAPTER 14
Programmable Logic
14.1
Programmable Logic
14.2
FPGAs
14.3
ISE and the Elbert V2
14.3.1
Installing ISE
14.4
The Elbert 2 Board
14.4.1
Installing the Elbert Software
14.5
Downloads
14.6
Drawing Your FPGA Logic Design
14.6.1
Example 1: A Data Selector
14.6.2
Example 2: A 4-bit Ripple Counter
14.7
Verilog
14.7.1
Modules
14.7.2
Wires, Registers, and Busses
14.7.3
Parallel Execution
14.7.4
Number Format
14.8
Describing Your FPGA Design in Verilog
14.8.1
A Data Selector in Verilog
14.8.2
A Ripple Counter in Verilog
14.9
Modular Design
14.9.1
Counter/Decoder Example
14.9.2
Multiplexed 7-Segment Counter Example
14.9.3
Parameterized Modules
14.10
Simulation
14.11
VHDL
CHAPTER 15
Motors
15.1
DC Continuous Motors
15.2
Speed Control of DC Motors
15.3
Directional Control of DC Motors
15.4
RC Servos
15.5
Stepper Motors
15.6
Kinds of Stepper Motors
15.7
Driving Stepper Motors
15.8
Controlling the Driver with a Translator
15.9
A Final Word on Identifying Stepper Motors
CHAPTER 16
Audio Electronics
16.1
A Little Lecture on Sound
16.2
Microphones
16.3
Microphone Specifications
16.4
Audio Amplifiers
16.4.1
Inverting Amplifier
16.4.2
Noninverting Amplifier
16.4.3
Digital Amplifiers
16.4.4
Reducing Hum in Audio Amplifiers
16.5
Preamplifiers
16.6
Mixer Circuits
16.7
A Note on Impedance Matching
16.8
Speakers
16.9
Crossover Networks
16.10
Simple ICs Used to Drive Speakers
16.11
Audible-Signal Devices
16.12
Miscellaneous Audio Circuits
CHAPTER 17
Modular Electronics
17.1
There’s an IC for It
17.2
Breakout Boards and Modules
17.2.1
Radio Frequency Modules
17.2.2
Audio Modules
17.3
Plug-and-Play Prototyping
17.4
Open Source Hardware
APPENDIX A
Power Distribution and Home Wiring
A.1
Power Distribution
A.2
A Closer Look at Three-Phase Electricity
A.3
Home Wiring
A.4
Electricity in Other Countries
APPENDIX B
Error Analysis
B.1
Absolute Error, Relative Error, and Percent Error
B.2
Uncertainty Estimates
APPENDIX C
Useful Facts and Formulas
C.1
Greek Alphabet
C.2
Powers of 10 Unit Prefixes
C.3
Linear Functions (y = mx + b)
C.4
Quadratic Equation (y = ax
2
+ bx + c)
C.5
Exponents and Logarithms
C.6
Trigonometry
C.7
Complex Numbers
C.8
Differential Calculus
C.9
Integral Calculus
Index
Guide
Cover
Practical Electronics for Inventors
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Electronics
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
ix
x
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiii
xxvii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
Add Highlight
No Comment
..................Content has been hidden....................
You can't read the all page of ebook, please click
here
login for view all page.
Day Mode
Cloud Mode
Night Mode
Reset