Index

0-9

0V rail
see also grounding
concepts, 2–22, 3f
definition, 2
input signal ground, 11–13, 12f
power supply returns, 8–11, 8f, 10f
voltages, 2–3, 3f, 8–11, 8f, 10f
3-terminal capacitors, filtering, 359f, 360–362, 360f, 361f, 362f
10BaseT standard, 260–261
26LS31 driver/26LS32 receiver, 257–258
see also EIA-422 classic data interface standard
74AC series, 242–244
74HC series, 240f, 244, 249–250
dynamic noise immunity, 239–240, 240f
74LVT series, dynamic noise immunity, 239–240, 240f
74XX244, 241
100BaseT standard, 260–261
1488 driver/1489 receiver, 257–258
see also EIA-232F classic data interface standard
4000B CMOS, 239, 244

A

abnormal conditions in power supplies, 296, 300–302, 313–319
see also dips, spikes, surges
output overload, 313–314
absorption losses, shielding effectiveness determinants, 350–351, 351f, 352f, 353f, 354f
AC parameters, 293–332
see also power…
comparators, 223–225
op-amps, 201
accelerators, thermal stresses, 77–78
acrylics, conformal coating, 81
active components, 145–187
see also bipolar transistors, diodes, field-effect transistors, ICs, IGBTs, MOSFETs, semiconductors, thyristors, triacs
concepts, 146–147
ADCs
see analogue–digital converters
advanced circuit protection, 331–332, 332f
see also solid state protection circuits
air cooling, heatsinks, 394–397, 395t, 396f, 401
aliasing issues, A–D/D–A conversion limits, 266–267, 267f, 268f
alkaline manganese dioxide batteries, 322, 323f, 324t, 325
alternators, automotive transients, 336–338, 338f
altitudes, air cooling, 394–397, 395t
aluminum, 5–6, 6f, 7t, 27, 75t, 77t, 87–90, 88t, 108t, 114–117
insulating washers, 399
non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors, 108t, 114–117
shielding effectiveness determinants, 350–355, 352f, 353f
surface emissivity, 75t, 397
surface mount chip resistors, 87–89, 88t
thermal expansion, 77t
thermal properties of metals, 77t, 393t, 394–397
AM transmitters, 335–336, 339–340
American power cables, 25
American Wire Gauge (AWG), 23t, 24t, 29–30
amplifier noise, 208, 213–215, 214f, 239–240
see also noise, op-amps
see also op-amps
concepts, 191
high-input impedance amplifiers, 172–174, 176–179, 177f
input signal ground, 11–13, 12f
see also interfacing… power management;
EMC, 349
generating digital levels from analogue inputs, 249–250, 249f, 250f, 251f
mixing analogue and digital signals, 246–249
see also circuit modeling, comparators, ICs, interfacing… op-amps, voltage references
concepts, 191, 218–219, 237, 246–250, 349
sectors, 218–219
temperature ratings, 218–219
analogue–digital converters (ADCs), 102–107, 118–119, 230, 246–268, 267f, 268f, 281–282, 288–291
see also analogue…, digital…, interfacing…
counting ADCs, 288–289, 289f
digitization phase, 285–288, 285f
dual-slope A-D conversion methods, 263–264, 290, 290f
flash A-D conversion methods, 263–264, 288, 289f
key criteria, 263–264, 266–267, 281–282
oversampling (sigma-delta) A-D conversion methods, 263–264, 281–282, 290–291, 290f
successive-approximation A-D conversion methods, 263–264, 289–290, 289f
types, 288–291
voltage levels for different word lengths, 247, 247t, 263–265
analogue-switch applications, JFETs, 174–175, 175f, 178–179
apertures, shielding effectiveness determinants, 350–355, 352f, 353f
application-specific ICs (ASICs), 146–147, 237, 250, 380–381
see also digital circuits
Arrhenius equation, 385–386
artwork, 82–84
see also design…
ASICs
see application-specific ICs
assembler language, 269
AT-cut, 138–142, 143f
ATE
see automatic test equipment
attenuation
coaxial cables, 27t, 28–29, 28f, 35, 40–42
shielding effectiveness determinants, 350–351, 351f, 352f, 353f, 354f
audio cables, coaxial cables, 29
austenitic stainless steel batteries, 323
Australasia, EMC legislation and standards, 340–344
automatic test equipment (ATE), 374, 377–378
see also functional tests
automotive transients, 336–338, 338f
availability issues
choice of board type, 50–51
comparators, 230
op-amps, 219–220
power supplies, 296
reliability definitions, 384
averaging techniques, input data validation and averaging protection techniques, 277–278

B

band-gap voltage references, 230–233, 231f, 233f
bandwidth calculations, noise, 215–216
barrier layer ceramic capacitors, 114
base-emitter resistors, bipolar transistors, 166, 167f
basic statistical behavior, tolerancing, 92–95, 93f
charging, 322–331
concepts, 321–331
discharge characteristics, 322, 323f, 326–331
disposal guidelines, 325
gases, 323
initial considerations, 322–325
leakage, 322–323
load discharge characteristics curves, 322, 323f
materials, 323
mechanical designs, 323
operation processes, 321–322
over-charging dangers, 330–331
power converter efficiencies, 304–305
primary (non-rechargeable) cells, 322–326, 323f
safety issues, 322–323
secondary (rechargeable) cells, 322–331
series and parallel connections, 322–323
shelf life, 325
sizes, 323, 324t
storage guidelines, 325
temperatures, 323, 325
types, 322–323, 324t
voltage and capacity ratings, 322, 323f, 324t, 325–330
Batteries and Accumulators Directive, 325
battery-backed RAM, 275–277, 276f
BC84… series, 169, 171–172
see also bipolar transistors
bed-of-nails test fixture, 377–383, 377f
see also in-circuit testing
Bergeron diagrams, transmission lines, 36–37
BH curves, inductors, 123–125, 124f, 127–129, 127f, 128f
bias current levels, op-amps, 195–196, 197f
bias and offset currents, op-amps, 195–196, 197f, 211
bipolar input op-amps, 192–195
bipolar transistors, 165–172, 180, 180t, 184–187, 195, 198–199, 210–211
see also active components, IGBTs, transistors
base-emitter resistors, 166, 167f
current gains, 169–170, 170f
Darlington transistors, 167–168, 168f
grades, 171–172
leakage, 165–166, 167f
leakage examples, 165–166
safe operating areas (SOAs), 168–169, 313–314
saturation voltages, 167–168, 167f, 168f, 185–186
second breakdowns, 168–169, 180t, 185–186
SOA curves, 158, 169
switching and high-frequency performance, 170–171, 171f, 172f, 180t
symbols, 166f
turn-off speedups, 171
turn-offs, 170–171, 171f, 172f
VMOS comparisons, 180, 180t
bleed resistors, 119–121
BNC coaxial connectors, 11, 362–364
board assembly: surface mount and through-hole
see also component identification, package placement, surface mount…, thermal…
concepts, 68–78, 68f
design rules for PCBs, 69–72
board types, 47–54, 48f, 70f, 71f, 319–321
see also printed circuit boards
choice of type, 49–51
construction stages, 52–68, 53f, 54f
construction types, 48–49
costs, 47–52
materials, 47–54, 47t
modular systems, 4–5, 51–54
size choices, 50–52
‘boilerplate’ specifications, 83–84
bonding processes, board construction stages, 52–54, 53f
bootstrapping, 79–80
boundary scans, 72, 379–381, 380f
brass, 7t, 77t
breaking capacities, fuses, 298–300
breaking the ground link, inter-unit ground connections, 18
British Standards Institution (BSI), 342
see also BS…
British Telecom, HRD4 handbook, 388–389
brownout threats, 275, 275f, 314–316
see also dips
BS CECC 00015 standard, 376, 376f
BS3939/IEC60617 diode symbols, 148f
BS4808 standard, 23, 24t
BS5783 standard, 376, 376f
BS6221 Part 3 design standards, 55–68
BS6500 standard, 24–25, 25t
BS9000 standards, 387
see also CECC…
BSI
see British Standards Institution
bulk metal resistors, 88t, 99–100
bureaux, artwork, 82–83
burn-in tests, reliability factors, 385, 387

C

C programming language, 269, 280–281
cables, 220, 362–365, 363f
see also coaxial…
crosstalk, 30–33, 31f, 32f, 57, 344–347
data and multicore cables, 24–27, 26t, 27t, 29t
definition, 22, 24
null modems, 255–257, 256f
power cables, 24–25, 25t
RF cables, 24, 27t, 28–29, 35, 362–364
screened backshells, 363–364, 363f
transmission lines, 34
twisted pairs, 29–30, 30f, 31f, 33, 259–261, 262f
types, 24
USB standards, 259–260
cadmium, 6, 7t
calibration checklist, general product design, 373–376
CAN standard, 259
see also ISO 11898 standard
Canadian power cables, 25
capacities
batteries, 322, 323f
thermal behavior, 76
capacitive coupling, crosstalk, 30–33, 31f, 32f, 57, 344–347
see also passive ceramic…, electrolytic…, film…, multilayer…, components, reservoirs, single-layer…, tantalum…
3-terminal capacitors, 359f, 360–362, 360f, 361f, 362f
applications, 118–119
bleed resistors, 119–121
costs, 108t, 361
de-rating reliability factors, 385–386
decoupling schemes, 243–246
dielectric absorption, 87–89, 111f, 121, 121f
IC packages, 245
leakage, 115, 119–121, 120f
logic ICs, 243–246
self-resonance frequencies, 121–123, 122f, 357
series capacitors, 119–121, 120f, 361–362
surface mount design rules, 72
temperature ratings, 108t, 113, 113t, 116–119
tolerancing, 108t, 118–119
value shifts, 118–119, 309–310
carbon film resistors, 88t, 90, 97–98
carbon ink, 64–65
carbon trimmers, 103
cascode FETs, 178
case sizes and construction, mechanical requirements, 319–320
cassettes, case sizes and construction, 320
CCITT V.24/V.28 standards, 254
see also EIA-232F classic data interface standard
CECC scheme, reliability issues, 376, 376f, 387
CEE-22 mains inlet, 25, 372
CENELEC, 24–25, 342–344, 369
ceramic capacitors, 88t, 108t, 112–114, 112f, 118–119, 121–125, 244
ceramic resonators, 138, 142–144
see also passive components
cermet potentiometers, 103–107
CFCs, 81
characteristic impedance
coaxial cables, 28–29
definition, 34
surface transfer impedance, 21
transmission lines, 34–35, 40–43, 41t, 57–58, 259–260, 300–302
twisted pairs, 30, 259–260
charging
batteries, 322–331
trickle charging, 330–331
chassis ground, 4–8, 4f, 5f
see also grounding
checklist for EMC design, 364–365
checksums, data and memory protection techniques, 278–279, 350
China, EMC legislation and standards, 340–344
chip resistors, surface mount design rules, 72
choice of board type, 49–51
circuit breakers, fire hazards, 369t, 372
circuit designs and layouts
see also reliability issues
filtering, 361–362
testing design techniques, 381–383, 389–390
thermal management, 401
circuit modeling, 233–234, 347–350
see also analogue ICs, simulation models
circuit theory, 33–35
CISPR standards, 342–345, 342t, 344t
clamping bars, 400, 400f
clamping uses, Zener diodes, 150, 158–159, 158f, 183f, 251–252, 252f, 359–360, 388, 388f
classic data interface standards, 254–258, 255t, 256f, 258f
see also EIA-232F…, EIA-422…
interface design, 257–258, 258f
cleaning and testing, 72, 81–82, 106–107
conformal coating, 81–82
surface mount design rules, 72
clearance distances, safety issues, 371–372, 372f
see also op-amps
4060B, 272
CMRRs
see common mode rejection ratios
coaxial cables, 27t, 28–29, 28f, 35, 40–42, 41t, 260–261, 262f, 362–364
see also RF cables, transmission lines
audio cables, 29
cobolt, 125t
COG ceramic capacitors, 108t, 112–113, 118–119, 121–123
commercial analogue ICs, 218–219
common impedance
filtering, 361–362, 362f
output signal ground, 13–14, 14f, 15f, 55–68, 205, 205f, 345, 345f, 346f, 361–362
common mode effects
see also power supply rejection ratios
comparators, 229–230
op-amps, 196–199, 197f
common mode rejection ratios (CMRRs), op-amps, 196–199, 197f
see also analogue ICs, op-amps
AC parameters, 223–225
availability issues, 230
costs, 230
definition, 222–230
hysteresis and oscillations, 223, 226–227, 226f, 228f
input bias current steps, 229–230, 229f
input voltage limits, 229–230, 229f
load impedance output parameters, 223–224, 224f
op-amps as comparators, 225–226
output parameters, 222–225, 222f, 224f
overdrive, 223, 223f
pulse timings, 224–225, 225f
slew rates, 222–230, 255–257
standards, 230
switching, 222–230
complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs), 281, 282f, 283f, 380–381
component identification, board assembly: surface mount and through-hole, 73–74
condensation problems, temperature ratings, 218–219
conducted interference coupling, EMC, 345, 345f
conduction methods, thermal behavior, 74–78, 76f, 390–394, 401
conductive plastic potentiometers, 104
conductivity of metals, 5–6, 6f, 7t
conductor impedance, concepts, 11
conductor resistance, track width and spacing, 56–57, 57f
conductor skin depth with frequency, 132–133, 132f
conformal coating, 80–82
see also surface protection
application processes, 81–82
cleaning and testing, 81–82
concepts, 80–82
encapsulation contrasts, 81
pre-coating steps, 81
rework and repairs, 82
connections, design rules for PCBs, 66–68, 66f, 362–365
constant current limiting techniques, output overloads, 313–314, 314f
constant impedance, track width and spacing, 57–58
construction
board types, 48–49, 52–68, 53f, 54f, 114–115, 115f
case sizes and construction, 319–320
convection methods, thermal behavior, 74–78, 390–397, 401
plating and finishing, 64–65
spikes, 2
surface emissivity, 75t
thermal expansion, 77t
thermal properties of metals, 393t, 394–397
corruption threats, microprocessors, 269–279, 270f, 338–344, 350
costs
board assembly: surface mount and through-hole, 68–78
board types, 47–52
capacitors, 108t, 361
ceramic resonators, 138, 142–144
comparators, 230
conformal coating, 80–82
op-amps, 219–220
opto-coupler isolation uses, 252–254
power supplies, 296–297, 297f
reliability issues, 385, 385f
resistors, 87–101, 88t
shielding, 347
sourcing boards and artwork, 82–84
voltage references, 231–232, 232t
counting ADCs, 288–289, 289f
coupling capacitance, isolated digital signals, 253–254
CPLDs
see complex programmable logic devices
creepage and clearance distances, safety issues, 371–372, 372f
crest factors, 302–304, 302f, 303f, 359
critical pulse lengths, transmission lines, 34
crosstalk, 30–33, 31f, 32f, 57, 220, 344–347
combating strategies, 33, 344–347
definition, 30
digital crosstalk, 32–33, 32f, 57, 220, 344–347
crowbar circuits, 317–318, 318f
crystals, 138–144, 139f, 140f, 141f
see also passive components
angle of cut, 138–139
concepts, 138–144, 139f
layouts, 142
oscillator circuits, 140–142, 141f
resonance, 139–140, 140f
temperature coefficients, 142
CSMA/CD procedure, 260–261
CTRs
see current transfer ratios
current feedback op-amps, 221–222, 221f
see also op-amps
current gains, bipolar transistors, 169–170, 170f
current transfer ratios (CTRs), 253
current-limited constant voltage charging, lead-acid batteries, 330–331, 330f
current-regulator applications, JFETs, 174–176, 176f
currents, 297–313, 369–370
concepts, 298–300
electric shocks, 369–370
inrush currents, 300–302, 300f, 308–309
cycling, thermal behavior, 77

D

D-A
see digital–analogue converters
DAC systems, 220, 230, 288–291
Darlington transistors, 167–168, 168f
see also bipolar…
data communications, 255–257, 278, 350
data and memory protection techniques, 278, 350
data communications equipment (DCE), 255–257
data and memory protection techniques, software, 269–270, 273–279, 276f, 279f, 350
data and multicore cables, 24–27, 26t, 27t, 29t
characteristics, 26, 26t, 29t
definitions, 25–26
noise, 27
shielding and microphony, 27
structured (generic) data cables, 26, 29t
data terminal equipment (DTE), 255–257
DB9S connectors, 255–257, 256f
see also power
DCE
see data communications equipment
de-bouncing switch inputs, 250, 250f, 251f
de-rating factors, reliability issues, 385–386
decoupling schemes
capacitors, 243–246
guidelines, 245–246
logic ICs, 243–246, 244f, 245f
low-frequency decoupling, 245, 245f
unused gate inputs, 246, 246f
design considerations
see also general product design
safety issues, 368–372
design faults, reliability issues, 389–390
design for production, 373–376
see also general product design
design reviews, reliability issues, 389–390
design rules for PCBs, 46, 55–68, 347–350, 401
see also ground and power distribution, hole and pad diameter, printed circuit boards, solder mask/resist, terminations and connections, track routing, track width and spacing
BS6221 Part 3 design standards, 55–68
concepts, 46, 55–68, 347–350, 401
copper plating and finishing, 64–65
definition, 55–68
manufacturer best capabilities, 55–68, 55t
sourcing boards and artwork, 82–84
surface mount board assembly, 69–72, 70f, 71f, 360–362, 397–400
thermal management, 401
design techniques, testing, 381–383
dielectric absorption, capacitors, 87–89, 111f, 121, 121f
dielectric materials
board types, 47t
coaxial cables, 27t, 28–29, 28f, 40–42, 42t
differential connections, inter-board interface signals, 15–16
differential data standards, 33
differential opamp configurations, 101, 102f
digital circuits, 33, 146–147
see also analogue–digital converters, hardware…, ICs, interfacing…, logic ICs, microcontrollers, microprocessors, software…
applications, 237
concepts, 237, 246–249
critique, 237, 262–263
generating digital levels from analogue inputs, 249–250, 249f, 250f, 251f
mixing analogue and digital signals, 246–249
digital crosstalk, 32–33, 32f, 57, 220, 344–347
see also crosstalk
digital ICs, 33, 146–147
digital signal processor (DSP), 264, 280–281
digital–analogue converters (D–A), 102–107, 263–268, 267f, 268f
see also analogue…, digital…, interfacing…
digitization phase of ADC, 285–288, 285f
DIL
see dual-in-line
DIN-41612 standard, 320
see also active components, Schottky…, thyristors, triacs, Zener…
capacitance changes, 151–153, 152f
concepts, 147–159, 147f, 148f, 149f, 150f, 154t
definition, 147, 154–155, 154t
Ebers-Moll diode equation, 147
fast recovery diodes, 153f, 154
forward bias, 147–150, 153–154
forward current, 148, 153–154, 163–164
high-frequency performance, 151–153, 152f
ideal and practical characteristics, 147, 147f
inductive transient protection, 137–138, 137f
rectifier circuits, 149f, 154–155
reverse bias, 150–151, 153–154, 163–164
reverse breakdown voltage, 150–151
symbols, 148f, 160f
temperature coefficients, 148–151, 149f, 152f, 155, 156f, 157, 157f, 276–277
see also brownout threats
disaccommodation, 134
discharge characteristics, batteries, 322, 323f, 326–331
disposal guidelines, batteries, 325
DMOS structures, 178–179
see also MOSFETs
double insulating materials, safety issues, 370–371
double-Eurocard sizes, board types, 51–52, 320
double-sided board types, 48–51, 48f, 70f, 71f, 72, 79–80
guarding, 79–80
drain-source overvoltages, MOSFETs, 183–184
drilling processes, board construction stages, 52–54, 53f
drive level resistance, oscillator circuits, 141
DSP
see digital signal processor
DTE
see data terminal equipment
dual packages, op-amps, 220
dual-in-line (DIL), 50–51, 58–60, 59f, 373–374
dual-slope A-D conversion methods, 263–264, 290, 290f
dynamic loading, 241, 242f
dynamic noise immunity, 239–240, 240f, 246
dynamic RAM, 245, 245f

E

Ebers-Moll diode equation, 147
ECL
see emitter-coupled logic
edge connectors, design rules for PCBs, 66–68
edge oscillations, comparators, 223, 226–227, 226f, 228f
efficiencies
see also performance issues
batteries, 304–305
power loss sources, 305–307
power supplies, 296, 304–307, 304f
resistor networks, 101
EIA-198 standards, 113t
EIA-232F classic data interface standard, 254–258, 255t, 256f, 258f, 362–364
EIA-422 classic data interface standard, 33, 254–258, 255t, 256f, 258f
EIA-449 standard, 257
EIA-485 standard, 255t, 258–259
EIA-530 standard, 257
electric shocks, 369–372, 369t
electrical characteristics, choice of board type, 50–51
electrical equivalences, thermal management, 390–394, 390t, 391f
electrical laws, transmission lines, 34
electrolytic capacitors
see also capacitors
concepts, 108t, 114–117
construction methods, 114–115, 115f
leakage, 115
lifetime issues, 116–117
ripple currents, 115–116
size and weight issues, 117
temperature ratings, 108t, 116–117
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), 19, 208, 296–297, 302–304, 311, 374
see also filtering, shielding
analogue circuits, 349
cables and connectors, 362–365, 363f
CENELEC, 24–25, 342–344
checklist, 364–365
circuit designs and layouts, 347–350, 361–362
CISPR standards, 342–345, 342t, 344t
concepts, 334–340
conducted interference coupling, 345, 345f
determination of interference effects, 338–339
emissions areas, 335, 339–340, 342–347, 343f
European legislation and standards, 19, 208, 296–297, 302–304, 311, 340–344, 342t, 344t
existing standards, 342–344
filtering concepts, 355–362
harmonized/non-harmonized EMC standards, 341–342
immunity areas, 335–339, 344, 348–349
importance, 334–335
interference coupling mechanisms, 33, 344–347, 345f, 346f
legislation and standards, 19, 208, 296–297, 302–304, 311, 340–344, 342t, 344t
logic design choices, 348–349
needs, 334–340
noise, 348–349
radiated coupling, 345f, 346–347
shielding concepts, 347–355, 362–365, 363f
software, 350
sources of interference, 334–340, 335t, 342t, 344–350
Electromagnetic Field Theory, 33–34, 237
electromagnetic induction, 347
electromagnetic interference (EMI), 333–365, 399
see also interference…
coupling mechanisms, 33, 344–347, 345f, 346f
determination issues, 338–339
microprocessor corruption threats, 269–279, 270f, 338–344, 350
op-amps, 208
switching effects, 183–184
electronics, definition, 33
electrons, Electromagnetic Field Theory, 33–34
electrostatic discharge (ESD), 334–340, 335t, 339f, 374–376
see also tribolectric charges
causes, 375, 375f
protection measures, 375–376, 376f
electrostatic screening, shielding, 20, 21f, 27, 334–340, 335t, 339f, 347–355
EMC
see electromagnetic compatibility
EMI
see electromagnetic interference
emissions areas of EMC, 335, 339–340, 342–347, 343f
emitter-coupled logic (ECL), 171, 244
see also ICs
EN 13602 standard, 22
EN 55011 standard, 342t
EN 55013 standard, 342t
EN 55014 standard, 342t
EN 55015 standard, 342t
EN 55020 standard, 342t
EN 55022 standard, 342t
EN 55024 standard, 342t
EN 60065 standard, 22, 369, 371–372
EN 60182 standard, 22
EN 60950 standard, 369
EN 61547 standard, 342t
encapsulated units, case sizes and construction, 319–320
encapsulation contrasts, conformal coating, 81
enclosed units, case sizes and construction, 319–320
epoxy resins, 81, 90
epoxy-glass board materials, 47–48, 47t, 50–54, 72
EPROMs, 279
equipment wire, wire types, 23, 24t, 61
equivalent series inductance (ESL), 121–123, 311
equivalent series resistance (ESR)
capacitors, 111f, 115–116, 116f, 121–123, 122f, 311
inductors, 123f
ESD
see electrostatic discharge
ESR
see equivalent series resistance
Ethernet standard, 260–261, 262f
switched Ethernet, 260–261
Eurocard sizes, board types, 51–52, 320
Europe
Batteries and Accumulators Directive, 325
EMC legislation and standards, 19, 208, 296–297, 302–304, 311, 340–344, 342t, 344t
harmonized/non-harmonized EMC standards, 341–342
Low Voltage Directive, 368–372
safety standards, 368–372
voltage parameters, 297–298
expansion, thermal behavior, 76, 76f, 77t
external ground connections, input signal ground, 11–13, 12f
extreme values, resistors, 99–100, 99f

F

failure-rate data sources, reliability issues, 388–389
fan-out and loading, logic ICs, 240–241, 240f, 241f, 242f
fans, thermal behavior, 396–397
Faraday cage, 350–351
Fast Ethernet, 260–261
fast recovery diodes, 153f, 154
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), EMC legislation and standards, 340–344, 342t
feedback-loop instability, oscillating amplifiers, 204–207, 222
feedthrough capacitors, filtering, 359f, 360–362, 360f, 361f, 362f
ferrite beads, 135, 135f, 355–357
ferrites
BH curves, 123–125, 124f
FETs
see field-effect transistors
field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), 237, 280–281, 284f, 285f, 380–381
see also digital circuits
field-effect transistors (FETs), 147, 165–178, 195–196, 198–199
see also active components, ICs, junction… MOSFETs
concepts, 147, 165–178, 173f
film and paper capacitors, 107–112, 108t, 110f
3-terminal capacitors, 359f, 360–362, 360f, 361f, 362f
categories, 355–362
circuit designs and layouts, 361–362
components and layouts, 357, 357f, 361–362
concepts, 355–362
feedthrough capacitors, 359f, 360–362, 360f, 361f, 362f
I/O filters, 355, 357, 359–360
low-pass filters, 355–357, 356f, 357f, 359–360
mains filters, 295–297, 310–312, 355, 358–359, 358f
mixing analogue and digital signals, 246–249
power supplies, 295–297, 310–312, 355, 358–359, 358f
safety issues, 358–359
fire hazards, 369t, 372, 401
fish-beads, terminations and connections, 66–68, 66f
flame-retardant materials, 372
flash A-D conversion methods, 263–264, 288, 289f
flexi-rigid board types, 48–51, 49f
flexible construction board types, 48–51, 48f
flicker noise, 210–211, 210f
see also noise, op-amps
flip-flop circuits, 246
see also latching, microprocessors
FM transmitters, 335–336, 344
foldback current limiting techniques, output overloads, 313–314, 315f
forward and reflected waves, transmission lines, 35–43, 37f
Fourier transforms, 210
FPGAs
see field programmable gate arrays
FR4 NEMA specification for epoxy-glass board materials, 47–48, 47t, 58
frequency domain
impedance transformation, 39–40, 39f
lossy lines, 40–42, 41t, 42t
power supplies, 304, 304f
standing waves, 38–43, 39f
transmission lines, 38–43, 39f, 41t, 42t
full-wave arrangements, 305–309, 306f
functional tests, 378
see also automatic test equipment
fuses
inrush currents, 300–302
time-current curves, 298–300, 299f
fusible and safety resistors, 100

G

gain-bandwidth roll-off, op-amps, 203, 204f
gases
batteries, 323
safety issues, 323, 369t, 372
gate drive impedance, MOSFETs, 181–183, 181f, 182f, 183f, 185–186
gate-current breakpoints, JFET applications, 176–178, 177f, 178f
gate-oxide breakdown of MOS/CMOS components, 375
gate-source overvoltages, MOSFETs, 181–182
general product design, 367–401
see also reliability…, safety…, testing, thermal management
calibration checklist, 373–376
design for production, 373–376
ESD dangers, 374–376
installation checklist, 373–376
power semiconductor mounting, 397–400, 398f, 399t, 400f
production checklist, 373–376
sourcing checklist, 373–376
generating digital levels from analogue inputs, 249–250, 249f, 250f, 251f
Gigabit Ethernet, 260–261
‘glue’ logic, 237
see also digital circuits
gold, 5, 7t, 77t
grades, bipolar transistors, 171–172
gridded ground layout, design rules for PCBs, 61
‘ground bounce’
see induced switching noise
ground coupling, oscillating amplifiers, 204–205, 205f
ground loops, 6–8, 8f, 18–21, 18f, 55–68, 242–246
oscillating amplifiers, 204–205, 205f
shielding, 19–21, 350–355
ground planes, design rules for PCBs, 61–64, 62f, 63f, 242–243, 248, 347–350
ground and power distribution, design rules for PCBs, 55–68, 242–246, 347–350
ground rail inductance, design rules for PCBs, 61, 242–246
grounding, 347–365, 363f
see also aluminum, chassis ground, filtering, input signal ground, inter-board interface signals, inter-unit ground connections, intra-unit wiring schemes, output signal ground, power supply returns, shielding, star-point grounding
assessment considerations, 3–4
definition, 2
guarding
extreme values, 100
surface protection, 79–80, 80f

H

half-duplex communications, 258–259
hardware platforms, 280–281, 282f, 283f, 284f, 285f
harmonic amplitudes, trapezoidal waveshapes, 348–349, 348f
harmonized/non-harmonized EMC standards, 341–342
HASL
see hot air solder levelling
HBC
see high breaking capacity
HCMOS, 35, 239–240, 239f
HCTMOS, 239
heat paths
partitions, 391–392
thermal management, 390–394, 391f, 401
air cooling, 394–397, 395t, 396f, 401
concepts, 394–400
definition, 394–397
materials, 393t, 394–397
performance improvements, 401
power semiconductor mounting, 397–400, 398f, 399t, 400f
surface preparation, 397–398
helical construction of film resistors, 97–98, 97f
high breaking capacity (HBC), fuses, 298–300
high frequencies
filtering, 355–362
shielding, 19–21
high-input impedance amplifiers, JFET applications, 172–174, 176–179, 177f
high-K dielectric single-layer ceramic capacitors, 114, 124–125
high-level programming languages, 269, 280–281
high-performance data interface standards, 258–262, 262f
see also CAN…, EIA-485…, Ethernet, PCI Express…, USB…
high-reliability/quality-assured components, reliability factors, 385–387
HOFR rubber, 24–25, 25t
hold-up times, interrupts, 314–316, 316f
hole and pad diameter
design rules for PCBs, 55–68
surface mount (SMT) pads, 59–60, 59f
through hole pads, 59, 59f
via holes, 58
hot air solder levelling (HASL), 64–65
humidity levels, ESD dangers, 375
hysteresis loops
comparators, 223, 226–227, 228f
definition, 227, 228f
inductors, 127–130, 127f, 128f, 128t

I

I/O filters, 355, 357, 359–360
I/O ports, re-initialization protection techniques, 279–280
see also analogue…, application-specific…, digital…, semiconductors, transistors
boundary scans, 72, 379–381, 380f
concepts, 146–147
IEC 60063 standard, 95, 96t
IEC 60065 standard, 22, 369, 371–372
IEC 60127 standard, 298–300
IEC 60227 standard, 24–25
IEC 60245 standard, 24–25
IEC 60431 standard, 124–125
IEC 60536 standard, 370
IEC 60617 standard, 148f
IEC 61547 standard, 342t
IEEE Std 389-1979, 129–131
IEEE Std 802.3, 260–261
see also Ethernet…
IEEE Std 1149…, 379–381
see also active components, bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, transistors
advantages over MOSFETs and bipolar transistors, 185
disadvantages, 186f, 187
structure, 185, 185f
tail currents, 186f, 187
VMOS comparisons, 180, 180t
immunity areas of EMC, 335–339, 344, 348–349
impedance transformation, frequency domain, 39–40, 39f
in-circuit testing, 377–383, 377f
see also bed-of-nails test fixture
inconel batteries, 323
incorrect grounding, oscillating amplifiers, 204–205, 205f
induced switching noise, 242–243, 242f, 243f, 246–250
inductance, resistors, 97–98, 97f
inductive coupling, crosstalk, 30–33, 31f, 32f, 344–347
see also passive components
applications, 133–135
ESR, 123f
fundamental circuit laws, 135–138
iron powder, 125, 125t
leakage inductance, 129–130, 129f
magnetic material definitions and metrics, 126–130
measurement methods, 129–131, 133
permeability measures, 123–125, 124f, 125t, 126f
proximity effect, 133, 134f
self-capacitance, 123f, 131, 131f, 135–138, 355–362
transient dangers, 135–138, 137f
unusual wiring configurations, 130, 130f
winding losses, 123–125, 131–133
industrial analogue ICs, 218–219
infra-red soldering processes, surface mount design rules, 69–72, 70f
inner layers, board construction stages, 52–54
input bias current steps, comparators, 229–230, 229f
input data validation and averaging protection techniques, 277–278
input offset voltages, op-amps, 192–195, 193f
input and output parameters, 295–316, 295f, 355, 357, 359–360
see also current…, fuses, I/O…, power supplies, voltage…
deriving input voltages from the outputs, 296, 305–307
filtering, 355, 357, 359–360
input processes, microcontrollers, 263–265, 263f
input signal ground, 11–14, 12f, 14f
input voltage limits
comparators, 229–230, 229f
op-amps, 198–199
inrush currents, 246, 278, 296, 300–302, 300f, 308–309, 314–316, 335t
see also surges
insertion and withdrawal force specifications, terminations and connections, 67
inside or outside layers, ground and power distribution, 63–64, 63f
installation checklist, general product design, 373–376
instructions, microcontrollers, 249–252, 263–269, 263f, 266f
insulating bushes, 400
insulating materials, 11, 22–33, 24t, 25t, 370–372, 391–392, 399
power cables, 24–25, 25t
safety issues, 370–372
wire types, 11, 22–33, 24t
insulating washers
materials, 399, 399t
power semiconductor mounting, 398f, 399–400, 399t
inter-board interface signals
grounding, 14–16, 15f, 16f, 17f, 347–350
partitioned signal returns, 15–16, 16f, 17f
inter-unit ground connections, 17–21, 17f, 18f
shielding, 19–21, 19f, 20f, 21f, 350–355
interface design, classic data interface standards, 257–258, 258f
interfacing digital circuits, 246–262, 350, 362–364
see also digital circuits
CAN standard, 259
classic data interface standards, 254–258, 255t, 256f, 258f
concepts, 246–262, 350, 362–364
EIA-232F classic data interface standard, 254–258, 255t, 256f, 258f, 362–364
EIA-422 classic data interface standard, 33, 254–258, 255t, 256f, 258f
EIA-485 standard, 255t, 258–259
Ethernet standard, 260–261, 262f
generating digital levels from analogue inputs, 249–250, 249f, 250f, 251f
high-performance data interface standards, 258–262, 262f
isolated signals, 252–254, 253f, 257–258, 258f
mixing analogue and digital signals, 246–249
opto-coupler isolation uses, 252–254, 253f
PCI Express standards, 261–262
protection against externally applied overvoltages, 251–252, 252f, 257–258, 258f, 317–319, 318f
Schmitt-trigger logic input, 245, 249–250, 249f, 250f, 251f
USB standards, 259–260
interference problems, 333–365
see also electromagnetic…
chassis ground, 5
coupling mechanisms, 33, 344–347, 345f, 346f
determination issues, 338–339
input signal ground, 11–13, 12f
output signal ground, 13–14, 14f
transformers, 6–8
twisted pairs, 29–30, 30f, 31f, 33, 259–260
waveform distortions and interference to power supplies, 296, 302–304, 302f, 303f, 359
internal processing, microcontrollers, 263–265, 263f
interrupts
hold-up times, 314–316, 316f
microcontrollers, 265–266, 266f, 268–269, 278, 350
power supplies, 296, 303–304, 314–316
Intersil, 198
intra-unit wiring schemes, grounding, 4, 4f, 347–350
inverting amplifiers, 192–195, 214f, 227
see also op-amps
IRF640 power MOSFET, 391–392, 394, 394f
iron, 6, 7t, 125, 125t
iron powder, inductors, 125, 125t
ISO 11898 standard, 259
see also CAN standard
ISO IS2110 standard, 254
see also EIA-232F classic data interface standard
ISO/IEC 11801 standard, 26, 29t, 260–261
isolated digital signals, interfacing digital circuits, 252–254, 253f, 257–258, 258f

J

JFETs
see junction field-effect transistors
JMP RESET, 279, 279f
Joint Test Action Group (JTAG), 72, 379–381
joints, shielding effectiveness determinants, 350–355
JTAG
see Joint Test Action Group
junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), 147, 165–178, 173f, 195–196, 206–207
see also active components, field-effect transistors, ICs, transistors
analogue-switch applications, 174–175, 175f, 178–179
applications, 174–176, 175f, 176f, 178–179
current-regulator applications, 174–176, 176f
depressed input impedance, 177–178
gate-current breakpoints, 176–178, 177f, 178f
high-input impedance amplifiers, 172–174, 176–179, 177f
pinch-off voltages, 174, 174f
RF-circuit applications, 174–175, 178–179

K

Kelvin connections, 99–100, 99f
Kirchhoff, 33–34
knee of the curve, Zener diodes, 156, 156f
Kynar insulation, 23, 24t

L

laminates, board types, 51–52, 372, 401
large-signal bandwidth, op-amps, 201–203
latching, 246, 254
see also flip-flop circuits
latency, microcontrollers, 265–266, 266f
laws
inductors, 135–138
potentiometers, 106
LBC
see low breaking capacity
LCCs
see leadless chip carriers
lead bending, power semiconductor mounting, 398, 398f
lead inductance, 183, 183f, 244, 360–362
lead zirconate titanate, 142–144
see also ceramic resonators
lead-acid batteries, 322, 326–328, 327f, 330–331
leadless chip carriers (LCCs), surface mount design rules, 72
leakage
batteries, 322–323
bipolar transistors, 165–166, 167f
capacitors, 115, 119–121, 120f
inductors, 129–130, 129f
Zener diodes, 155, 156f, 157–159
LEDs
see light-emitting diodes
legislation and standards
safety approval requirements, 296–297, 321, 358–359, 368–372
Lenz’s law, 6
LEV
see limiting element voltage
light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 148f, 252–254, 253f, 274, 373–374
isolated digital signals, 252–254
symbols, 148f
limiting element voltage (LEV), 98–99
see also pulse handling
line impedance stabilizing network (LISN), 343–345
line and load regulations
power supplies, 232, 232t, 295–297, 309–310, 310f, 312–313
thermal regulation, 309–310
voltage references, 232, 232t, 295–297, 309–310, 310f
linear circuits, 237
see also analogue…
concepts, 191
linear potentiometers, 106
linear power supplies, 295–297, 295f, 303f
see also power supplies
transient response, 312–313
LISN
see line impedance stabilizing network
lithium ion batteries (Li-ion), 325–326, 328–331, 329f, 330f
lithium primary batteries, 323f, 324t, 325–326
LM324 range, 198, 203, 220, 230
LM339/393, 223, 229–230, 275, 318–319
LM346, 202
LM399, 230
LM4250, 202
load discharge characteristics curves, batteries, 322, 323f
load impedance output parameters
comparators, 223–224, 224f
op-amps, 199–200, 200f
load sensing, 310, 310f
loading types, logic ICs, 240–241, 240f, 241f, 242f
logarithmic potentiometers, 106
logic design choices, EMC, 348–349
logic gates, 281, 282f, 283f, 284f, 285f
logic ICs, 237–246
see also digital circuits
capacitors, 243–246
concepts, 237–246
decoupling schemes, 243–246, 244f, 245f
fan-out and loading, 240–241, 240f, 241f, 242f
induced switching noise, 242–243, 242f, 243f, 246–250
loading types, 240–241, 240f, 241f, 242f
transitions, 237–240, 238f
long-term stability, voltage references, 232t, 233
loops, inductors, 126–130, 127f, 128f, 128t
lossy lines, frequency domain, 40–42, 41t, 42t
low breaking capacity (LBC), fuses, 298–300
low frequencies, 19–21, 33–34, 60–64, 134
filtering, 355–362
shielding, 19–21
Low Voltage Directive, 368–372
low-frequency decoupling, 245, 245f
low-K dielectric single-layer ceramic capacitors, 114
low-load conditions, power supplies, 296, 307–308, 307f, 308f
low-pass filters, 355–357, 356f, 357f, 359–360
low-power MOSFETs, 178–179, 375
see also MOSFETs
gate breakdowns, 178–179, 179f, 375–376
MOSFET tradeoffs, 179
protection from gate breakdowns, 179, 179f, 375–376
see also analogue–digital converters
LSTTL, 171, 222, 225, 239–240, 239f

M

magnesium, 125t
magnetic fields, transformers, 6–8
magnetic material definitions and metrics, inductors, 126–130
mains filters, 295–297, 310–312, 355, 358–359, 358f
mains safety earth, 4, 16–18, 17f, 18f, 21–22, 21f, 321, 368–372
see also safety…
concepts, 21–22, 21f, 370–372
inter-unit ground connections, 17–18, 17f, 18f
mains wiring, 4, 16–18, 17f, 18f, 297–313
see also power supplies
maintainability characteristics, choice of board type, 50–51
major loops, inductors, 126–130, 127f, 128f, 128t
managanese–zinc ferrites, 124–125, 125t
manufacturers
see also suppliers
best capabilities, 55–68, 55t
capacitors, 108t
op-amp temperature ratings, 218–219
potentiometers, 106–107
resistors, 88t
sourcing boards and artwork, 82–84
matched conditions, transmission lines, 35–38, 36f, 37f, 38f
materials
batteries, 323
board types, 47–54, 47t
heatsinks, 393t, 394–397
insulating bushes, 400
insulating washers, 399, 399t
mean time between failures (MTBF), 77–78, 384, 388–389
see also reliability issues
mean time to failure (MTTF), 384
see also reliability issues
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3.16.69.143