Glossary
act A bill that has passed the legislature and become law.
adjourn To end a session or meeting.
alien A resident who is not a citizen.
amendment A change to existing law.
antifederalists A group of early American leaders who opposed the Constitution, including Patrick Henry, George Mason, and George Clinton.
appellate Pertaining to appeals from lower courts.
apportioned Distributed proportionately, by percentage.
appropriation Funds authorized by the legislature for spending.
autonomy Independence, or self-rule.
bail A bond or payment to get out of jail, repaid upon appearance for trial.
balanced budget Government planning so expenditures will not exceed revenues.
bicameral Two legislative chambers or branches.
bill Proposed legislation that has been formally introduced to a legislature.
bill of attainder An act that singles out an individual or specific group of people for punishment without trial.
Bill of Rights The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, aimed at guaranteeing individual rights.
census An official count of the population.
chamber A large room; often refers to the legislative body that meets there. In Congress, the House is the lower chamber and the Senate is the upper chamber.
checks and balances The Constitution’s system for the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government to limit each other’s authority.
citizen A member of a nation who enjoys the rights and protection of that nation.
clear and present danger A Supreme Court doctrine giving the government the authority to take action for security purposes that might otherwise violate the First Amendment.
commerce Trade, business, the sale of goods or services, and/or financial dealings.
common law The body of law, largely unwritten, that evolved in England through prevailing customs, widely accepted principles, and decisions by courts rather than through administrative rule or legislative action.
compensation Payment.
concur To agree.
concurrent powers Authority shared by the federal government and the states.
confederation A formal governing alliance.
confirmation Verification or approval, as in Senate votes required to confirm a presidential appointee before taking office.
construed Explained; clarified.
counsel An adviser, usually referring to a lawyer.
deficit spending Government expenditures that exceed revenues.
delegate As a noun, a representative; as a verb, to assign.
delegated power Authority specifically enumerated for the federal government in Article I of the Constitution.
democracy A government based on equality for all, with the people choosing their leaders.
discrimination Attitudes or actions denying equal treatment to groups of people.
domestic Pertaining to home or internal national issues.
domestic tranquility Peace at home, referring to a family or a nation.
due process The principle that proper legal rules and procedures must be followed before depriving a person of freedom or property.
duty A tariff or tax.
Electoral College The process (rather than a physical entity) for the indirect election of the president by electors from each state.
eminent domain The doctrine that allows governments to take over ownership of private property for the benefit of the public.
enumerated Listed or specified.
equal representation The doctrine providing that all the states have equal influence in the federal system.
ex post facto Determined after the fact, retroactively. An ex post facto law, for example, makes an action illegal after it has happened.
excise taxes Taxes on some sort of transaction or event rather than on property.
exclusionary rule The Fourth Amendment doctrine that makes unlawfully obtained evidence inadmissible at trial.
executive agreement An agreement between the president of the United States and another country that does not need Senate approval.
executive branch The presidency and the administrative arm of the government charged with executing and enforcing the law.
exempt Not covered by a requirement.
express powers Powers enumerated in Article I of the Constitution.
federal Pertaining to the national government.
federal mandate An order or requirement demanded by the national government.
federal supremacy clause The stipulation in Article VI of the Constitution that holds federal law to be superior to state law.
federalism Regional or state governments arranged under a central or national government.
Federalists Influential supporters who campaigned for the Constitution to be ratified, including Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.
filibuster A Senate procedure for blocking a vote with long-winded speeches. Under the rules, a senator who has the floor cannot be interrupted—even to take a vote. As long as the senator keeps speechifying, no action can be taken.
full faith and credit The clause in Article IV of the Constitution that requires the states to respect each other’s laws, judgments, licenses, and public documents.
gerrymandering The manipulation of voting districts by political parties to gain advantages in elections.
grand jury A group of citizens sworn in to consider evidence and determine whether evidence is adequate to issue an indictment that forces a defendant to go on trial.
habeas corpus A writ or document demanding that authorities show there is good reason for holding a person in custody.
hearing A public session held to gather information.
immigrant A resident who has come from another country.
impartial Fair, unbiased.
impeachment A formal legislative accusation against an elected official that could lead to removal from office.
implied power Authority not specifically stated but understood or assumed.
inalienable rights Natural rights all humans claim and deserve that cannot be taken away by laws or governments.
incumbent An official currently in office.
indictment A formal accusation listing specific charges, usually returned by a grand jury, allowing a prosecutor to take a defendant to trial.
infringe To encroach, violate, or disturb.
inherent powers National authority assumed by the federal government, particularly in foreign affairs, that are not listed in the Constitution.
interest group An organization trying to influence public issues and policies.
judicial branch The branch of the government that interprets laws through courts, judges, and juries.
judicial review The authority of courts to determine whether laws are constitutional and to void unconstitutional laws.
jurisdiction The right of a court to hear a case or interpret certain laws in certain places.
lame duck An official whose term is expiring but who was not reelected.
legislative branch The elected officials who propose, debate, and enact laws.
lobbyist A person who works for a special interest.
majority More than half.
militia A military or paramilitary group, typically citizens rather than professional soldiers, that serves temporarily in times of need or emergency.
misdemeanor A minor or lesser crime usually characterized by punishments of fines only or no more than a year in jail.
naturalized citizen Someone who was not born a citizen but has acquired the full rights of citizenship.
necessary and proper clause The section of Article I of the Constitution the courts have said gives Congress the authority to pass laws that are not enumerated but are required for the good of the nation.
nominate To propose, name, or give preliminary approval to a candidate.
oath A statement swearing to keep a promise, as in to testify truthfully.
override To overrule, as when Congress musters the necessary two-thirds vote to enact legislation despite a presidential veto.
pardon An executive order to free or dismiss the charges against an accused person.
petition To ask or request, sometimes but not always with a list of required signatures.
pocket veto A presidential rejection of legislation not by outright veto, but rather by failing to sign it before the legislature adjourns.
poll tax A fee paid to vote.
prescribe To set out a course of action with authority, usually in legislation or a court decision.
preside To oversee or direct a meeting, session, or hearing.
president pro temporare The vice president or, if the vice president is absent, a senator who serves as presiding officer.
primary A preliminary election during which parties choose their candidates.
prior restraint A court order restricting freedom of speech, such as an order blocking the publication of a book or the showing of a movie.
probable cause The required finding that there is legitimate reason for a certain legal action, such as the search of a home or business.
proportional representation A system for providing different levels of influence or participation to political entities, such as states, based on their population.
prosecutor A government official who conducts criminal proceedings against defendants.
public domain Government-owned property.
quarter To provide room and board for, as in quartering troops.
quorum The minimum number of members required to take legal action.
ratification Formal approval, as when the Senate approves a treaty or the states approve an amendment to the Constitution.
reapportionment Recalculating according to population shifts, such as the number of representatives each state is determined to have after a national census.
redistricting Redrawing districts to maintain proportional representation, such as in House districts after census results show population shifts.
redress To correct or rectify.
referendum A direct vote by the public on an issue, instead of the usual indirect voting by their elected representatives.
regulatory Pertaining to government oversight functions, usually of business or industry or professions, carried out by the executive branch.
representative government A system in which the public elects officials to make and enforce the laws. Also called indirect democracy or a republic form of government.
reserved powers Authority specified in the Tenth Amendment that remained with the states rather than being taken over by the federal government.
resident A person who lives in a certain state or other area.
revenue Income from all sources.
rule of law The principle holding that everyone in society, including top officials, are equally subject to the law.
security Safety; freedom from danger. Also a financial instrument, a bond, issued by a government or private enterprise.
sedition An attempted overthrow or interruption of a government.
separation of powers The principle delineating three branches of government and giving them a series of checks and balances to limit each other’s authority.
sovereign Superior, as in a monarch or a national government.
Speaker of the House The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, chosen by the majority party.
special interest An organization seeking to influence policy.
states’ rights The philosophy that holds that the states have their own sovereignty and at least as much authority as the federal government if not more.
strict interpretation A philosophy that takes a conservative view of the Constitution and limits federal authority to powers specifically enumerated in Article I.
subpoena A document issued by a court ordering a person to appear to testify or surrender documents.
suffrage The right to vote.
territory Land controlled by a nation that is not part of that nation.
title of nobility Aristocratic or honorific names banned by the Constitution, such as queen, prince, countess, duke, baroness, etc.
treason Betrayal, usually of a nation.
treaty An agreement between two or among more than two countries.
tyranny An unjust and often cruel form of rule.
unconstitutional A law, rule, or administrative action ruled invalid by the courts for violating the principles of the Constitution.
unicameral Pertaining to a single-chamber legislature.
veto An executive’s rejection of legislation.
warrant A document empowering law enforcement authorities, usually to search or seize someone or something for evidence in a possible prosecution.
welfare As used in the Constitution, the well-being, happiness, and prosperity of the public.
writ A formal written order, usually issued by a court.