CHAPTER 7

Creating Digital Audio Content

In This Chapter

•  How do you record audio?

•  How can you improve your vocal presence?

•  What’s the best method to conduct an audio interview?

Now that you’ve got your audio toolkit, it’s time to use it. We started the last chapter talking about a house. When people walk into a house for the first time, they take in the design and tend not to spend much time looking at the crown molding or looking to see if the drywall was installed well. However, if there are lumps in the drywall or the crown molding is lopsided, it sticks out like a sore thumb.

The same applies to digital content. Listeners don’t notice recording levels unless they’re either too low or too high. They don’t notice microphone proximity unless your mic is too close to your mouth or too far away. They tend to notice more of what goes wrong than what goes right.

In this chapter we’re going to look at recording audio so the technique is invisible and your listeners are focused on the learning. We’re going to run through some techniques to help with microphone technique and vocal presence. Then we’ll look at conducting a professional-sounding interview in person and over the phone. But first, we’re going to discuss using digital audio.

Understanding Digital Audio

Today, audio is produced as a digital signal. But 20 years ago it was recorded as an analogue signal on media such as reel-to-reel tapes, cassettes, cartridges, and vinyl records. The technical difference between analogue and digital is that analogue audio matches the sound, hence the term analogue. Digital audio records the sound in digital code. The practical difference, more importantly, is that digital audio tends to be nice and crisp when properly recorded and does not have the low hiss of magnetic tape or rumble from the turntable when playing a record.

Editing software packages visually display the audio as a waveform. Figure 7-1 shows the waveform as displayed in the audio editing software Audacity version 2.1.2. Each sound, whether it be a word or the sound of a door closing, appears as a series of waves. In reality, they simply look like a blob. The longer the duration of the sound, the wider the wave appears. The louder the sound, the larger it appears vertically. Silence is represented by a thin line running through the middle.

Audio can be recorded in multiple file formats. The most common formats are WAV and MP3. As a general rule, you should record original audio using WAV format and provide final copies that are being downloaded as MP3 files. WAV is the industry standard file format for audio production. It offers high-fidelity audio but is uncompressed, which results in large file sizes. MP3 files are compressed audio files and are a fraction of the size of the WAV files. Most music and podcast files you buy and download are MP3 files.

As you record audio, you need to monitor audio levels using peak program meters (PPM). These are the small meters that flicker whenever you are recording sound. PPMs measure the audio level up to 0 decibels (db). When the levels hit 0 db, the audio becomes distorted, also known as clipping. When the levels are too low, noise from the equipment, such as a hum, may be evident and qualities from the sound can be lost, which are hard to recover.

It is good practice to turn the audio level as high as you can, without it being high enough to clip. You can do this by conducting a test recording and watching the levels. If you’re interviewing a subject matter expert, ask her to say a few words into the microphone and watch the PPMs. Generally, if they average at about -12 to -10 db you’ll be fine. It’s OK if they occasionally get close to 0 db for very short periods of time.

Most digital audio recorders offer automatic level control (ALC). This is where a chip in your digital recorder automatically adjusts the audio level to achieve its optimum level. This feature also exists in video cameras, which we will discuss in chapter 12. While it is best to manually adjust your levels, ALC in most digital recorders works fine.

Recording Audio

Recording audio is relatively easy. You may record using your computer, a digital audio recorder, or a mobile app.

If you are recording on your computer you will most likely use audio editing software, such as Audacity, Microsoft Sound Recorder, or QuickTime. Recording on editing software is similar in most programs, although the buttons may look different or be placed in different parts of the screen. In Audacity, it’s simply a matter of pressing the red record button. So to record audio, plug your microphone into the computer and make sure it works. Then open up the editing software and create a new project file.

Click the record button, wait for five seconds, then start talking. As you speak, you’ll see the waveform of your speech appear on the screen. When you are finished, wait five seconds before clicking the stop button. You now have an audio track you can edit; the five seconds before and after provides breathing room for editing (see chapter 8 for more on editing audio). Once you have the track, save your project. It’s a good idea to regularly save your work, even if your software is set to autosave.

Digital audio recorders tend to be fairly similar in layout, although each has its own set of nuances. It’s like the differences between two different car models. They both have switches to turn on the lights, but they’re in different places. You can find the controls quite quickly by playing around with the device or reading the user manual.

Most recorders have a record button and some have a separate stop button, while others require you to hit the record button a second time to stop the recording (Figure 7-2). With most recorders, once you start recording, the device creates a new audio file, automatically giving it a name. The name is usually a number such as “0003.wav.” It can be easy to lose track of all the different files, so keep a log of each file name with a description. For example, “00.05.wav: interview with Freda Blogs on communication skills.”

There are many audio recording apps available for both iPhone and Android. Many are designed to replicate the experience of a traditional digital audio recorder, while others simply offer record, play, and export. Some premium apps provide additional features such as editing and special effects like a graphics equalizer. Audio recording apps represent a very cost-effective way to record audio when you are on the go.

Sounding Professional

It’s good to sound professional when you perform voice-overs or podcasts. Professionalism comes from using the microphone well, modulating your voice, and making technical adjustments to your recordings. We’ll talk about the technical adjustments you can make that will improve vocal quality when we discuss audio editing in chapter 8. For now, we’ll focus on how to use the microphone and what you can do to improve vocal dynamics.

Microphone Technique

Every microphone is as different as is everyone’s voice. This makes the way you use your microphone somewhat personal. Positioned near the corner of your mouth, one microphone may make your voice sound warm but cause another person’s voice to feel cold and aloof. When using a microphone, you need to explore how it sounds in different positions and use the one that makes your voice sound best. If you’re recording someone else, you’ll need to do this for that person too.

The microphone, metaphorically speaking, is your listener’s ear. How you position it will affect how the listener relates to you or your presenter. If the mic is closer, your voice will be more intimate; further away, more formal. Music radio stations, especially on FM, position their announcers very close to the mic so they can talk softly, without projecting their voices. This makes them sound like your friend. News stations will position their announcers farther back to project more authority. Think about how you want to sound and adjust the microphone position accordingly. A natural distance for most microphones is five fingers away from the mouth.

If you want your voice to sound warmer, you can take advantage of what’s known as the Proximity Effect. As you move the microphone closer to the mouth, the warmer bass frequencies become exaggerated, giving you a richer tone. This works with most mics but not omnidirectional ones.

Plosives are a common problem that comes from the way a microphone is used. Plosives are sounds formed by the letters P, B, and others that create a popping noise on the microphone, which distracts listeners. To form these sounds, you must close your mouth and force a burst of air from your mouth that pops the lips open. You can feel this burst of air by putting your hand in front of your mouth and saying P. Try it. Feel the burst of air? Well, every time you say a P or B, this burst of air hits the microphone’s diaphragm, temporarily overloading it, creating that annoying pop sound. You can reduce the effect of plosives by sticking your lower lip out farther than your upper lip so it absorbs some of the burst of air as you say these consonants gently. Another approach is to speak across the microphone at a 45-degree angle so the air burst passes the diaphragm.

Vocal Presence

Like mic technique, the best way to improve your vocal presence is to practice. Vocal presence is the product of how you use your voice. When you speak, your breath passes over your vocal cords, which are located in the voice box at the top of your windpipe. This creates a buzzing sound, which is then shaped by your throat and nose. It’s here you get those lovely tonal qualities that makes your voice distinct from other people’s. It then travels into your mouth, where your tongue, soft palate, teeth, and lips shape the voice into words.

The voice is an amazing part of our anatomy. And just about everyone was born with a lovely, rich voice. But over the years they learn how not to use it. People adopt poor posture because they’re tired, stressed, or stuck in front of a computer all day, which stops them taking those lovely deep breaths that give their voice strength and presence. And they stop opening their mouth so words start slurring and are poorly formed.

If you want to improve your vocal presence, consciously work on your breathing, which will increase your voice’s warmth and authority. Focus on how you use your mouth to shape words, which will make you sound more credible. And consider how you vary your delivery to sound more expressive, which will draw your learner in. If you struggle to improve your vocal presence, find a vocal coach with experience in voice-overs or radio work who can help you enhance your technique. If you can’t find someone with voice-over experience, a singing teacher can help you understand vocal dynamics.

Breathing

It’s important to breathe deeply to allow a full flow of air over the vocal cords. This will give you greater vocal strength while relaxing the throat, where your voice is formed. It’s important to allow your ribcage to expand as you breathe in because this lowers the diaphragm, allowing deeper breaths. Sit or stand so your spine is straight but relaxed. If you are slumped you won’t be able to breathe as deeply, reducing your capacity for air, which leads to a weaker voice.

What does all this mean in practice? First, relax. Roll your shoulders to release tension and then sit or stand straight. You don’t need to be rigid—just comfortably straight. If necessary, massage your neck muscles. Now, take two or three nice deep breaths and allow the air to flow over your vocal cords. Take note of how it feels. Now, allow your breath to carry your voice to the front of the mouth. You’ll notice that your vocal register is lower and your voice sounds fuller.

Enunciation

Good enunciation improves credibility. Native English speakers shape vowels and consonants at the front of the mouth. Vowel sounds are made by opening and shaping the whole of your mouth, while consonants are formed with your lips and teeth.

To improve your credibility, shape each word carefully and allow each consonant and vowel to be fully formed. It does not sound good to slur them or run them together. Most of the time this will not be a problem, but sometimes you’ll stumble on tricky words that are hard to pronounce. Focus on these words with practice.

To practice a troublesome word, break it into its syllables and say the word slowly, carefully enunciating each syllable. For example, it’s easy to pronounce cognizant as connizant and miss the g. So say it slowly a few times as cog-ni-zant, then start saying it a little faster, then faster, and speed it up until you are saying it at a natural speed.

Listen to how you speak and identify words you can enunciate more clearly. For example, million is often mispronounced as mill-yon and Australia is often mispronounced as oz-tray-lya. They should be pronounced mil-li-on and Aust-ray-li-a. We all have words we can sharpen up, so train your ear to recognize and practice them. Clearly enunciated words are easier for your listener to recognize.

People often debate how fast or slow you should speak. Should you deliver 140 words per minute or 180? There’s no perfect answer to this because it depends on your personality and diction. Some naturally fast talkers who average 180 words a minute will sound contrived if they deliver 140 words per minute. And slow talkers will find themselves tripping over words if they increase their delivery speed. As a general rule, speak at the speed you feel most comfortable. If you find yourself tripping over your words, this is a sign you should slow down. If your listeners tell you they don’t understand, that’s another sign you should slow down.

Expression

If your delivery is dull and boring, listeners will zone out. One of the universal content principles is to keep changing elements of our content so the listener thinks he is missing something. One way to do this is regularly changing the dynamics of your voice. Here are five ways to do that:

1.  Pace: You can affect energy levels by speeding up and slowing down. Speeding up increases excitement, while slowing calms things down.

2.  Pause: Pausing before or after keywords, and sometimes before and after, can focus the listener’s attention. If the listener has zoned out and you pause, it breaks the rhythm and he thinks he is missing something.

3.  Pitch: Raising and lowering the pitch can increase or decrease emotional intensity. Lowering it calms it down. Pitch can be tricky because increasing pitch can indicate nervousness, so use it carefully.

4.  Power: You can grab the listener’s attention by increasing or decreasing your voice’s power. If your listener has zoned out and you suddenly speak louder or softer, it draws him back. Dropping the power of your voice is more effective than increasing it.

5.  Repetition: You can highlight certain words by repeating them. Not only does it grab attention, but it leads to better retention.

It’s important to use these techniques subtly and weave them into your delivery in a way that doesn’t draw attention to your technique. If it’s obvious you’re using a technique for the sake of using a technique, it loses its effect. Vocal dynamics is an art broadcasters and singers have been practicing for many years. Improving your vocal presence requires practice and listening back to your voice. But it’s worth the effort.

Coaching Others

If other people are presenting your podcast or voice-over, they may need coaching. If you don’t have the budget to hire a voice coach and find yourself guiding them, start with their speed and help them find a comfortable pace. Nerves often prompt people to speak faster than they normally would. Get them breathing deeply and ensure they’re relaxed. Are they sitting or standing straight? If they trip over words, ask them to practice the troublesome words slowly, syllable by syllable. If they’re sounding dull, get them to try one of the expression techniques just covered. Don’t overload them with lots to work on all at once; start small, and as they develop, get them to work on new techniques.

Conducting Interviews

One of the most exciting opportunities that podcasting brings to learning is being able to bring more SMEs into the learning environment. But conducting interviews well takes practice. Let’s explore how you can use them to drive powerful learning and discuss techniques that boost learning and make you sound great.

There are generally two types of media interviews. We can call the first the personality interview and the second the factual interview. With personality interviews, the guest is invited onto a podcast to make the presenter look good to the listener. This is common on television and radio programs, where the interviewer often shares an opinion and really only uses the guest to validate it. These types of interviews are all about the interviewer. With factual interviews, the interviewer is a facilitator who more or less sets up the relationship so it is between the guest and the listener. She will ask questions of the guest, then step away and let the guest talk. She won’t spend her time imposing her opinions on the guest or trying to prove her expertise to the listener. Her role is to keep the interview on track or keep it rolling if the guest loses momentum. For our purposes the factual interview is most appropriate for learning, so we’re going to run through how to conduct a factual interview that sounds great.

You have three duties when conducting an interview:

1.  Coach your guest.

2.  Ask questions.

3.  Present and sound good.

Coach Your Guest

Many SMEs are unaccustomed to, even intimidated by, being interviewed with a microphone in their face and the recording rolling. It’s pretty easy to hear when someone is nervous and it will distract the learner from the content. So your first job is to put your SME at ease. He needs to feel comfortable opening up. If he’s stressed, distracted, or feeling threatened, you will not get strong answers.

Invest time in building rapport. Do this from the moment you set the interview up and work at it throughout the process. Be open about the general things you will ask so he can be comfortable about what to expect. However, do not give him a list of your questions in advance. You don’t want him to feel caught off guard, but you also don’t want to receive labored or rehearsed answers. It could also cause problems if you follow up a comment and start asking questions about something he thinks you didn’t agree to ask about. In this case his answers may come across as defensive.

Before recording, ask him how he feels. Does he need water? Can you get him anything else to feel comfortable before starting the interview? Be conscious of your body language and use appropriate eye contact. Maintain an open posture. Lean comfortably toward him to signify interest and be sure you are both sitting or standing on the same level. Altogether, this can create positive energy that lightens his stress levels and leads to a better-sounding interview.

If your guest seems uncomfortable, perform a quick 90-second dry run and use it as an opportunity to offer advice or reassurances. Crack jokes and be self-deprecating. Be prepared to restate questions and ask him to respond again but slower if he goes too fast. The more comfortable your guest is, the more likely he will have the capacity to carefully think about and respond to your questions. You don’t want you learner thinking, “Gee, he sounds awful,” or “He’s very defensive,” or “He doesn’t know what he’s talking about.” You want the interview to lead the learner directly to learning.

Ask Questions

The purpose of questions is to get answers your learner is interested in. The more focused they are, the stronger the responses will be from your interviewee and the clearer the responses will be for your learner. Always prepare your questions in advance—don’t wing it. Preparation allows you to focus all your attention on listening to him and responding with follow-up questions. When you plan your interview, know what you want your guest to say, in a general sense. This means thinking carefully about specific points of interest your learner would want to glean from your guest. Knowing what the learner will want allows you to carefully frame questions to draw these things out. In a sense, the interviewer’s job is to represent the listener.

Before the interview, prepare an opening comment and closing statement, plus four or five specific questions. The opening and closing comments should be written for the learner, not the interviewee. Read the opening statement when you start to set the feel of a formal interview and help focus your learner.

As a general rule, start with open questions that get the conversation flowing and then move to closed questions to wrap up. Open questions are great for exploring topics, while closed questions are good for wrapping things up or making points. For example, “What sort of practical steps can leaders take to listen more to their staff?” gets your SME talking, whereas, “Do you think leaders need to listen to their staff more?” gets a simple yes or no. If you want the SME to make a point that you leave hanging or that becomes a key moment in the interview, a closed question can be powerful. “So leaders need to listen more to their staff?” You ask. And he replies, “Yes. Much more.” At which point you have a strong ending.

Keep your questions short and simple, and avoid asking two questions at once. For example: “What are the main triggers for fight and flight reaction, and what do you suggest one does to avoid them?” Your guest will most likely choose the one he is most comfortable with or intrigued by, answer it, and then forget the other. Instead ask, “What are the main triggers for fight and flight reaction?” Allow him to answer, then follow up with, “What do you suggest to avoid them?” Of course, this is much easier when you have prepared the questions and they’re on a piece of paper in front of you.

An exciting part of well-facilitated interviews happens when the guest opens up a line of comment that was unexpected but still relevant. If you are well prepared, you will have the cognitive space to listen and reflect as he speaks. Make sure you are comfortable and listen. When he says something you did not anticipate, and it still achieves your purpose for the interview, follow up and have him expand.

Present and Sound Good

Your questions will be heard by the listener, so they need to be articulate, clear, and well presented. It’s tempting to think, “I’ll just redub my questions in when I get back to the office if I sound dumb.” But recording your questions and dropping them in will sound fake and listeners will be able to tell that they were recorded at different times. The human voice is incredibly transparent. To start, your rhythm and intonation will sound different because you will not be in rapport with the SME. You’ll speak at a different speed. And the background acoustics will be different. Believe it or not, this gives away a lot of interviews. This is why it’s important to write a script for your introduction, wrap-up, and questions. It’s OK if you don’t read them word for word—you’ll be the only person who knows. But being prepared means you’ll sound better. Keep some back-up questions ready in case your guest doesn’t hit all the points you hope to cover.

Your job as a factual interviewer is to put the spotlight on your guest, not yourself. Only ask questions when you need to and allow the guest to keep talking as long as he’s on point. If he answers a question you planned to ask in his general response to another question, that’s fine. Cross that question off your list. Don’t feel rushed during the interview. If you’re not sure what to ask, take a breath and think about it. If this creates an awkward silence, you can always edit it out later.

In a factual interview, the SME’s opinion is the sole focus. It’s not your role to share your thoughts—you can do that elsewhere. Nor is it your role to agree or disagree. However, to encourage your guest you will often find yourself making comments or using attending skills that inject value judgments into the interview. Instead, use nonverbal cues such as nodding to keep the interview moving along. If you’re conducting an interview over the telephone, you can encourage the SME’s commentary with neutral utterances such as “OK, so cognitive psychology was a response to behaviorism, what happens when …?”

One final comment about presenting your interview: While your job is to stay out of the spotlight so the listener’s mind is totally focused on what the subject matter expert is sharing, you’re still in control. You will often find when conducting an interview that your guest literally reaches for your mic and tries to take it from you. This is most often because he is nervous and physically holding the microphone gives him a sense of control. Interestingly, whoever holds the microphone has the power to keep talking and stop and start. If you try to break in and redirect the flow of commentary while he clutches the mic, you’ll find it is very difficult. It’s one of those funny things that you discover during an interview experience. When your guest physically takes the microphone, you lose your sense of control and the power to direct the questions. So never let go of the microphone.

Summary

Your goal in making a learning podcast is have the learners focused entirely on the message. If they notice your technique, they’re not focusing on your message and you have failed. Normally, it is poor technique that draws the listener’s attention, often just one or two minor things that could be prevented. It can seem like there are a lot of skills for learning professionals to learn if they are to create engaging podcasts. Each skill, whether it be setting the audio levels or asking the right questions in an interview, involves varying degrees of complexity. But all are easy to learn and perfect with practice. Start by developing one skill at a time and add to it gradually, and you’ll soon find it comes easily. These skills are what will enable you to create an overall podcast that can draw your learners in and keep them engaged. They are the skills that fade into the background, like good drywall and crown molding, unless they are poorly executed.

Once you have created your audio recordings, it is time to edit them together into the final package your learner will listen to.