INTRODUCTION

For a first-hand account of a news event, not even the best online digging can top the emotion gleaned from a face-to-face interview. While news wires and search engines can provide endless streams of data and research, an interview stands alone as a source of information from an eyewitness, an expert in the field, or even a man on the street.

The most basic interview can answer the fundamental journalism questions of who, what, where, when, why, and how—you may recognize these questions from the five Ws and H rule previously discussed in Chapter 8, Writing Compelling Leads. To accomplish this, the reporter locates a subject who has an opinion or some information about a given topic. Simply put, the goal is for the reporter to find out as much newsworthy information as they can from the person they are interviewing.

Newspaper and magazine reporters have the luxury of going into depth in their interviews. Because radio and TV reporters have limited time on the air, they have less time to conduct their interviews. Therefore, they must be well prepared and selective in their questioning; spending a full hour on an interview to retrieve a mere 15-second bite is a colossal waste of everyone’s time.

FAST FACT: One of the profession’s best interviewers, Edward R. Murrow, began broadcasting in 1938 in Vienna. His first report was that one “Herr Hitler” was late for a meeting.

This chapter is segmented into the three different timeframes of interviewing. First, it reviews how reporters perform background research before the interview takes place. Second, the dynamics of how to conduct a successful interview are explored. Third, we’ll examine what steps the reporter must take after the interview is over.

Finally, we’ll discuss three distinct concerns of interviewing: Going off the record, conducting man-on-the-street interviews, and interviewing over the phone.

It is important to first become familiar with several of the terms you’ll see throughout the chapter. In broadcast jargon, the interviewee is usually referred to as the talking head. Quotes that are used from the interviewee are called sound bites, but are usually referred to as simply bites.

BEFORE THE INTERVIEW

Journalists should always research the subject and find out as much as possible about the person to be interviewed. In addition to sources around the newsroom, some news organizations also have access to computer database services such as LexisNexis, which indexes national and some regional newspapers, the wire services, and more than 100 magazines and journals. There are also a number of other information-providing services on the Internet (Google, Yahoo!, searchable wire services, etc.), but journalists must choose their sources carefully. Far too many “news sources” on the Internet are merely blogs and personal opinions.

Social media searches are also valuable, as many people volunteer information about themselves and post it online. Of course, journalists should be wary of the information there. Like a virtual blog, most of the social media posts are self-serving and may not be accurate. However, reporters can quickly check a person’s Facebook page, their Twitter account, and their most recent Instagram posts to find out information before moving forward with a story. Dustin Swedelson, a Producer at SiriusXM’s Mad Dog Sports Radio, says:

When we have a guest on our show background research allows us to develop a strategy for what we are going to talk about. We usually have someone join us to offer a perspective that most people don’t have. Finding out enough information to focus on the right aspects of someone’s expertise allows us to generate the best possible content. Use the information you collect to highlight why your guest’s opinion matters.

Reporters also must decide before the interview what kind of information they want. Interviews are not always expected to produce news. Some are designed to solicit emotional responses, such as those conducted for a human-interest story. Other interviews are attempts to find out more about the newsmaker or, perhaps, his or her family. Reporters might seek such information if, for example, the interviewee had been appointed to some public post or as head of the local hospital.

If a reporter is interviewing the winner of a congressional seat, she is going to be looking for information that is different from what she sought the day before when she interviewed the mother of quadruplets. The reporter will want to ask the congresswoman-elect about her priorities when she gets to Washington, why she thinks her campaign was a success, and, perhaps, whether she believes her victory indicates some sort of national trend. When the reporter spoke to the mother of quadruplets, she asked questions about the problems of taking care of four babies, about whether the house is big enough to accommodate the family, and so on.

WARMING UP

Reporters differ on just how much they should disclose to the interviewee about the line of questioning before the interview starts. The advantage of warming up the subject is that it gives the person time to collect his or her thoughts, usually ensuring a smoother interview. Without a warm-up, the interviewee might be caught by surprise. The person might say, “I had no idea you would ask that; I really don’t know the answer” or try unsuccessfully to fake an answer. Warming up an interviewee also tends to put the person more at ease; a relaxed person usually provides a better interview.

Reporters sometimes do not want the interviewee to know the questions in advance because they plan to ask questions about a controversial topic designed to catch the person by surprise. There is no rule against warming up the interviewee, but some reporters are opposed to it. Almost all agree that it should be restricted to those situations in which the reporter is looking for noncontroversial information. For example, a reporter would not warm up the head if the questions dealt with charges that the person misappropriated funds during an election campaign.

DURING THE INTERVIEW

As an interview unfolds, far too many journalists assume the technical elements have been satisfied and their work is now solely for a sound bite. This is not the case. Too often, a background passerby will wave at the camera or a loud generator will roar to life. If the distraction is a minor inconvenience like a ringing phone, you may pause the interview for a moment. If the problem is greater, deal with it professionally. Above all, do not simply ignore the issue and hope the subject does the same. If you hear a car honking as the vehicle drives past, you can assume the interviewee heard the noise as well.

PHRASING QUESTIONS CAREFULLY

Many people interviewed by reporters are shy by nature or intimidated by microphones and cameras. Some others just seem to measure their words carefully. In order to prevent one- and two-word responses, reporters must phrase their questions so they are impossible to answer with a “yes” or “no” or by just a shake of the head.

If you ask a person, “Do you like farming?” you are bound to get a “yes” or “no” answer, but if you ask “What do you like about farming?” you should get a sound bite. If you ask a witness to an auto accident, “Did you see what happened?” you might, again, end up with a one-word response. If you ask, “What did you see?” you’ll most likely get a longer response. Children are particularly likely to give “yes” or “no” answers so ask them open-ended questions and be patient.

AVOIDING LEADING QUESTIONS

Do not lead the interviewee toward giving a particular response; some of the best reporters are sometimes guilty of this bad habit. A simple faux pas may be asking a subject, “It sure is hot this week, isn’t it?” The reporter here has gone far beyond merely guiding the interview. In this case, the subject is being asked to agree with the reporter.

During his first prime-time news conference, President Barack Obama faced a series of questions about the economy, international issues, and other challenges that confront a national leader. Michael A. Fletcher of The Washington Post then asked the new president his reaction to baseball star Alex Rodriguez admitting that he once used steroids. Obama declared that Rodriguez’s story was “depressing news.”

In this case, Fletcher lobbed a question that, while it may not have been a leading question, surely begged for only one correct answer. Given the controversy over steroid use and the universal disgust over the practice, Obama could produce only one answer: Steroids are bad. Fletcher was wrong to ask such a slanted question, especially when the opportunity to ask a new president about any subject presented itself. After all, does anyone expect the president to say he favors illegal steroid use?

The only time leading questions are acceptable is when they are used to warm up the interview subject before the actual interview begins. Asking someone to agree if the weather is too hot, if the local unbeaten baseball team is impressive, or if they’re looking forward to a relaxing weekend can put someone at ease. But asking that same question on camera is a wasted opportunity. Asking the president of the United States his thoughts on steroids in baseball, when so many other challenging questions are there for the taking, is shameful.

LISTENING CAREFULLY

Reporters should arrive at an interview with a list of questions that they intend to ask the newsmaker. They also must develop a keen habit of listening carefully to the answers and asking follow-up questions. Many inexperienced reporters are so intent on asking their prepared questions that they fail to listen to the answers. They often do not realize that their previous question was not answered fully, or at all. Sometimes, to the embarrassment of all, the reporter asks a question that has already been answered. The astute newsmaker—often anticipating the reporter’s next question—sometimes adds additional information to an earlier response. The rude awakening comes when the reporter asks another question on the list and the newsmaker says, “I just answered that.”

Another effective technique is to establish direct eye contact with the person being interviewed. It’s easier for reporters to concentrate on what people are saying if they look them right in the eye. This habit also establishes good rapport. Maintaining eye contact with newsmakers lets them know that the reporter is listening and interested. If the reporter’s eyes drift toward the list of questions or to the cameraperson, the newsmaker might take that as a signal that he or she has said enough and wait for another question even though he or she might not have finished answering the previous question.

FIGURE 10.1 DW labs DW labs Incorporated/Shutterstock.com

THE TOUGH QUESTIONS

A difficult trait to overcome as a novice reporter is the reluctance to ask tough questions. It often goes against instinct to directly ask someone a question that might prompt discomfort or hostility. Fortunately for those reporters, most interviews will not require a tough question.

However, the reporter’s job sometimes requires asking questions that the subject may perceive as irritating or even confrontational. These instances may happen when asking an engineer about flooding in a new subdivision, questioning a football coach about a poorly called game, or interviewing a jaywalker about crossing the street without looking both ways. Seasoned interviewees, like veteran politicians, may not be riled easily. Others may pass you off to their attorney or, in the case of celebrities, to their manager.

Although there are no good ways to ask tough questions, some techniques work better than others. First, unless the interview is going to be brief, avoid asking a tough question at the start; this only creates a confrontational atmosphere for all subsequent questions. Second, if the question may be attributed to a third party, you can phrase the question neutrally. For example: “Senator, your challenger in the upcoming election says fraud is rampant in your campaign. How do you respond?”

This will still elicit an answer without putting you in a direct confrontation with the subject. Use this technique if there are indeed charges from another source. It is poor journalism to use a “straw man” question to an unnamed source, such as: “Senator, a lot of people say fraud is rampant in your campaign. How do you respond?”

There are also some instances where reporters are expected to ask direct questions. Remember that politicians, police chiefs, and football coaches are accustomed to direct questions that require direct answers. There is always the possibility that they will refuse to answer. Still, you need to ask.

KEEPING CONTROL

Sometimes reporters inadvertently allow newsmakers to take control of an interview. Politicians are particularly skilled at manipulating interviews. For example, some politicians take a couple of minutes to answer a question, whereas others ask reporters how long a response they want and then give an answer of exactly that length. Because politicians and others accustomed to working with broadcast journalists know that reporters think in terms of sound bites, they usually try to express their views in about 12 seconds to make sure their answers are not edited.

A problem arises when the newsmaker takes too long to respond. The choice then is either to interrupt or to allow the subject to finish the answer and then ask the question again, saying, “That was great, but could you simplify that a little bit?” Most often the individual is happy to comply, which simplifies the editing process and results in a more natural-sounding response. Editing a sound bite down from a minute to 20 seconds sometimes alters the speaker’s inflections.

Some newsmakers try to mislead reporters. They avoid answering some questions and skirt around others. Unless challenged, newsmakers often dominate interview situations. If someone doesn’t answer the question or gives only a partial answer, the reporter should try to follow up. The newsmaker often then gives largely the same answer phrased differently. The reporter then needs to decide whether to ask the question a third time or perhaps to say to the newsmaker, “I’m sorry, but you still have not answered my question.” When the response is, “That’s all I’m going to say on the subject,” that in itself makes a statement. The reporter might then note in the story, “When pressed to answer the question several times, he refused to elaborate on the original answer.”

KEEPING A NEUTRAL DEMEANOR

Television reporters must be concerned about their facial expressions and head movements during an interview, particularly in a studio situation when two or more cameras are being used. Limiting this natural tendency is also important in field situations when listening shots of the reporter (called reversals) are being taken for editing purposes. It’s permissible for reporters to smile or to nod their heads in agreement during an interview about a noncontroversial subject.

To the contrary, when the issue is controversial and involves a subject with more than one point of view, a reporter cannot be shown expressing agreement or disagreement. A smile or frown or nod could send a wrong signal to an audience. The question of credibility and objectivity immediately comes into question.

KYTV’s Ethan Forhetz notes:

For me, this depends on the story. If I’m interviewing a political candidate about policy, I keep a neutral demeanor so as not to be seen in a cutaway “agreeing” with what he’s saying. For the most part, though, I’ll nod along to give the person confidence that he is doing a good job. We have to rememberthat most people don’t talk to a camera for a living so having the light in your face and all eyes on you can be intimidating and unnerving. Part of what it takes to get the best story possible is to make the interviewee comfortable to be himself. That’s when the best sound and the best unguarded moments happen.

FIGURE 10.2 Jose Girarte/iStockphoto.com

IDENTIFYING SOUND BITES

Successful reporters who have researched the topic and the newsmaker know when they have just the right amount of material. Because they have an idea of what information they hoped to hear, they know which sound bites they will probably end up using, plus they also have a fairly accurate idea of how long those bites will run.

Most usable sound bites from an interviewee will last between eight and 12 seconds. Less than that is tricky, as the subject appears on camera for only a few seconds, which is barely enough time for their name to be superimposed. Further, it doesn’t give the viewer enough time to connect with the subject. Longer bites pose their own problems, however, as the reporter effectively cedes the story to the subject to make a prolonged speech.

The balance remains in a two- or three-sentence sound bite, which allows the subject to appear on camera and make a cohesive statement without monopolizing the story. Veteran reporters conduct interviews while listening for sound bites; even though they don’t mentally count how many seconds a sound bite lasts, they develop a sense of what will work in the story.

Let’s review the following exchange in which a reporter interviews a county commissioner about the lack of sidewalks near a county elementary school.

The Commissioner’s first three answers of “That’s right,” “Yes,” and “They sure have” are mundane responses to weak questions. The reporter basically asked a series of yes/no questions, yielding answers that are too short for a television news sound bite.

The fourth answer is the best. Not only does it elicit emotion, it also lasts long enough for a graphic to be inserted over the bite to identify the speaker.

Finally, when identifying sound bites, it is vital to not talk over the interviewee. Instead of quickly rushing in with a follow-up question, allow a brief second between the subject’s voice and your own. This will make editing easier back at the station.

CHECKING FACTS

Some responses during an interview may not sound right. If that happens, reporters should tell the newsmaker that something is puzzling them or that they do not quite understand the answer. If the answers still do not sound true or are confusing, the reporters should check the information as soon as possible. Reporters could try contacting other sources who might have the same information or research the newsroom files, the library, or computer databases. If the information cannot be verified, reporters should explain that in the story. For example:

The head of the Bolivar Power Company said there had never been an accident at the plant in the two years since it opened until today, when four people were seriously injured. We were unable to reach a union representative to verify the statement.

ASKING ENOUGH QUESTIONS

It takes time to develop the skill of knowing when you have asked enough questions during an interview. Reporters just entering the field tend to ask too many questions, usually because they are understandably insecure. As reporters gain experience, they develop a feel for when they have collected enough information.

Because time is precious to a broadcast reporter, asking too many questions means that the reporter spends more time than necessary at the scene or on the phone. That leaves less time for working on other stories and complicates the editing process.

The pressure of conducting interviews quickly can sometimes cause reporters to miss important information. It is often a good idea for the reporter to ask the interviewee if he or she would like to add anything or to ask candidly if the reporter might have missed anything important. It is surprising how often the response is, “Well, as a matter of fact, I probably should tell you . . .”

FINISHING THE INTERVIEW

As the interview winds down, there are a few basic strategies to gather the last information as well as to signal the subject that you’re wrapping up; you will find some interviewees can ramble on all day.

Some reporters ask an open-ended question such as “As we’re wrapping up, do you have any final thoughts on the subject?” Others prefer to ask for how to cover the story, such as, “We’re heading out to the location right now. Can you suggest anything we might want to get on camera?”

One effective technique is to ask for a website or email address that you can release on the newscast. For example, if the Red Cross Disaster Services is having a fundraiser and its website has the details, asking for the Internet address wraps up the interview while giving you a tidbit to pass along to viewers as well.

AFTER THE INTERVIEW

Once the interview is over, thank the interviewee for their time. Grab a business card (or double-check the contact information) so that you can follow up with them later. Also, take a moment to help the videographer break down the equipment; you need to get out as quickly as possible so the interviewee can get on with their day.

It is important that you never promise that the interview will be on a particular newscast. Stories are frequently dropped, plus there’s always the chance that the story may air but the interview will not make the final cut. To avoid frustrating interviewees, let them know you hope to get it on that evening, but make no promises in the field. If they are insistent on knowing if they’ll be on or not, you can always call them once the newscast’s rundown is finished.

RETURNING TO THE STATION

Too much time is lost in the driving period between an interview location and the newsroom. If the videographer is driving, the reporter has an opportunity to review the sound bites through a digital player or cell phone. With fewer stations using videotape as they transition to digital recording, journalists can scan through the interview on a tablet or laptop computer.

When building a news package (as detailed in the next chapter), it is important to identify the usable sound bites as quickly as possible. This can be done just as easily in a moving news van as in the station’s editing room. Your memory of the interview is fresher directly after it occurs, so it’s more effective to scan the interview’s bites while en route to the newsroom.

As you identify the sound bites, look for both technical and editorial value. From the technical side, is the subject shot well with good lighting, appropriate framing, and with an acceptable audio level? From the editorial side, is there a solid sound bite that lasts ten to 12 seconds that conveys the subject’s point of view? Jot down notes in a notepad because once the bites are identified, it’s much easier to write your news package.

FIGURE 10.3 SpeedKingz/Shutterstock.com

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

While interviews may follow a predictable pattern, no two interviews are the same. Some of them are spur-of-the-moment questions of a passing politician, whereas others have the luxury of more planning. Still, no discussion of interviewing would be complete without acknowledging a handful of special considerations: Interviewees who want to talk off the record, man-on-the-street interviews, and interviews conducted on the phone.

OFF THE RECORD

One frustration of being a reporter is being told: “I’ll discuss that with you only if you promise not to use it.” When the tape recorders and cameras are turned off, the newsmaker sometimes reveals what turns out to be the best part of the interview. That information—even if it is off the record—is often useful to reporters because it can lead to other people who will reveal the same information publically.

There are varying degrees to being off the record:

■On the record: Everything that is said and recorded can be used and attributed to the person.

■Unattributable: The information can be reported but the source cannot be named directly. This is seen when a story is sourced as “according to one top official” or “according to a senior-level executive.”

■Off the record: The information can provide background or point the reporter into a specific direction.

Reporters must honor any off-the-record agreement. A reporter who breaks that promise is guilty of a serious breach of ethics. It should be noted that any off-the-record agreement must be acknowledged in advance by both parties. Imagine the chaos that would result if an elected official said the following during a press conference:

Obviously, we want to settle the employee’s lawsuit out of court. He knows that our bidding process is illegal and we want to keep those details out of an open court. To shut him up, we’re just going to pay him a bunch of money and hope he goes away. Of course, since this is a pending case, all of this is off the record.

Wrong. The interviewee and reporter must both agree to go “off the record” before the information is released; the agreement must be accepted by both in advance to be binding. Once agreed, the reporter puts down the pen and shuts off the camera. After the off-the-record conversation has finished, both parties then acknowledge to go back “on the record.” The reality is that, aside from covering congressional staff or military sources, local reporters seldom deal with off-the-record situations.

MAN-ON-THE-STREET INTERVIEWS

Although these do not occur as frequently as in years past, reporters can still expect to conduct the occasional man-on-the-street interview. The premise is simple: Take a question that the ordinary citizen might like to give a comment on, put a camera up at a busy location, and quickly pose the question to those happening by.

These interviews either succeed or fail by the quality of the question.

Again, like any good interviewing question, avoid a query that will result in a “yes” or “no” answer. Asking people if they like the local football team is a waste of time. But asking them to predict what it will take for the team to win the championship will pull in better answers.

Man-on-the-street interviews usually do not require the subjects’ names to be superimposed as they speak. Instead, these are edited back to back with no reversal or cover video to hide the edits.

FIGURE 10.4 acitore/iStockphoto.com

When shooting a succession of interviews, it’s important to vary both your background and the direction the interviewee is facing. If you’re limited to one location, this means to spin the camera in a different direction so that the background will change between shots. Otherwise, you’ll leave your editor with various heads popping into and out of the frame while the background remains static.

THE PHONE INTERVIEW

Radio reporters have the option of conducting many of their interviews on the phone. Current audio technology allows the radio reporter to dial a number, press a button on a computer input, and digitally record an interview with superb quality. The recording may suffer if the interviewee is on a cell phone with spotty reception, but radio reporters frequently rely on nothing more than a phone line for their news.

Television reporters use the phone only as a last resort because interviews without pictures are weak. If you must conduct a phone interview, it is important to remember the following notes:

■Tell the subject they are being recorded for broadcast as soon as the interview starts. Not only is it good form, a number of state laws prohibit recording phone calls unless both parties are aware the recording is taking place.

■Make sure you are getting good audio levels with your digital recorder.

■Keep the interview brief. Once you alert the subject that you are recording for a newscast, get right to the questions.

■During the interview, let the subject finish the answer before asking the next question. Unless you listen carefully, you might interrupt the answer before it is complete, which sometimes makes editing sound bites difficult.

■As you wrap up the interview, ask the subject if there’s anything you missed or if they’d like to add something else.

■When finished, alert your producer that you have a phone interview. If it’s to be used on a newscast, the graphics department must be alerted to create a full-screen graphic to play over the audio.

Phone interviews should only be used when it is impossible to interview the individual in person. It is unprofessional to conduct an interview on the phone with a nearby subject when you could hop in a car and go to the person’s office. Phone interviews are most effective when used to reach newsmakers in another part of the country or overseas. Such interviews demonstrate to the audience that the station is making a special effort to cover the news.

SUMMARY

To conduct a good interview, you must prepare for it. Do some research to find out as much as you can about the person you will be interviewing. Decide on the kind of information you want and choose your questions accordingly.

Remember to listen carefully during an interview. Make sure your questions are answered to your satisfaction. If they aren’t, say so, and follow up on your questions. Don’t be used. Try to maintain control of the interview. If you permit it, the interviewee will often take over. Keep to your objectives; don’t let the head go off on tangents.

Finally, interviews are not necessarily a reliable source of accurate information because those being interviewed want to be perceived in the best light. Do not hesitate to ask to double-check facts or ask a tough question. After all, that’s the heart of what reporters do.