Achaemenid Persian Empire, 77
Act for the Encouragement of Learning etc., 294
advertising, precursor of, in ancient Greece, 93
Africa
Chinese view of, 111
colonialism and trade in, 162–163
early trade history in, 83–85
Portuguese exploration of, 147–149
salt as commodity in, 178–181
slave trade in, 226–227
agora (early shopping center), 93, 215
agriculture
civilization and, 20–21, 55–56
trade in Mexico and South America and, 119–128
Alaric the Goth, 210
Alberti, Leon Battista, 163
Albornoz, Bartolome de, 6
Alexander, VI (pope), 159–160, 270, 272–273
Alexander the Great, 20, 77, 80, 94, 96, 103, 191, 201, 233
Alexandria, 77, 91, 95, 97, 134, 147, 212
al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid, 38
alien residents, use in trade of, 96
American Revolution, 157–158
ancient commodities, 170–193
cotton, 190–192
incense and spices, 181–187
marketing of, 193–195
olive oil, 170–173
salt, 178–181
silk, 187–190
wine, 173–177
ancient Greece
communication in, 200–201
Draco’s Law in, 286–287
pagan worship in, 249–252
patent law history in, 290–291
road construction in, 205
slavery in, 227–230
trademark law in, 295–296
trading in, 92–101, 93f, 96f
Androclus, 215
Angell, Norman, 11, 305
Anne (queen of England), 292
anthropological research
on early African trade, 83–85
multipocket theory of civilization development, 47–49
origins of trade and, 39–43
spread theory of civilization development and, 45–46
Apocalypto (film), 316
Apian Way, 205
Aquinas, Thomas (Saint), 5, 38
Arab trading
colonialism and, 163
East-West contact and, 133–136
history of, 85–86
incense and spice commodities and, 181–187
salt as barter commodity in, 178–181
Arawak Indians, 120
Arawak tribe, 126–127
Aristotle, on economics, 28–29, 31–32
aromata, import in ancient Greece of, 97
Arthashastra (Kautilya), 33–34, 286
Arthur, W. Brian, 55
Art of War (Sun Tzu), 34, 114
Assyrian culture, trade in, 15, 73
clay tablets, 182
early Arab trading and, 86
naruqqum agreement under, 241
tradesman, 203
athletic contests, olive oil awarded in, 172
Atlantis, myth of, 49–50, 71, 131
ATMA DARSHAN company, 34
Augustus Caesar, 211
Aztec civilization, 123f, 125–126, 148, 153
commercial activities of, 124
economic system, 121
merchants traded with distant groups, 124
monetary exchange in, 233
traded with Florida Arawaks, 120
Babylonian culture, trade in, 73, 182, 240
Baghdad, silk trade and, 189–190
Balzac, Honore de, 225
banking
colonialism and evolution of, 163–165
government bonds and, 239–240
Barbary Coast pirates, 211
Barbary corsairs, 223
Barbary States, 281
bartering, 3, 5, 17, 21, 60–61, 72, 102, 125, 162, 214
development of communication and, 197–204
trading in Mesoamerica through, 119–126, 138–139
Bass Red Triangle trademark, 296
Beattie, Alan, 15
beaver pelts, 128, 242–243
beaver trade, history of globalization and, 12
Behn, Aphra, 232
Bergreen, Laurence, 44, 138, 143, 150
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, 298
Bernstein, William J., 5, 17, 134
Bible
influence on commerce of, 255–256
Old and New Testaments, 225–226
Black Death, 134, 223
Blasford-Snell, John, 137
bonds, historical evolution of, 238–240
Book IV, The Removal of Thorns, 34
“borderless world,” 13, 45, 182
Boston Tea Party of 1773, 157–158
Botticelli, Sandro, 165
bottomry, cargo transportation and, 240
Braudel, Ferand, 91
Brazil
exploring entrepreneurs, 90
Portuguese exploration of, 147
Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRIC) countries, 128
Bretton Woods Conference (1944), 235
British East India Company, 11, 155, 158–159, 181, 243, 273
British Empire
globalization and role of, 11–12
Indian independence and, 158–159
See also England
Bronowski, Jacob, 243
Bruges, as international trade hub, 165–166
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 292
Buddhism, 118, 213, 262, 265–267
in China, 114
role of exchange in, 6
Burckhardt, Jacob, 87
business history, evolution of, 8
businessmen, globalization and role of, 278
Business Week magazine, 190
Butler, Alan, 180
Cabaret (musical), 231
Cabot, John, 148
Cabot, Sebastian, 148
cacao beans, as exchange medium, 121, 124, 233
Caesarea, Phoenician founding of, 90–91
Cahokia Mounds, 127
Caishen, Taoist god of wealth, 267–268
Canton System of trade control, 112
Capaq Nan (Gran Ruta), 204
Cape Verde Islands, 85, 161
capital instruments, historical evolution of, 237–244
capitalism, Islam and, 257–262
caravans
diffusion of religion through, 247–249
East-West contact and, 133–136
historical evolution of, 219–220
origins of trade and, 39–43
salt trading by, 178–181
silk trade and, 187–190
transportation technology and, 208–213
cargo, trade and role of, 58–61
Caribbean islands, early trading in, 120–121, 126
Carrefour, 219
Carthaginians, as early traders, 92, 102–103
Cartier, Jacques, 127
Casement Report (UK), 156
caste system, in Hinduism, 266–267
Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China (Polo), 133, 142
Catholicism
government bonds and influence of, 238–240
intermingling of trade and religion in, 269–275
politics and, 282–284
trade and spread of, 105, 116, 141–143, 149, 159–161, 249
Celestine, II (pope), 270
Celts, as early traders, 102–103
chaebols, Korean principle of, 264
Champlain, Samuel, 128117
Chang Ch’ien, 109
Change, Ha-Joon, 7–8
Chariots of the Gods? Unsolved Myster-ies of the Past (von Daniken), 50
charkha (hand loom),159
Chenghuang, Taoist principle of, 267
Chicago Tribune, 65
China
communication and record keeping in, 202
East-West contacts, history of, 133–136, 283
economic theory in, 35–37, 58–61
explorations by, 105–116, 152
future of globalization and, xxv, 298–301
growth of international trade in, 281–282
history of trade in, 105–116
incense and spice commodities trading in, 181–187
Indian trade with, 105
international traders from, 95
Japanese trade with, 105–116
pagan worship in, 249–252
plague in, 134
Polo’s descriptions of, 141–143
post-Mao regime in, 76–83
religious contamination feared by, 273–274
salt as medical treatment in, 178
silk trade in, 187–190
supply and demand in early trading of, 102–103
transportation technology in, 208–213
views of history in, 66
China’s Economic Transformation, 35
Chinese Star Fleet, 90, 107–108, 110, 133, 146, 210, 273–274, 283
Ch’in Shi Huang Ti, 108
Chow, Gregory, 36
Christianity
age of exploration and, 138
influence on commerce of, 255–257
role of exchange in, 6
trade and spread of, 133, 249
Christian Science Monitor, 5
Churchill, Winston, 66
Church of England, 161
Cicero, viii
civilization
birth of exchange and, 39–43
communication and development of, 197–204
defined, 20–21
development theories of, 45–50
historical evolution of, 20–22
philosophy of, 51–52
recorded history of trade and, 67–136
religion and development of, 247–250
trade and, 17–20
trading and exchange and development of, xxiii–xxv, 1–25
Civil War, 192, 230, 282
class structure
in Mayan civilization, 120
mercantilism and, 139–140
clusters of excellence, Porter Diamond model and, 300
Code of Hammurabi, 285–286
Cohong (Chinese merchant association), 112
Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (Diamond), 22, 59
collective arrangement, in Muslim economic theory, 37–39
collective intelligence theory, trade and, 54–56
colonialism
European exploration and evolution of, 141–157
explorations and evolution of, 148
free trading rights and, 161–166
in Roman Empire, 98–101, 98f
of Spain, 125–126, 152–157
Colossus of Rhodes, 94–95
Columbus, Christopher, 15, 91, 106, 108, 127, 133, 142, 149–150, 152, 161, 184, 209–210, 249, 283–284
commerce
historical evolution of, ix–x, xxiii–xxv
religion and, 247–276
commercial credit
in ancient Greece, 97
Draco’s Law concerning, 286–287
in Egyptian trade, 82–83
commercial imperative civilization and, 17–20
exchange value and, 52–54
for exploration, 150–152
infrastructure development and, 219–220
commodities
early examples of, 170–193
as exchange mechanisms, 231–237
Common Era, 134
transportation developments during, 208–213
communal socioeconomic societies, impact of trade on, 138
communication
copyright law and, 292–295
trade and innovations in, 197–204
Community Trade Mark (CTM) system, 297
Compagnons du Devoir, 271
company, etymology of word, 99
Confederacy, 282
Confucius, 66, 133, 262–265, 267
contracts
history in Mesopotamia of, 72–73
money-bag (naruqqu) contract, 74
Sharia principles and, 259
Coolidge, Calvin, 277
copyright law, history of, 294, 296
Cordier, Henri, 133
corporate social responsibility (CSR), 257, 266, 275–276
Cortes, Hernan, 125, 133
cost issues
in olive oil industry, 172–173
cotton industry, impact of U.S. Civil War on, 282
Cowen, Tyler, 54
cradles of civilization, recorded history of trade and, 67–136
Creative Destruction: How Globalization Is Changing the World’s Cultures (Cowen), 54
Cro-Magnon culture, trade in, 41
cross-border interactions
age of exploration and, 137–166
in ancient Greece, 95–97
of Celtic traders, 102–103
Chinese isolationism as barrier to, 105–116
in Danube Valley, 101–102
East-West contacts, history of, 133–136
Egyptian trade history and, 76–83
globalization and, 12–13
government regulation and, 279
incense and spice commodities trading and, 181–187
Magna Carta provisions and, 157
merchant intermediaries and, 73–76
societal structures for, 197–230
transportation technology and, 208–213
weights and measures and history of, 76
cross-cultural exchange
evolution of civilization and, 21–22, 55–56
globalization and, 1–4
trade and, 39–44
cuneiform writing, 72, 202–203
currency regulation
in China, 109
colonialism and evolution of, 161–166
early history of, 97–98
exchange mechanisms and, 231–237
in Roman Empire, 98–101
Danube Valley, trade in, 101–102
Darius the Great, 76, 206
Darwin, Charles, 52–54
Da Vinci, Leonardo, 163
Da Vinci Code, The, 271
Declaration of Independence, 157–158, 279
De Gama, Vasco, 150, 184, 283
Description of the World (Polo), 141–142
developmental theories of civilization, 45–52
collective intelligence theory and, 54–56
Darwinism and, 52–54
multipocket theory, 47–49
mythical master theory, 49–50
philosophy of, 51–52
spread theory, 46–47
Devotions Emergent Occasions (Donne), 51
Diamond, Jared, 1, 22, 58–60
Diamond Sutra, 265
Dias, Bartolomeu, 150
differentiation of products, in olive oil industry, 170–173
Di Giorgio, Francesco, 163
Discourses (Epictetus), 30
disease, trade and spread of, 133–134
division of labor
absence of exchange and, 25
among early traders, 103
Donatello (Donato di Niccol˜ di Betto Bardi), 165
Donne, John, xxiii, 51
Don’t Sleep, There Are Snakes (Everett), 22
Draco’s Law, 286–287
Dune (Herbert), 183
Dutch, North American trade and
exploration by, 127–128, 137–166
Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC)), 75, 240–243
Dutch West Indies Company, 148, 162
Eanes, Gil, 147
Eastern spiritual teachings, commerce and, 262–268
East-West contacts, history of, 133–136
Eastern spiritual teachings and, 262–268
incense and spices as commodities in, 181–187
silk as commodity in, 187–190
Ebb, Fred, 231
economic nationalism, mercantilism as, 139
economics
birth of exchange and, 39–43
Chinese theory of, 35–37
evolution of globalization and, 27–63
Greek land-management and origins of, 27–33
Indian social approach to, 33–35
Muslim theory of, 37–39
Economics (Aristotle), 29
Edo period (Japan), 117
Egypt
communication and record keeping in, 202
history of trade in, 76–83
incense and spice commodities trading in, 181–187
monetary exchange in, 234
silk trade in, 187–190
Elizabeth, I (queen of England), 128, 161, 243, 273
emblem, etymological origins of word, 201
employment statistics, globalization and, 11–12
England
exploration and colonization by, 148–149, 155–157, 161
impact of U.S. Civil War on, 282
mercantilism and, 140
patent law in, 291
right-to-trade principles in U.S. and, 157–158
trademark law in, 295–296
England’s Treasure by Foreign Trade (Mun), 139–140
English Bakers Marking Law, 295
English Licensing Act, 293
Epictetus, 30
ethics
in early China, 105–116
in Egyptian trade, 81–83
religion and, 256–257
in Roman trade, 100–101
slavery and, 228–229
Eugene, IV (pope), 108
Eugenius, III (pope), 270, 283
Eurasian Patent Organization (EAPO), 298
Euripides, 29
Europe
exploration and colonization from, 141–157, 283–286
history of Chinese trade with, 105–116
incense and spice trading in, 181–187
mercantilism in, 139–140
religion and trade in, 159–161
salt trading in, 178–181
European Patent Convention (EPC), 298
European Patent Organization (EPO), 298
European Union (EU), 98, 280, 297, 299
Everett, Daniel, 22–23
exchange process birth of, 39–43
civilization nourished by, 17–20
Greek philosophers suspicion of, 32–33
history of, 5–25
imperative of, 1–4, 49–50, 52–54
mechanisms of, 231–237
as normative social imperative, xv–xvi, xxiii, 1–4, 43–47
religion and, 247–276
societal growth or demise and, 58–61
transportation technology and, 208–213
exploration
commercial imperative for, 150–152
by European countries, 141–157
trade and age of, 137–166
exports
in ancient Greece, 97
of olive oil, 170–173
See also international trade
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 225
Farmers’ Almanac, 28
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 149
Ferguson, Niall, 243, 282
fiat money, historical evolution of, 234–235
financial instruments, historical evolution of, 231–244
financial transactions, historical evolution of, 166
Five Rings, The (Musashi), 34
Florence
mercantilism in, 163–165
patent law in, 291
force majeure, in contracts, 260
Ford, Henry, 65
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, 254–255
foreign direct investment (FDI)
globalization and, x, xii–xiii, 12, 16
transportation technology and, 213
1421: The Year China Discovered America (Menzies), 106
1434: The Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance (Menzies), 108, 283
France
mercantilism and, 139–140
North American trade and exploration by, 128, 155–157
patent law in, 291
franchise development, 218–219
Freedom of the Seas (Grotius), 162
freedom-of-the-seas principle, 158
free market ideology
Chinese economic theory and, 35–37
criticism of, 7–8
historical evolution of, 31–33, 38–39
free trading rights, colonialism and exploration as catalyst for, 161–163
Friedman, Thomas, xiii, 14–17
Gandhi, Mohandas K. (Mahatma), 159, 181
Garner, John Nance, 65
General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 279–280, 283
Genghis Khan, 20, 80, 103, 105–106, 142, 186–187, 279
Genoa, as international port, 142, 148–149, 165
genocide, colonialism and, 156
geographical branding, examples of, 185
gharar, Islamic principle of, 259–261
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 165
Giotto di Bondone (Giotto), 165
Giridharadas, Anand, 16
globalization
age of exploration and, 137–166
building blocks of, 167–168
China and origins of, 105–116
collateral influences on, 245
defined, x, xii–xiii, 12, 16
evolution of civilization and, 24–27
exchange imperative and, 54–56
government as driver for, 265–266
Greek land-management and origins of, 27–33
historical evolution of, ix–x, 5–25, 27–63
as human social phenomenon, 56–58, 61–63
Japan and, 116–118
Magna Carta as catalyst for, 156
religion and, 159–161
strengths and weaknesses of, 1–4
technology and, 8–2514–27
Globalization and Culture (Pieterse), 54
Globalization: n. The Irrational Fear That Someone in China Will Take Your Job, 11
Global Paradox, The (Rodrik), 12
global strategic alliances, in early China, 106
gold
in early African trade, 83–85
salt as barter commodity for, 178–181
Gomes, Fernao, 147
government
bonds issued by, 238–240
commercial infrastructure development and, 217–221
evolution of commercial process and, xxiv–xxv
globalization and, 245, 277–303
incense and spice trade and, 181–187
mercantilism and, 139–140
merchant intermediaries and, 73–76
in Mexico and South America, 119–126
in Minoan culture, 92
monetary exchange and, 235–237
regulation of commerce by, 277–303
in Roman Empire, 98–101
secular law developed by, 284–290
transportation technology and, 208–213
Grann, David, 155–156
Great Illusion, The (Angell), 11
Great Lakes, exploration of, 128
Great Wall of China, 108–109
Greek land-management, origins of globalization and, 27–33
Greenwald, Bruce, 12
Gregory X (pope), 143
gross domestic product (GDP) 298–299
Grotius, Hugo, 162
guanxi, Confucian principle of, 263
Guanzi (Zhong), 36
Guidebook to the Silk Road (Pegolotti), 220
Guns, Germs and Steel (Diamond), 59
Hammurabi, 72, 285–286
Han dynasty, 35, 99, 188, 208
Harappan culture
communication in, 199–200
trade in, 103–105
Henri, IV (king of France), 128
Henry the Navigator, 85, 147
Herbert, Frank, 183
Herodotus, 95, 179, 191
heroism, marketing and, 195, 200
Hesiod, 30, 32
Heyerdahl, Thor, 138
High Imperialism theory, globalization and, 15–16
Hinduism, 266–267
Laws of Manu and, 286
Hippalus, 186
history of trade and commerce
commercial imperative in, 5–25
criticism of, 65–66
evolution of globalization and, xii–xiii, xxii
management theory and, xxi–xxvi
recorded history, 67–136
History Will Teach Us Nothing (song), 65
Hittite culture, 93
Hohokam civilization, 127
Homer, 94, 171
horses
Tibet-Chinese trade in, 113
transportation technology and, 208–213
Hot, Flat, and Crowded (Friedman), 13–14
Household Manager, The (Xenophon), 28, 30
Hudson, Henry, 242
Hudson’s Bay Company, 12
human rights abuses
colonialism and, 154–157
international trade and, 221–230
Humans: Why They Triumphed (Ridley), 55
hyperinflation, 235
IBM Corporation, 9, 185, 201
Ihya (al-Ghazali), 38
Iliad (Homer), 94
imports
in ancient Greece, 96
early tariffs on, 134, 273, 278
of olive oil, 170–173
See also international trade
Inca civilization, 123–124, 131, 148, 153, 202, 204
communication and record keeping in, 202
road construction in, 204–208
Incan Mita conscripted labor, 153
incense
evolution as commodity, 181–187
spread of Islam and trade in, 248–249
Incense Road, 76, 87, 137, 181–187
India
ancient road construction in, 205
economic theory in, 33–35
GATT provisions and, 280
growth of international trade in, 280
history of trade in, 103–105
independence from Britain, 158–159
international traders from, 96
origins of plague and trade with, 133–134
salt trading in, 178–181
sea route to, 147–149
supply and demand in early trading of, 102–103
transportation technology in, 180–184
Indian Congress Party, 159
Indians, North American exploration and conquest of, 155–156
Industrial Revolution, globalization and, 16
Indus valley
history of trade in, 103–104
road construction in, 205
transportation technology in, 208–213
infrastructure development, for international trade, 213–221
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, An (Smith), 36
Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, 101
intangible assets, exchange of, 59–60
intellectual property law
copyright and, 292–295
Law of Justinian as forerunner of, 288–290
universal conventions for, 296–298
Inter Caetera (papal bull), 131, 159, 161
interest rates, historical evolution of, 238
intermediaries in trade, history of, 73–76
international business/management theory, globalization and, xiii, xvi
international law, maritime trade and, 161–163
international trade
in ancient Greece, 92–101
Catholicism and, 159–161
China’s role in, 105–116
commercial imperative for, 150–152
in Danube Valley, 101–102
in early India, 103–105
East-West contacts, history of, 133–136, 140–141
European exploration and push for dominance in, 141–157
infrastructure development or, 213–221
in Japan, 116–118
mercantilism and, 139–140
in Mexico and South America, 119–126, 123f
monetary regulation and, 237
Mongols and, 105
in olive oil, 170–173
Phoenician ocean trading empire and, 89–92
plague and diminishment of, 135
pros and cons of, 11–12
in Roman Empire, 98–101
toxic aspects of, 221–227
See also exports; imports
Internet, 13, 16, 56, 203, 219
inventory, in Minoan culture, 92
invisible hand, in economic theory, 36–38, 102
Iroquois Confederation, 204
Islam
economic theory and, 37–39
exchange and influence of, 6, 257–262
incense and spice trade and spread of, 186–187, 248–249
Timbuktu and expansion of, 83–84
trade and spread of, 133–134
isolationism
in China, 105–116
of Japan, 116–118
James, I (king of England), 292
Japan
Chinese trade with, 110–111
feudal labor practices in, 287–288
foreign commercialization in, 116–118
pagan worship in, 249–252
Jewish law, role of exchange in, 6
Jews
history of trade and, 96, 135
persecution of, 149
John (king of England), 156
Johns, Adrian, 294–295
joint public stock company, 241–244
Journal of Management Studies, 8
Journal of the First Voyage (Columbus), 249
Judaism, in Western Europe, 252–254
Julius Caesar, 210–211, 281
just wage theory, origins of, 38
Kahn, Judd, 12
Kamakura period (Japan), 116
karums, history of trade and, 76
Kautilya, 33–35
keiretsu, Japanese principle of, 264
khaddar/khadi (homespun cloth), 159
King’s Road (Egypt), 46–47, 206–207, 254, 266
Knights Templar, 165, 270–272
known world, globalization and concept of, 17
Koine Greek, communication using, 172
Kong Fu-Zi. See Confucius
Kon-Tiki (Heyerdahl), 137
Koran, influence on commerce of, 257–262
Kublai Khan, 80, 106, 142–143
labor
division of, 25, 102–103
Japanese feudal labor practices, 287–288
outsourcing of, 79–83
Labrador, 128, 148
land caravans, merchant intermediaries and, 76, 83
language, communication and development of, 197–204
Lao Tzu, xii, 37
Law of Justinian, 288–290
laws concerning trade
Code of Hammurabi, 285–286
copyright law, 292–295
Draco’s Law, 286–287
evolution of secular law, 284–290
globalization and, 279–280
Japanese feudal labor practices, 287–288
Judaism’s influence on, 252–255
Law of Justinian, 288–290
Laws of Manu, 286
patent law, 291–292
proprietary rights and, 290–291
religion and development of, 247–249
trademark law, 295–296
universal conventions, 296–298
Laws of Manu, 286
leisure time, marketing and, 194
Lexus and the Olive Tree, The (Fried-man), 13
Li, Confucian principle of, 263
Liberty Bonds, 239
licensing practices
historical evolution of, 216, 278
See also copyright law, history of
Life magazine, 224
literacy, communication and, 197–204
loans, historical evolution of, 237–244
government bonds and, 238–240
Lost City of Z, The (Grann), 155–156
Lost World of Old Europe: The Danube Valley, 5000–3500 BC, The,” 101–102
Luther, Hans, 269
Luther, Martin, 268
Macao, Chinese trading port of, 109, 111–112
Machiavelli, Niccoló, 34
macuahuitl (weapon), 122
Madrid Protocol, 297
Magellan, Ferdinand, 108, 138–139, 147, 150, 184, 283
Magna Carta, 96, 156–158, 162, 279
Maison du Roi (France), 292
maitri, Buddhist principle of, 266
Malthus, Thomas, 163
management theory
Hinduism and, 266–267
history and, xxi–xxvi
in Roman Empire, 101
Mandingo Askia dynasty, 84
Mansa Musa, 84
Marble Road, 215
maritime trade
age of exploration and, 137–166
in ancient Greece, 92–97
bottomry practices and, 220
Bruges and, 165–166
China and, 105–116
commercial imperative for, 150–152
early African trade diminished by, 83–85
in early Indian trade, 103–105
free trading rights and, 161–164
government regulation of, 281–282
history in Egypt of, 76–83
in incense and spice, 181–187
in Japan, 116–118
mercantilism and, 139–140
Phoenicians and history of, 89–92
religion and creation of, 269–275
transportation technology and, 208–213
market economy, 35–36, 279
modern roots of, 61–63
marketing
ancient products as example of, 193–195
of olive oil and salt, 170–173
marketplace, history of, as exchange mechanism, 5–25
Market Practices (Pegolotti), 143
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 291
Masonic Order, 271
materialism, marketing and, 194–195
Mayan civilization, trade in, 120–123, 125–126
McLean, Don, xiii
Medici family, 163–164, 190, 256–257
Meiji period (Japan), 118
Menzies, Gavin, 90, 106–108, 110, 283
mercantilism
age of exploration and, 137–166
commercial imperative and, 150–152
in Florence, 163–165
free trading rights and, 161–166
piracy and, 281
merchant intermediaries commercial imperative and, 150–152
in Mexico and South America, 119–126
origins of, 73–76, 108
Mesoamerica, history of trade in, 119–128
religion in, 247–276
Mesopotamia
bonds issued in, 238–240
history of trade in, 72–73
trademark law, 295–297
Mexico, early trading in, 119–126, 123f
Michaelson, Gerald A., 306
middleman principle of value, commercial imperative and, 150–152
Milites Templi, 270
Militia Dei, 270
Mill, John Stuart, 163, 294
Ming dynasty, 106–108
Minoan culture
communication in, 197–204
olive oil as commodity in, 170–173
trading in, 92–97
Minuit, Peter, 243
Mississippi Valley delta, early trade in, 127
Mitsubishi Shoji, 118
Mitsui Trading Company, 118
mixed-used structure, historical evolution of, 216
Mogul empire, 105
money
as exchange medium, 43–45
historical evolution of, 231–237
money-bag (naruqqu) contract, 74, 86, 241
Mongol empire, 134–135
monopolies
English Statute of Monopolies, 292
merchant intermediaries and, 73–76
religion and creation of, 269–275
Morris, Ian, 20
Mosaic Law, 226, 254
Moses, Laws of, 252–253
mudaraba, early Arab trading custom of, 86, 261
Muhammad, 257–258
multinational corporations (MNCs), 12, 67, 95, 265, 284
bribery laws and, 255
communication in, 203
guarding of knowledge in, 55–56
human rights abuses by, 155–157, 225–230
peering process in, 55–56
political strength of, 284
supply chain management, 155
third-world nationals employed by, 95
wealth accumulation by, 272
multinational entities (MNEs), 15, 17, 126
Phoenician trading empire and, 89–92
multipocket theory of civilization development, 47–49
Mun, Thomas, 139
Murray, James M., 165–166
Musashi, Miyamoto, 34
musharaka, early Arab trading custom of, 86, 261
Muslim economic theory, 37–39
Mycenaean culture, 93–94
mythical master theory of civilization development, 49–50
Nabataean culture, history of trading and, 87–89
naruqqum contracts, 74, 86–87, 241
early Arab trading custom of, 85–86
Natchez Trace, 204
natural resources, early trading of, 103
natural selection, civilization and, 52–54
Neanderthal culture, trade in, 41
Near East, history of trade in, 76–83
Newfoundland, English exploration of, 148
new markets, 56–57, 69, 186
new market entry, 69
new market entry, 56–57, 69, 186
Nile River
development of civilization and, 45–46
history of trade and, 76–103
nirvana, Hindu condition of, 266–267
noncitizen traders, history of, 95–96
normal imperative
exchange as, 1–4, 49–50
trade as, 43–45
North America
commercial infrastructure development in, 216–217
Dutch East India Company and exploration of, 242–243
early trade in, 127–128
exploration of, 148, 151–152, 154–155
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 280
northwest passage, search for, 128, 148, 155, 242
Nothing Like the Sun (album), 65
obsidian, South American trade in, 122
Oh, Change H., 17
Ohmae, Kenichi, 45
Oikonomia, Xenophon’s concept of, 28
olive oil, 77–79, 121, 167, 169–170, 178, 181, 194–195, 217
as commodity, 170–173
Olympic Games, history of, 33, 172, 194, 291
Omne Datu Optimum, 270
openness, development of civilization and, 55–56
Opone, early African trade and, 85
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 185
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 52
Ostia, 180, 210
ostraca, Egyptian trade records and, 81–82
Ottoman Kingdom, 94, 148–149
outsourcing
definition of, 56, 91
in Egyptian trade, 80–83
MNCs, 156
pagan worship, 249–252
papacy, influence on commerce of, 272
paper currency, historical evolution of, 234–237
Paris Convention, 296–297
Parliament of Paris, 292
Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), 297–298
patent law, history of, 291–292, 297
Pax Mongolica, 106, 130, 134–135, 142, 156, 279
peering principle, development of civilization and, 56
Pegolotti, Francesco Balducci, 143, 220
Peloponnesian War, 94
pendulum degree, globalization and, 15
Peng, Mike W., 15
Peng-Tzao Kan-Mu, 178
Periplus (Greek historian), 105
Persian Empire
road construction in, 206
trade and, 76–83
personal emotional attachments, marketing and, 194
personal property rights, absence in collective societies of, 138–139
Peruvian Amazon Company, 156
Petra, history of trading in, 86–89, 165, 182, 190
petroleum industry, Arab spice trade compared with, 159–161
Pharos lighthouse, 95
Philip of Spain (king), 161
philosophy, origins of trade and, 43
Phoenicians, trading empire of, 15, 70, 89–92, 91f, 102, 131, 141, 146, 172
adopted phonetic alphabet, 202
origin of, 98
written records for, 202
Pierce, John A., 197
Pieterse, Jan Nederveen, 54
Pillai, Radhakrishnan, 34
piracy
international trade and, 272–273, 281
by Japanese, 110–111, 117–118
trademark piracy, 297
universal conventions concerning, 298
Piracy: The Intellectual Property Wars from Gutenberg to Gates (Johns), 294
Piraha tribe, 22, 24–25
Pisa, Rustichello da, 142
Pius V (pope), 161, 273
Pizarro, Francisco, 125, 133, 148
plague (Black Death), trade and emergence of, 134–135, 220, 224
Plato, 31–32, 49–50
economic theory and, 31–33
Pliny the Younger, 100
Polanyi, Karl, 61
politics and trade
Columbus’s explorations and, 149
history of, 282–284
in Mayan civilization, 123
Polo, Maffeo, 106
Polo, Marco, 44, 80, 106, 119, 133, 141–144, 180, 187
Polo, Niccol, 106
polytheism, 130, 247
population
globalization and growth of, xiii
plague and decline in, 133–134
port development
Bruges as example of, 165–166
in early Indian trade, 103–105
in Japan, 111, 116–118
mercantilism and, 139–140
transportation technology and, 208–213
Portugal
Chinese trade with, 105–116
early African trade and, 83–85
exploration and colonization by, 121–146, 140f
Japanese trade with, 116–118
maritime technology developed by, 151–152
mercantilism and, 139–140
Potosi, city of, 152–157
private enterprise
merchant intermediaries and history of, 73–76
in Roman Empire, 98–101
profit, Muslim criticism of, 38
profit-and-loss sharing (PLS) investments, early Arab trading custom of, 86
progressive taxes, Indian social economic approach and, 34
property
communal socioeconomic societies and absence of, 138–139
exchange of, 58–61
Greek land-management and concept of, 27–33
history of proprietary rights and, 290–298
Law of Justinian concerning, 288–290
universal regulations concerning, 296–298
proprietary rights, history of, 290–298
Prospective of the World, The (Braudel), 91
prostagma, 97
Protection of Industrial Property, Paris Convention for, 296
Protestant directive, commerce and, 268–269
Ptolemaic system, history of trade and, 76–83
publicani (Roman private companies), 99
public-private partnerships, merchant intermediaries and history of, 73–76
publishing industry, copyright law and, 292–295
Puchteca (Mayan merchant caste), 120
Pueblo people, early trade with, 121, 125
Pu-erh tea, 113–114
Punic Wars, 222
Punt kingdom, 69, 79–80
Qin dynasty, 108, 114
quinto (trading tariff), 160, 273
quipus (string record-keeping device), 124
Rajarshi symbol, Indian economic theory and, 33–35
Reagan, Ronald, 279–280
Reformation, 268
regional trading blocks, 280
regulation of business, government and, 277–303
religion
Buddhism, 265–266
Catholicism, 269–275
Christianity, 255–257
development of civilization and, 49–50
Eastern spiritual teachings, 262–268
economics and, 27–39
exchange process and, 247–276
exploration and, 137–166
globalization and, 245
government collaboration with, 277–303
Islam, 257–262
Hinduism, 266–267
Judaism, 252–255
pagan worship, 249–252
Protestantism, 268–269
salt as symbol in, 178–181
slavery and, 225–230
Taoism, 267–268
trade and, xxiii–xxv, 159–161, 269–275
wealth fable and roots of, 275–276
in Western society, 252–262
Renaissance
age of exploration and, 137–166
Chinese influence on, 108, 283
colonialism and, 162–163
representative money, 233, 235
Republic, The (Plato), 31
Rhodes, history as trade hub of, 94–95
Ricardo, David, 53, 163, 279
Ridley, Matt, 55
right-to-trade principles, founding of U.S. and, 157–158
rivalry, 272–273, 276–279
road construction
diffusion of religion and, 247–279
history of trade and, 204–208
Robertson, Robbie, 56
Rodrik, Dan, 12
Roman Empire, 11, 15, 77, 80, 85, 94, 98, 98f, 103, 108, 124, 176, 188, 208, 211–212, 217, 227, 281
commercial infrastructure development in, 213–221
globalization and role of, 8–17
history of trade in, 98–101, 98f
Indian trade with, 103–105
monetary exchange in, 231–237
olive oil industry in, 170–173
pagan worship in, 249–252
road construction in, 204–208
salt trading in, 178–181
shipping in, 281–282
silk trade in, 187–190
slavery in, 227–230
trademark law in, 295–296
transportation technology and, 208–213
Romm, James, 50
Rostovtzeff, Michael, 17
Rothschild banking house, 239
Rover, The (Behn), 232
Royal Road (Persia), 63, 82, 206–207, 206f
Rugman, Alan, 17
rule of law
evolution of secular law, 284–290
Judaism’s influence on, 252–255
religion and development of, 247–276
Sagan, Carl, 203
Saint Lawrence River, 128
Saintonge, Jean Alfonse de, 128
salarium argentum (salt payment), 180
salt
in early African trade, 83–85
as exchange mechanism, 233
as historical commodity, 178–181
Salt Lines, 180
Salt March, 181
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company, 100
Saracens, 272
secular law, evolution of, 284–290
Secundus, Lucius Pedanius, 229
Seferides, Michel Louis, 101
segmentation of markets, 172–173
“7 Pillars of Business,”34
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (architectural), 91
Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies, The, 42
shared belief system, Eastern spiritual teachings and, 247–248
Sharia principles, business contracts and, 259
sharing initiative, development of civilization and, 55–56
shipping
in ancient Greece, 92–103
bottomry practices and, 240
commercial imperative for, 150–152
early African trade diminished by, 83–85
in early Indian trade, 103–105
government regulation of, 277–280
history in Egypt of, 76–83
incense and spice trade and, 181–187
in Japan, 116–118
Phoenicians and history of, 89–92
transportation technology and, 208–213
shopkeeper model for trade development, 215
Shu, Confucian principle of, 263
Silappathikaarum (The Ankle Bracelet), 104
Silk Road, 76, 78, 112–113, 119, 129, 137, 142–143, 187–190, 205–207, 207f, 219, 224, 280
Silk Road Economic Belt, 208
silk trade, 91, 141
historical evolution as commodity, 187–190
silver
colonialism and mining of, 152–157
Japanese trade in, 116–118
Sima Qian (Ssuma Ch’ien), 35–36
slavery
colonialism and, 152–157
international trade and growth of, 225–230
in Roman Empire, 98–101, 98f
in U.S., 282
Smith, Adam, 36–38, 44, 57, 102, 139–140, 163, 279
social Darwinism, 53
social evolution
civilization and, 52–54
trade and, 58–61
social harmony, evolution of, 27
social imperative for globalization, 56–58
social infrastructure, commercialism supported by, 197–230
social relationships, civilization and, 61–63
Socrates, 66
economics and, 31–32
sogo shosha (Japanese trading firm), 118
Solomon, Steven, 89
Song dynasty, 107, 235
Sophists, economics and, 32
South America, 102, 117, 127, 130–132, 137–138, 146–149, 153, 155, 204, 222, 227, 249
ancient road construction in, 204–208
early trading in, 119–126, 123f
Southern v. How, 296
Soviet Union, 13, 77
Spain
conquest of Mesoamerica by, 125
explorations and colonization by, 125–126, 149–150, 152–157, 159–161, 160f, 272–275
Japanese trade with, 116–118
mercantilism and, 139–140
Spencer, Herbert, 53–54
Spice Road, 75–76, 91, 129, 149–151, 167, 181–187
spice trade
evolution as commodity, 181–187
transportation technology and trade in, 208–213
Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, A (Bernstein), 17
Spondylus shells, as early trade item, 101, 121
Sprachbund theory of communication, 198, 203
spread theory of development of civilization, 46–47
Standish, Charles, 43, 70
Star Fleet (China), 90, 107–108, 110, 133, 146, 210, 273–274, 283
Statute of Anne, 294
Statute of Monopolies (England), 292
Stiglitz, Joseph, 15, 17
stock exchanges
historical evolution of, 165–166
joint public stock company, 241–244
Stockholms Banco, 235
Stoic philosophy, economics and, 30
Sumerians, cuneiform writing of, 41, 72, 174, 202–203
Sun Tzu, 34
supply and demand
early traders’ concept of, 102–103
Greek origin of concept of, 27–33
surplus
evolution of civilization and, 21–22
as market driver for globalization, 190
symbols, communication using, 199–204
Taccola, Mariano di Jacopo detto il, 163
Taino tribe, 126
tampu (Inca villages), 205
Tang dynasty, 134
Taoism, 267–268
economic theory and, 37
Tapscott, Don, 55
tariffs and taxation
history of international trade and, 76–83, 277–284
mercantilism and, 139–140
quinto (trading tariff), 160
tea
right-to-trade principles in U.S. and, 157–158
Tibet-Chinese trade in, 113–114
Tea-Horse Road, 113–114
technology, globalization and, 5–25
Tesco, 219
Third Lateran Council, 272
Tibet, Chinese trade with, 113–114
“Timaeus” (Plato), 49
Timbuktu, early trading history of, 80–81
Toscanelli, Paolo, 163
Townshend Acts, 158
trade
age of exploration and, 137–166
anthropological research on, 41–43
by Carthaginians and Celts, 102–103
civilization and, 17–22
collective intelligence theory and, 54–56
commercial imperative for, 18–19, 133, 150–152
commercial infrastructure for, 213–221
communication innovation and, 197–230
in Danube Valley, 101–102
in early Africa, 83–85
of early Arab cultures, 85–86
in early China, 105–116
in early Greece, 92–103, 93f, 96f
in early Japan, 116–118
in Egypt and the Near East, 76–83
failure of, 22–25
history of, 5–25, 65–66
in India, 103–105
Korean trade, 118–119
in Mesopotamia, 72–73
in Mexico and South America, 119–126, 123f
in North America, 127–128
origins of, 39–43
Petra and history of, 86–89
Phoenician ocean trading empire, 89–92
recorded history of, 67–136
road construction and evolution of, 204–208
in Roman Empire, 98–101, 98f
social imperative for, 56–58
social infrastructure for, 197–230
societal growth or demise and, 58–61
transportation technology and, 208–213
Western society and history of, 72–103
trademark law, 294–298
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS), 298
Trajan’s Market, 194, 216
transnational alliances, against piracy, 281
transportation technology
bottomry and, 240
trade and, 208–213
Treaty of Nanjing, 112
Treaty of Tordesillas, 160–161, 160f, 273
Treaty of Zaragoza, 160f, 161
tribal regimes, business regulations in, 278
Trojan War, 94, 222
Troy, history of trade in, 93–94, 93f
Tucker, Jeffrey A., 5–6
Twelve Tables of Rome, 287
21st Century Maritime Silk Road, 208
Tyrian purple dye, 90
Tzu, Chuang, 37
Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), 228, 253
United Kingdom. See England
United States
copyright law in, 294–295
currency regulation in, 235–236
patent law in, 292
right-to-trade principles and founding of, 157–158
slavery in, 228–229
units of value, in Mesopotamian trade, 73
Universal Copyright Convention, 298
universal trade regulation, 295–296
urban growth, history of trade and, 71
Urkagina’s Code, 286
Ur-Nammu’s Code, 286
use value, Muslim concept of, 38
U. S. Navy, piracy controlled by, 281
value maintenance, absence of exchange and, 24–25
Varner, Caron H., Jr., MD, 254–255
Venice, history of trade in, 108, 142, 148–149, 163, 272, 292
Vermeer’s Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World, 111
Vespucci, Amerigo, 147, 164
Via Salaria (Italy), 180
Vikings, trade and explorations of, 127, 129–131, 138, 141, 146, 152
virtual corporation, 264
virtual monopoly, 90
virtual relationships, 264
Von Daniken, Erich, 50
Voyager Golden Records, 203
Wadi Gawasis, 80
Waite, Morrison Remick, 100
Walmart, 219
wampum, 128, 232–233, 238
Wang, Haiyan, 312
war
government bonds for financing of, 239–240
incense and spice trade and, 186–187
religion and, 248
role of trade in, 6, 93
War Bonds, 239
Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power and Civilization (Solomon), 89
wealth accumulation
absence in collective societies of, 138–139
colonialism and, 161–166
religion and, 268
Wealth of Nations, The. See Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, An (Smith)
Weatherford, Jack, 236–237
Weber, Max, 269
weights and measures
in China trade, 103
in early Indian trade, 103–105
in Egyptian trade, 81–82
history of trade and introduction of, 76
Weimar Republic, monetary crisis in, 235
Western society
history of trade and in, 72–103
religious orders in, 252–262
Weymouth, George, 128
wheel, invention of, 208–213
Williams, Anthony, 55
“Work and Days” (Hesiod), 30, 32
World International Property Organization (WIPO), 297–298
World Is Flat, The (Friedman), 13
World Trade Organization (WTO), 280, 283, 298
written records
in China, 109
Code of Hammurabi requirement for, 285–286
communication and, 197–204
development of civilization and, 72–73, 93
on incense and spice commodities trading, 181–187
Wu-Ti, 109
Xenophon, 28, 30
Xerxes (Persian king), 94
Xian, terracotta soldiers in, 108
yin and yang, Taoist principle of, 267
Yule, Henry, 133, 309
Zhong, Guang, 36–37
Zhu Di, 107, 210