14

Race

1. INTRODUCTION

A race is a socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important. People may classify each other racially on the basis of physical characteristics, such as skin colour, facial features, hair textures, and body shape. Race is a group which shares in common a certain set of innate physical characters and a geographical origin within a certain area. It is not a sociological term, but is distinctly a biological and anthropological concept.

If we go through the history of mankind, we find that man lived in a small homogeneous society in the earliest periods. Later on, as a result of migration, conquest, and continuous and extensive contact between different members of society and inter-mixture of people, different social categories were created. Social differences occur on the basis of race, language, religion, culture, and so on. Based on such criteria, people developed differential attitude and unequal treatment.

2. MEANING OF RACE

A race is one of the major groups in which human beings are divided according to their physical features, such as the skin colour, eyes, and simple body structures. Research details about the people with different racial and ethnic groups and rank them as per the scale of worth.

Most of the social scientists and biologists disagree that race is a biological truth because parents who belong to different racial groups can produce offspring, and offspring means it is combination of two different categories. Therefore, race has no biological base but has significance on the society. Sociologists define race as wide and vast group of people bonded by sharing the selected history, have definite ancestors, with specific physical features; therefore, people belonging to same race and ethnic group share same thoughts and they regard themselves as a distinct group.

Ethnicity means the people who have same thoughts, ideas, concepts, beliefs, national origin, common ancestors, same place of birth, different concrete social traits, and socially important physical characteristics. It lays stress on physical features and geographical origin with infinite number of traits.

The societal importance on race stresses on history that is shared by broad category of ancestors, who always adopt the law and social practices which will be different from other broad categories of ancestors.

The race and ethnicity has three interrelated factors:

1. Chance
2. Context
3. Choice

As per sociologists, chance means that we do not choose our biological parents and cannot control over the physical characteristics that are inherited from them.

Context means the social setting where racial and ethnic categories are identified, developed, and challenged.

Choice means the emphasis on choosing or rejecting particular behaviour and appearance that is always linked with racial and the ethic group.

According to sociologist Larry T. Reynolds (1992), race helps to classify the humans as a product. The 1700s identified through European exploration, conquest, and colonization that did not end till World War II. Japanese and Europeans used racial differences to show their superiority and exploited, dominated, and destroyed people of other races.

3. KINDS OF RACES

Physical anthropology is chiefly concerned with the classification of men into races. On the basis of different physical traits, a number of classifications have been formulated. The races of the world are primarily divided into three kinds. They are Caucasians (white race), Negroes (black race), and Mongolians (yellow race) (Table 14.1).

 

TABLE 14.1 Kinds of Races

Kind	Description
Caucasians (white race)	They are generally called the white race and confined to different parts of Europe and Asia. They have white skin, narrow nose and wavy hair. Their stature varies from tall to medium and their lips are thin. The sub-races of the Caucasians are Nordic, Alpine, Mediterranean, Ainu, Dravidian, and so on
Negroes (black race)	They are generally called the black race. They are confined to Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Their physical traits are black skin, broad nose, woolly hair, broad head, thick lips, and tall to short stature. The sub-races are African Negroes, Melanesians, Negritos, Nilotic Negroes, Bushman-Hottentots, and Pygmies
Mongolians (yellow race)	They are generally called the yellow race. They are confined to Mongolia, China, Japan, Burma, Tibet, the Himalayan region, and so on. Their physical traits are yellow skin, straight black hair, medium stature, closed eye. The sub-races of the Mongolians are Classic Mongoloids, Eskimos, Indonesians and American Indians

4. RACE AS A bIOLOGICAL CONCEPT

A racial group no doubt refers to a biological category that represents common observable hereditary traits. A race is a group that shares in common a certain set of intimate physical characteristics and geographical origin within a certain area. Historically, three diagnostic traits have been used to divide the human species into races: skin colour, hair form, and various combinations of nose, face, and lip shapes. The discoveries of fossils in different parts of the world reveal that man is biologically related to prehistoric men like Java man, Neanderthal man and Cro-Magnon man. Thus, finally anthropologists have come to the conclusion that living men have evolved from a single species, namely homo sapiens. Although man evolved from a single species, biological differences occurred. Such a differentiation is due to hereditary process, mutation (variation in genes), natural selection, isolation, and in-breeding and inner-breeding processes.

4.1. General Views of Race as a Biological Concept

• Robert L. Sutherland and Julian L. Woodward described race as a broad association of persons of familiar biological heritage, who are united in sentiment by common cultural traditions and in time of conflict seek to claim rights to better social position on the basis of an inherited quality.
• Scientifically speaking, the term race is a biological concept. It means a sub-division of human species that possesses common biological traits. According to A.L. Kroeber, a race is a valid biological concept. It is a group united by heredity, a breed, or genetic stain.
• Curtis Linton has defined race as consisting of a number of breeds which share certain physical traits.
• Charles Darwin expounded the theory of biological evolution and explained that all species have evolved from simple to complex form. He rejected all the old beliefs with regard to creation. Man is the product of evolution like other species. He is classified under mammals. He is closely related to primates.
• According to T.K. Penniman, race is a genetic class in which there are many indefinite and mutually related genetic characteristics, by means of which it can be distinguished from other classes and on the basis of which the conditions of continuous separation among its offspring and future generations can be distinguished.
• According to Professor Dunn, races are biological sub-groups within a single species, homo sapiens, in which the similar heredity which the whole species has in common far outweighs the relative and minor ways in which the sub-groups are different.
• There are certain biological determinants of race. Besides colour, the distribution of the hair on the head, the face, and the body is a major factor that distinguishes between races.

5. RACES IN INDIA

According to Herbert Risley, India has seven racial types: (1) pre-Dravidian (tribes such as the Bhils); (2) Dravidian (people living in the Southern Peninsula up to the Gangetic valley); (3) Indo-Aryan (people of Kashmir, Punjab, and the Rajputana); (4) Aryo-Dravidian (people of the Gangetic valley); (5) Cytho-Dravidian (people living to the east of the Indus); (6) Mongoloid (those living in Assam and the foothills of the eastern Himalayas); and (7) Mongolo-Dravidian (those living around the delta region of the Ganges and its tributaries).

6. UNESCO’S CONCEPT OF RACE

UNESCO arranged a conference of prominent sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists in order to determine a single concept of race. The conference gave the following judgements concerning race:

• Fundamentally, the entire human species has a common origin. All men belong to the same species, that is, homo sapiens.
• National, religious, geographical, cultural, and linguistic groups bear no connection to or relation with race.
• There is no truth in the claims made by certain races regarding their purity. Mixing of races has been going on for thousands of years. As a result, pure races cannot be found anywhere in the world today.
• Physical characteristics of men differ for two reasons: (i) heredity and (ii) the process known as mutation and in-breeding.
• It is true that human races can be classified but these classifications are based purely on physical traits. It is wrong to attribute any kind of mental or intellectual superiority or inferiority to any of the races.
• Every race has an equal inner capacity for the development of mind and culture. It is therefore unfair to distinguish between races on the basis of cultural differences or levels of intelligence. Intelligent people are to be found in all races.
• The degree of racial differences may vary from nation to nation.
• Historical and sociological studies have proved that race does not play any major role in the social and cultural differences between various human groups.
• There is a belief that, from the biological point of view, mixing of races is deleterious. This is an essentially incorrect and invalid belief.

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF RACE

• Race is a group of people who share a common ancestor.
• It is a group of people who marry among themselves. This is primarily because of geographical isolation.

Figure 14.1 Characteristics of Race

• People of this group possess similar physical traits and a we-feeling. These traits are a result of generations of in-breeding and form the basis of distinguishing one race from another.
• Racial traits are determined by hereditary ones, for example, skin colour, stature, hair, eyes, and so on. On the basis of these traits, we may identify an individual as a member of a particular race.
• Racial heredity includes the traits that are relatively constant in spite of environmental effects.

They are transmitted from one generation to another.

7.1. Indefinite Physical Traits

Colour of skin: Usually, on the basis of the colour of the skin, people differentiate between white, yellow, and black races. Distinctions on the basis of the colour of the skin are as follows:

• Leucoderms or the white-skinned Caucasians
• Xanthoderms or the yellow-skinned Mongoloids
• Melanoderms or the black-skinned Negroes

Hair: The texture of hair is another indefinite physical trait of race. Three kinds of hair distinguish between the races:

• Leiotrichy: The Mongols and the Chinese have soft, straight hair.
• Cymotrichy: The inhabitants of India, Western Europe, Australia, and north-east Africa have smooth, curly hair.
• Ulotrichy: Negroid people have thick curly hair.

Eyes: Races are also distinguished on the basis of the colour of the eyes: Caucasians have a variety of eye colours, such as blue, green, brown, and grey, apart from black, whereas Negroids and Mongolians largely have brown or black eyes. The structure of the orifice of the eye is usually horizontal. At some places like southern Europe and North Africa, however, diagonal eyes at found.

Figure 14.2 Indefinite Physical Traits

7.2. Definite Physical Traits

Definite physical traits are the ones that can be measured. The following are such traits:

• Stature: Races are distinguished on the basis of differences in stature. Topinard has classified height as tall (170 cm or 5 ft 7 in. and above); above average (165–170 cm, or 5 ft 5 in. to 5 ft 7 in.); and short (160 cm/5 ft 3 in. or below).

Figure 14.3 Definite Physical Traits

• Structure of head: Heads are classified into three classes according to the ratio of length and width (Table 14.2). The cephalic index can be calculated by multiplying the width of the head by 100 and by dividing the product by its length.

 

TABLE 14.2 Kinds of Head

Kind	Cephalic Index
Dolichocephalic	65 per cent
Mesocephalic	75–80 per cent
Brachycephalic	80 per cent

• Structure of nose: Taking the length of the nose as 100, the percentage of its width is calculated. The resultant figure is called the nasal index. It is this which helps to determine the structure of the nose. According to the nasal index, the nasal structure is also classified into three classes (Table 14.3).

 

TABLE 14.3 Structures of Nose

Kind	Nasal Index and Location
Leptorrhine (thin)	Less than 70 per cent—typical of Punjab
Mesorrhine (medium)	70–85 per cent—found in the people of Uttar Pradesh
Platyrrhine (thick)	Above 85 per cent—found in Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Nagpur areas of India

• Blood group: Blood group is one such racial trait which remains unaffected by changes in the environment. There are four blood groups: A, B, AB, and O. In every race, people having these blood groups are to be found.
• Length of hands and feet: Among different races, the lengths of the hands and feet do not coincide.
• Perimeter of chest: Differences are to be found in the chest measurements of people from different races.

8. RACISM

Heredity determines the racial characteristics of all the community. On the basis of the bodily traits human society has been divided into different stocks. This division started in the beginning of the 19th century where the evolutionary theory originated, which started the difference between superior and inferior among the different racial groups.

8.1. Meaning of Racism

Racism includes the belief that people of some races are inferior to others and the behaviour that results from such beliefs.

According to Paula Rothenberg, racism means dominance of white coloured or skinned people over dark-skinned or blacks. They believe that blacks or non-whites are not qualified and never accepted them, but we cannot describe racism in such a manner as history shows that white people held power and position for long time.

8.2. Definition

According to Jacobs and Stern, racism means each society is characterized by cluster of values inherited with specific physical, mental, and criticizing features that may be superior or inferior to the ethnic subdivision, and the hereditary factors determine each phase of the cultural life of the people in the society. It is the belief of the people in the society that some races are inferior or superior to others and the behaviour of the people change according to their belief on racism.

8.3. Concept of Racism

Institutionalized racism means in our society each person’s thoughts are entwined on cultural ideology with different ideas on the racism. Each person has different thoughts, ideas, and concepts about the industrialized racism in the society. The thought about racism has not only badly affected the minds of all people in the society, but has also brought certain kinds of conflicts in the society.

Industrialized racism has different impacts in the society. It benefits particular groups in the society that have the power and potential, and that carry the multiple generational effects from one generation to other from past to the present, which is called as the ‘past in present’ discrimination.

Structure of racism features two types of privileges towards the people:

1. To show the difference towards people based on their skin colour, for example, to behave badly with black-skinned people; white-skinned treat black-skinned as their subordinates.
2. More societal benefits to the whites than to the blacks. Privileges seem to be unearned advantage as per Molly Ivins, who explains that in United States of America, although the black-skinned people had lots of skills and abilities to improve their status in the society, whites never allowed or appreciated their skills to come up in their lives. Whites dominated the blacks and took more privileges.

8.4. Consequences of Racism

There are certain inherited traits and environmental influences that determine the superior and the inferior division or the stratification in the human society. According to Franz Boas there are strong dislikes, antipathy, and antagonism shown by the people belonging to different races because of different cultural practices. Bodily appearances never allowed them to accept and appreciate people of different races and castes. Instead of having the beliefs of scientific facts, main importance is given to the ideas and feelings. The whites believed that they are dominant and superior and described the blacks as recessive and inferior.

According to Paul A.F. Walter, racism has given wrong popular ideas and concepts that described and differentiated the people into superior and inferior based on the races they belonged. The racism created a nationality feeling that white people, for example, disagree that the black formed an ethnocentrism against the blacks in United States of America, which formed to be a universal tendency of each cultural group. Whites have the strong thought that being with blacks is abnormal.

8.5. Criticism of Racism

• There is no strong base to describe the concept of racial superiority and inferiority. There is no scientific fact that proves that all the superior races were strong and intelligent than inferior races. It has not been proved.
• There always exists strong confusion on race and language; strong confusion still exists among the people about race and the languages they speak. A particular race does not speak one single language so we cannot categorize that one race people speak only one particular language. They are superior to others is a wring thought as some races can speak different languages, for example, English is the common language spoken by all.

There is strong concept that superior race are pure and serene and lower race are impure. It is not so. Purity cannot be determined based on the race. It was the wrong of certain people that created the strong conflicts among the people in the community.

9. ETHNICITY

Race has being developed in the society and discriminated based on the bodily and cultural differences. These differences between the people are found to be meaningless and reflected the character of the society. According to R.M. Maclvar and C.H. Page, ethnic group means there exists social division among people who share different social and cultural traditions, which are maintained from one particular generations to another.

9.1. Definition

The term ethnicity means state or fact of belonging to a particular ethnic group, where the people of same race and culture live together and share the same religion, belief, language, and heritage.

Meaning of ethnicity: It means members in the same race living together and forming a community and respecting only their values, customs traditions, taboos will be from same cultural background that forms the fundamental base of any ethnic background.

Main characteristics of ethnicity are as follows:

• People of same ethnic group share same caste, language, religion, region, and culture.
• There is always inequality existing among different ethnic groups especially in sharing the powers between themselves.
• Each ethnic group has specific territory with sufficient population in it and highlight themselves with symbols for identity.
• There is always unequal technological development due to conflicts that exist among the different ethnic groups.
• There is also political influence. People support only that ethnic group in which they belong to, and provide the privileges to them once they attain the power.
• There is separate boundary provided for each ethic group that forms important criteria for the ethic group.

9.2. Ethnocentrism

It means the strong belief of a particular ethnic group that they are superior to other ethnic groups. They always disagree with other ethnic groups and never accept them. They show strong emotional reactions towards other cultural groups and are loyal only to their ethnic group.

By the end of 20th century, ethnocentrism has created ethnic problems not only in countries, such as Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nigeria, but also in developed countries like United States of America. Therefore, ethnicity has become a worldwide problem.

9.3. Problems of Ethnicity and Plurality

Ethnicity and plurality have been existing in all states of India. It gained more political interference shown in terms of language, race, and religion. Ethnic conflicts resulted in loss of human life. Social system in India is more heterogeneous and highly segmented due to the ethnic plurality. Nation literally ignores the plurality that forms the constant problems even today in India.

10. MINORITIES

A minority is any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural differences that a society sets apart and subordinates. Both race and ethnicity are the bases for minority status. Man is separated from man not only on the basis of race, but also socially distinguished on the basis of national, religious, linguistic, and other group traditions. Such social divisions are called ethnic groups and minorities.

10.1. Characteristics of Minority

• Those who belong to a minority share a distinctive identity which may be based on physical or cultural traits.
• Minority has a subordinated status.
• With the dominant majority group, there exist conflicting situations in its relations.
• Minorities are self-conscious units.
• Membership in a minority is transmitted by birth.
• Minority is endogamous.

Figure 14.4 Characteristics of Minorities

• Minorities are collectively exploited by the majority groups.
• The members of the minority groups are held in low esteem. They are segregated, isolated, and subjected to ridicule.
• They are deprived of educational, political, occupational, and other opportunities.

10.2. Minority Groups in India

Indian constitutional experts have identified the different elements of minority problems in India. Articles 29 and 30 of the Indian Constitution guarantee the protection of interests of the minorities in India. Article 29 envisages that any section of citizens having a distinct language script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same. Article 30 protects the interests of minorities based on religion or language to establish and administer educational institutions. The minorities in India are generally classified into two groups: religious minorities and linguistic minorities.

1. Religious minorities: India is home to almost all the religions of the world. Hindus form the major part of the total population which automatically makes the followers of other religions in minority. Table 14.4 describes the minority groups in India.
2. Linguistic minorities: India is a land of multi-linguistic groups. The different states of India have been reorganized on the basis of languages. In all states, adequate facilities have been provided for instruction in the regional languages.

 

TABLE 14.4 Minority Groups

Minority Group	Description
Muslims	Muslims are the largest religious minority in India. They are the followers of Islam and constitute 12.12 per cent as per 1991 Census report. Islam as a religion began to flourish in India during the time of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. It was during the rule of the Mughals that a large number of Hindus were converted to Islam and mosques were constructed all over the country. During the national struggle for Independence, different sections of Muslims had different views. Muslim League, in particular, favoured partition of India. As a result, India was divided into Pakistan and India in 1947. The division of the country led to the displacement of the Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs
Sikhs	Sikhs constitute the third largest religious minority. They constitute less than 2 per cent of India’s population. They are concentrated in Punjab and spread in different states in India and abroad. They are the followers of Sikhism, which was started as a reform movement against the dogmas of Hinduism. Guru Nanak was the founder of the religion. Sikh shrines are called Gurdwaras. The Golden Temple in Amritsar is the most sacred shrine. The contribution of the Sikhs to the development of industries is unique. They are patriotic citizens of India
Christians	Christians constitute 2.6 per cent of the total population. They are the second largest religious minority in India. Christianity as a religion began to spread after the advent of the Europeans. After the consolidation of the British administration, the Christian missionaries became very active in the field of education and in spreading their religion. The new religion was accepted by many Hindus, particularly the lower castes and the tribal people. Christian missionaries started many schools, colleges, and hospitals. They made a remarkable contribution in the field of education and health
Parsis	Parsis are an ethno-religious minority in India. Their population is small in number, less than 1,00,000. They are concentrated in Mumbai and Gujarat. However, their role in economic, social, and political fields is significant. They migrated from their homeland Persia in the seventh century CE when the Muslims invaded their country. They are the smallest minorities and strictly loyal to the nation. The contribution of the Parsis to political, economic, and industrial development is great. Their relationships with the rest of the Indians are brotherly. They show affection to all the children of the soil
Anglo-Indians	Anglo-Indians are a microscopic minority in India and their population is 3,00,000. They are a racial, religious, and linguistic minority group. This ethnic group came into existence due to the intermixture of the British and the Indians. The community is 100 per cent literate and urbanized. The Government of India has safeguarded their interests through constitutional measures. This community is provided two seats in Parliament through nomination by the President of India

11. RACE AND DISEASES

Many studies have proved in large scale that certain races and ethnic groups show high level of disease expression in their families. One such study examined around 4197 genes and compared Mongolian race with the Whites. It showed that around 1097 genes had different kinds of genetic expressions. According to Cheung, those differences highlighted that 11 particular genes have a specific regulator that determine the presence or absence of diseases in the genes; for example, on comparing the Caucasian with Asian population, the genetic regulator and genetic expression regarding the presence of diseases are found more frequent in the Caucasians than the Asians.

According to biologists, race and ethnicity form an important concern that seems to predispose any kinds of diseases in differently expressed genes. Much concern was not given during the earlier periods to detect the genetic diseases. Many studies proved that genetically bounded diseases in particular ethnic groups were more prevalent. Those groups were given more importance and care to prevent the diseases at the early stage. Genetic diseases occur due to changes or mutations in the DNA of a particular ethnic group. There are many reasons such as exposure to radiations, teratogens, harmful chemicals, and so on that change or manipulate the genetic coding and expression.

12. ETHNIC HEALTH INEQUALITIES

There are always inequalities in health status in every society. Many factors interfere health status of the individuals in the society, such as lifestyle they adopt, which may be sedentary, additive; low financial status; educational status achieved; job insecurity; bad housing conditions; lots of psychosocial stress; and availability of unequal distribution of health services.

Inequalities in availability of health services has a collective effect on the entire life of any individual since this problem has become primary issue in the health-care scenario. Equal distribution of health-care services has been the main goal of primary health-care services in India. These inequalities in health-care issue have been passing over from one generation to other where those affect growth and development of the children in every family. Many illness found to be frequent are discussed in the following.

12.1. Cardiovascular Illness

Global statistics says that men in South Asia have 50% more chances to get heart attack or myocardial infarction, angina, or coronary diseases when compared with others in the general population. Next highest are Bangladeshi, then Pakistanis, and then Indians. Interestingly, Caribbean population are at high risk of getting cerebrovascular accidents or stroke, but have less death rate due to cardiovascular illness. Many factors interfere in causing the illness, which are classified into modifiable and non-modifiable factors:

• Modifiable: Smoking, betel (pan) chewing, alcoholism, obesity, hyperlipidaemia, increased stress in work, which can be modified and treated.
• Non-modifiable: Increased age after 50, increased blood pressure—hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and genetic illness cannot be cured but can be controlled.

Therefore, the highly risky populations can be identified and those families should be informed and given special care to prevent such illness through counselling.

12.2. Cancer

Global statistics shows that smoking is the main cause of lung cancer. Death rates are more in Ireland and Scotland due to lung cancer but very low in South Asia, Caribbean, and in African countries. Breast cancer rate is higher in women residing in the England and Wales than the women who have migrated from other countries. This shows that many risk factors interfere with causing cancer in women and all these issues are under research.

12.3. Mental health

Mental illness and ethnic influence are interrelated. Research studies shows that psychosis is more prevalent among the black Caribbean’s than the white British. Many factors interfere in the presence of psychiatric illness in the community, such as social isolation and discrimination shown on the particular ethnic group in receiving any health care. Research proves that most of black Caribbean’s and the Africans receive psychiatric care as they are treated differently by the people in the society. Even the psychiatric doctors treat them based on the ethnic group they belong to, and this kind of social discrimination increases the incidence of illness in a particular ethnic group.

• Race is one of those terms that are used with a variety of meaning.
• The Greeks classified all mankind as either Greek or barbarian and each one of these as a racial group.
• The term race is sometimes used as being synonymous with nationality. Thus, the French, the Chinese, and the German are spoken of as races. The German and the French are nations.
• A nation does not necessarily consist of individuals with uniform physical characteristics.
• Race has frequently been confused with language as well as with religion. The fact, however, is that we use the word race in a very wide sense. Sometimes we even speak of the human race, thus including all the human beings.

I. LONG ESSAY

• Define race and explain the concept of race discussed by UNESCO.

II. SHORT ESSAY

• Explain meaning and kinds of race.
• Discuss race as a biological concept.
• Explain the characteristics of race.
• Discuss ethnicity.
• Explain types of minority groups in India.
• Explain characteristics of minority groups.
• Explain race and diseases.
• Explain ethic health inequalities.

III. SHORT ANSWERS

• Explain races in India.
• Explain indefinite physical traits of race.
• Explain linguistic minorities.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The word race is used as a system to classify the human being based on
   1. physical characteristics
   2. physiological characteristics
   3. psychological characteristics
   4. sociological characteristics
2. Race is a large biological human grouping with a number of distinctive inherited characteristics:
   1. Maunder
   2. A.W. Green
   3. Maclver
   4. Merill
3. The criteria for racial
   1. dolichocephalic
   2. mesocephalic
   3. brachycephalic
   4. all of the above
4. Based on the colour of the hair, face, head, and body, the Negros are called as
   1. leiotricthy
   2. cymotrichy
   3. ulotrichy
   4. mesorhine
5. The type of race lives among primitive tribes of the hills and jungles
   1. pre-Dravidian type
   2. Dravidian type
   3. Indo-Aryan type
   4. Aryo-Dravidian type
6. The type of race found in Assam and the foothills of the eastern Himalayas
   1. Mongoloid-Dravidian type
   2. Mongoloid type
   3. Cytho-Dravidian type
   4. Aryo-Dravidian type
7. Criticism of racism is
   1. baseless concept of racial superiority and inferiority
   2. confusion regarding race and language
   3. concept of racial purity
   4. all of the above
8. The races of the world are primarily divided in to
   1. Caucasians (white race)
   2. Negroes (black race)
   3. Mongolians
   4. all of the above
9. Ethnicity is a shared:
   1. cultural heritage
   2. social heritage
   3. moral heritage
   4. none of the above
10. Characteristics of minorities are
    1. distinctive identity
    2. transmitted by birth
    3. endogamous
    4. all of the above

ANSWERS

1. a 2. b 3. d 4. c 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. d 9. a 10. d

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