8
PRESENTATIONS: DESIGNING AND DELIVERING
In the previous chapter, you wrote, sketched and organised your ideas for your presentation on paper, whiteboard or sticky notes (or you’ve developed and organised them using software). Then, you created a content outline. In this chapter, you will learn how you can use these resources to write notes and create visuals for your presentation. Your goal is to deliver a spontaneous, passionate, engaging presentation that resonates with your audience.
PREPARING NOTES FOR YOUR PRESENTATION
In contrast to a speech, you do not have to write the presentation in its entirety and deliver it verbatim. Nor do you have to memorise it word for word. If you do deliver it from memory, you risk appearing formal, stilted and lacking in conviction. And there is also the risk that you could forget something and stumble in your presentation.
Instead, for presentations, I recommend creating a set of notes—either written or printed on index cards or written in PowerPoint notes—and speaking extemporaneously. Write whatever number of notes you require, one for each slide, if necessary. Each note should be brief—just a few words that work as a memory key.
PREPARING VISUALS FOR YOUR PRESENTATION
One of the first things you should consider when preparing your presentation is whether you want to use visuals, such as pictures, graphs, tables or props. You may decide to make a presentation to your supervisor, members of your team, a senior executive or others inside or outside your organisation without using visuals. Some experienced speakers talk to large groups without any reference to visuals. Would it make any difference to your audience whether you used visuals?
Without visuals, the focus of the audience is entirely on you. You will not have to worry about finding or creating visual material, but to hold the attention of the audience during a presentation, you will have to excel at storytelling, explaining, informing, persuading and inspiring. You cannot depend on any visual information for support.
If you do decide to create visuals, which type should you use? Flip charts, whiteboards or paper handouts are suitable for a small audience in a conference room or other small venue. They lend themselves to the intimacy and informality of one-on-one meetings or small group discussions. Projectors or slide presentations work well for larger, more formal groups. A brief discussion of each type of visual follows.
Flip Charts
Flip charts—or large pads of paper sheets—are designed to be mounted on a stand or on wheels (for ease of transport) or to stand alone on a table. The presenter writes and draws on a sheet with a marker and flips over the sheet in order to start with a fresh sheet. The presenter has the option of creating charts in advance and creating more charts during the presentation, for example, to elaborate on an idea or answer a question from the audience. Flip charts can provide a permanent record of a presentation.
Whiteboards
Whiteboards are white glossy surfaces for writing and drawing with a non-permanent marker. Chalkboards or clear acrylic marker boards serve the same purpose. A presenter can write and diagram on a board, and, in moments of insight and spontaneity, add or erase what’s on the board. If you use an interactive whiteboard, you can save what you’ve written on your computer and print a hard copy.
Paper Handouts
You could also create a presentation using sheets of paper—a deck or handout—that contains information and illustrations. Paper handouts typically are reserved for presentations to individuals or small groups, with copies given to each participant. You can go through the handout and discuss it with the participants.
Projectors
Overhead projectors are used in classrooms and conference rooms, but not as extensively today as in the past. Instead, presenters use video projectors that display data, images or video, as well as interactive whiteboards or computer projection systems. To be sure, some presenters still use overhead projectors. Among other reasons, transparencies can be easily organised and managed, and paper can be placed over part of the transparency to highlight or emphasise the exposed section.
Slides
For formal presentations, you can use computer and presentation software to create slides and a projector to show them on a screen. Properly designed and organised, slides illuminate, amplify and enhance presentations; they add depth, interest and variety.
But no matter how good they are, your slides are intended to support, not carry, your presentation. People planning to attend your presentation are not going to say, ‘I don’t know about the speaker, but I’m really looking forward to seeing the slides!’ The audience is there to see and hear you, and it’s up to you to engage, enlighten and persuade them. If you succeed, you can thank your slides later.
DESIGNING YOUR SLIDE PRESENTATION
The rest of this chapter will focus on creating an effective PowerPoint presentation. For better or worse, PowerPoint is the world’s leading presentation software, with an estimated 95% market share. No doubt you have sat through your share of groan-inducing slide presentations. Perhaps you have also attended or watched videos of presentations that stood out for their power to engage, enlighten and inspire.
As might be expected for such a ubiquitous program as PowerPoint, it has its critics. One commentator writes that ‘...the software’s users continue to prove that no field of human endeavour can defy its facility for reducing complexity and nuance to bullet points and big ideas to tacky clip art.’1
Part of the problem is that some users, particularly those who have little or no experience in designing slides, depend on PowerPoint’s standard templates of charts, smart art, tables, themes and transitions to create presentations. Other users use the templates because it is standard practice in their organisation. Still, other users fall back on the templates because they are pressed for time or as a matter of expediency.
As a result, these various users limit their choices. They use templates to create not just some presentations but every presentation. The effect can be a certain sameness to presentations, including the ubiquitous use of bullet points and a disconnect between the design and function of the presentation. It’s as if everyone in a community built houses using the same floor plan and materials. The houses get built, but they lack originality and practicality. They were not designed to meet the needs and tastes of individual owners.
On the other hand, a well-designed PowerPoint presentation can enhance your content. Some examples of the most creative uses of PowerPoint can be found in the winning entries in SlideShare’s World’s Best Presentation Contest.2 If you are searching for some inspiration for your next presentation, take a look at some of the winning entries. In the 2009 contest, for example, the winning entry was ‘American Health Care: a 4-Napkin Explanation.’ Using sketches and napkins, the presentation sought to explain the state of US healthcare legislation. That 51-slide presentation was far easier to understand than the 1,000-page bills that were then winding their way through Congress. At their best, PowerPoint presentations will inspire and inform your audience. With a little effort, you too could design a winning presentation.
Whatever designs you, or someone else, creates for your slides, the aim is simplicity and clarity. With that goal in mind, this section offers some guidelines you can use to design your slides.
Mix of Slides
The following are some options for how to present information on slides. Your slides can contain
text;
pictures (photographs, illustrations, diagrams or clip art); or
charts, graphs or tables.
‘The most interesting and eye-catching, and therefore the most successful, presentations use a mix of the three methods of expression,’ writes Deborah Dumaine.3 Using different options creates variety for your audience, keeps them focused and persuades them to act.
Number of Slides
Your content will determine the number of slides you need, but there are some suggested guidelines you can follow to break up your content effectively. For slides containing text, some communication experts suggest a 7 x 7 rule, or seven lines per slide and seven words per line; or a 6 x 6 rule, or six lines per slide and six words per line. Another option is to let your outline guide your slide creation, such as one slide for each segment of your presentation: one for your introduction, one for the transition, one for the theme statement that begins the content, and so on. Your time limit might also determine the amount of slides you use. Former Apple employee Guy Kawasaki suggests a 10/20/30 rule for PowerPoint presentations: no more than ten slides in twenty minutes with no less than 30-point font.
The idea behind such guidelines is that each slide contains—or should contain—a discrete idea, and that there are only so many ideas, images and bits of information that an audience can comprehend. Furthermore, an audience wants to view a presentation for only so long. Beyond these visual and time limits, the slides could become a forgettable blur, and the audience could grow impatient.
Nancy Duarte, CEO of Duarte Inc., a presentation design and training company, says slides should pass the ‘glance test.’ ‘A slide’s message should come across in two or three seconds. An audience can only process one stream of information at a time, and you want them to hear what you’re saying.’4 If a slide is too complex, break it into multiple slides, each conveying a discrete message.
Above all, make sure your slides remind your audience of your key message. If your presentation has a powerful story, a logical narrative structure and slides that are seamlessly interwoven with your story, your audience may not know or care how many slides were shown. They’ll remember your presentation—not the number of slides or the time taken.
Design Elements
If the information in slides is confusing, the problem usually isn’t the information itself—it’s the design. Edward Tufte, author of books on information design, said in an interview with Advertising Age, ‘overload, clutter, and confusion are not attributes of information, they are failures of design.’5 His solution for a cluttered slide presentation is to fix the design, not throw out the information.
Designing a slide involves a selection of design elements. One of the most important considerations when selecting elements is the ‘back-of-the-room test.’ Have you ever sat in the back of a large meeting room or hall and couldn’t read the slides that the speaker put up on the screen? Maybe the speaker should have thought of that before the presentation. So, make sure your slides will be visible from any location. Sit in the back of your meeting room and put some test slides on the screen. Will people sitting in the back be able to see your slides? If not, you may need to reconsider the size of some of your design elements.
PowerPoint and Keynote, another presentation design program, allow you to design your own slide master as an alternative to using their templates. (The bibliography also lists books and articles on creating presentations, including visual design.)
The following are some design tips you will want to consider as you are developing your slides:
Determine a font size and type. Use fonts that the audience can easily read. Presentation experts differ on which fonts to use, but seem to prefer 24- to 36-point size. As for font type, serif-type fonts like Times New Roman are suggested for text and sans-serif fonts like Arial, Tahoma and Verdana for headlines. Use no more than two or three typefaces for slide presentations. Don’t use delicate fonts that wash out.
Be consistent. Be consistent in your use of fonts, font types and spacing. Every slide from your first to your last should be consistent.
Use strong contrasts. Use strong contrasts between text, images and photos and the background of your slide.
Use engaging titles. Put titles at the top of your slides to capture the point of each slide, enable your audience to quickly understand the purpose of the slide, and provide transitions between slides.
Write phrases, not sentences. Use the fewest number of words to communicate your idea or message, but be specific. ‘Profits declined’ is short but too general. ‘Profits increased 20% to $5 million in 2012’ is specific. This might go with a bar chart showing the dollar amount in profits in 2012 versus 2011.
Skip the jargon. You understand the technical terms used in accounting or finance, but don’t assume everyone in your audience does.
Use capitalisation sparingly. AVOID WRITING SENTENCES SUCH AS THIS ONE IN WHICH EVERY WORD IS CAPITALISED. Avoid Using Sentences Such As This One With All Initial Caps. Such sentences are difficult to read. Instead, use sentence case, capitalising only the first letter of the first word and any proper nouns.
Limit the number of bullet point slides. Sometimes you may find yourself struggling to come up with an idea for a slide. ‘Well, I’ll put in some bullet points and be done with it,’ you say to yourself. Don’t default to bullet points. Consider alternatives such as graphs, charts, diagrams, photos and illustrations. You may find better ways to communicate the information in your slide than bullet points. This is not to say you shouldn’t use bullet points, but they should be used modestly, for specific purposes such as explaining technical subjects.
Junk the chartjunk. ‘Chartjunk’ is a term coined by information design guru Edward Tufte in his book The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.6 It consists of visual elements in charts and graphs that are not necessary for the viewer to comprehend the information represented. With today’s presentation software, you can easily create razzle-dazzle slides filled with chartjunk. But chartjunk only serves to distract, confuse or annoy your audience.
Value empty space. In contrast with chartjunk, empty space is integral to a slide. Some presenters don’t seem to appreciate this. In Presentation Zen, author Reynolds says, ‘One of the biggest mistakes typical businesspeople make with presentation slides (and documents) is going out of their way to seemingly use every centimetre of space, filling it with text, boxes, clip art, charts, footers and the ubiquitous company logo.’7 Reynolds notes that empty space suggests elegance and clarity and gives the few elements on a slide their power.
Colours
Like images and words, colours define your presentation. They set the tone, shape your message, distinguish your brand and guide your audience through your presentation. They add richness, context and variety to your presentation.
What colours should you choose? As always, start with your audience. What are their preferences? What is the purpose of the presentation? If you were making a formal presentation to an audience of several hundred business executives, it might be best to stick to conservative foreground colours, such as blue. If you were making a presentation to a group of employees to get them fired up to start a project, you might use foreground colours such as red, orange or yellow that stimulate your audience.
When creating slides, consider the relationship of your background and foreground colours and the relationship of foreground colours to one another. You could choose any variation of colours for your background—or you could go for a white or black background. If you are doing a formal presentation, you might choose a white or black background that would set your foreground colours in sharp relief. Or, to set a more informal, relaxed tone, you might choose a different background.
Ensure that your foreground colours contrast well with your background. Choose foreground colours to create a complementary or contrasting colour mix or a combination of complementary and contrasting colours. Experiment. Try different colours and relationships on some slides and test them using the projector and screen you will use for your presentation. You don’t have to rely on the pre-chosen PowerPoint colour schemes either. Try online tools at sites like colourcombos.com or colourlover.com, where you can browse colour schemes.
Presentation Design Example
Armed with your new design knowledge, let’s return to our example from the list of possible introductions in the ‘Introduction’ section in the last chapter. The example given was ‘Over the next five years, one out of every five people in our company will retire. That means 5,000 people will leave our workforce. How are we going to recruit enough people to replace our growing number of retirees?’ Let’s use this scenario to develop sample slides to illustrate some of the points about designing slide presentations that were previously discussed.
The title for a slide should be engaging and short. For our example, some potential slide titles might be
5,000 people: gone in five years.
5,000 people: gone by 2017.
Talent drain: 5,000 employees to retire by 2017.
Retirement rate will double over next five years.
The slide’s content should be visually appealing, making good use of white space and using bullet lists and long text sparingly. An effective use of space could be an illustration that shows that 2,500 people retired in the past ten years while 5,000 people, or twice as many, will retire over the next five years, or in half the time.
If you want to play on your audience’s emotions, drive home the message of loss. Begin with a slide that shows a crowd of people with the title, ‘Here today.’ On the next slide, leave that space blank with only the title ‘Gone by 2017.’
To showcase the talent that will be walking out the door, you might have an illustration or chart that gives a sense of the skills loss. For example, 1,000 production line supervisors and workers will retire, along with 500 people in accounting and finance and 200 people in sales and marketing or a slide with some combination of the loss in numbers and skills. See figure 8-1 for a simple slide that can accomplish that purpose.
Figure 8-1: Example of an Effective PowerPoint Slide
You could continue the presentation with slides that show how the company will find replacements for the workers who are retiring or otherwise leaving by convincing some people to postpone retirement, hiring new workers and so on. Other slides could explain how people in the audience can help address the problem, for example, by helping to recruit new workers.
For an example of what not to do, see figure 8-2. This slide breaks nearly every rule of good slide design.
Figure 8-2: Example of an Ineffective PowerPoint Slide
DELIVERING YOUR PRESENTATION
Whatever type of visuals you use—whiteboard, flip chart, paper handouts, projector or slides—your presentation is only as good as your preparation. Preparation takes time and effort, but try to imagine what the audience will say after your presentation. They’ll say you were very persuasive in convincing them to support your plan, back your project, raise capital, make an investment, buy your product, cut costs, implement a new reporting system, hire more people or achieve other goals. They’ll say your presentation was passionate, convincing and enlightening. That’s what you want them to say, and that’s what they will say if you make the investment in creating an outstanding presentation.
Preparation
Practise
Practise your complete presentation while standing. Imagine you are on stage or in the front of the room with your audience. Pay special attention to delivering a strong introduction and conclusion. Practise in front of a mirror and evaluate yourself, or practise in front of colleagues or friends and get their feedback. As you continue to practise, you will learn to speak effortlessly while maintaining eye contact with the audience.
The following are some considerations when using visual tools:
Flip chart. If you are using a flip chart, you could prepare the charts in advance, using coloured markers. Include blank pages among your completed pages so you can write more information or create additional charts during your presentation. Practise flipping pages while you speak so you don’t have to stop, turn a page and resume talking. Or have someone flip pages and create new charts or add to existing charts for you.
Whiteboard. Use a variety of coloured marker pens that stand out. Make sure erasers are available. Ensure that your words and illustrations are clearly visible. You may want to practise, especially if you haven’t done any drawing since grade school. If you are using an interactive whiteboard, remember to save and print a copy before you erase information on the board so you will have a record for possible future use.
Overhead projector. Make sure the projector works and won’t block anyone’s view. Stand next to the screen so you don’t impede the audience’s view, and you can easily point to the screen. Try to minimise walking between the projector and the screen. This should be necessary only when you change overhead sheets. Or, you could have someone change the sheets at your direction. Make sure the sheets are properly positioned on the projector, otherwise, the information on the projector could appear tilted on the screen, or part of the information on the overhead may not be visible on the screen. Instead, it could end up on the wall.
Paper Handouts. Before, during or after the presentation? That’s the question to consider regarding when to distribute handouts to your audience. You may distribute handouts beforehand if you want the audience to read your material in advance and come to your presentation fully informed and prepared to ask questions. Or, you may distribute the handout at the start of your presentation if you want to go through the material along with your audience. In any case, explain why you created the handout and how you will present it, that is, are you going to go through the entire handout in sequence or concentrate on specific sections or take another approach? During your presentation, try to keep the audience focused on you, not the handout. Ask them to open the packet to a specific page and discuss it with them. Try to maintain eye contact as you are speaking. Encourage questions.
Slides. Get comfortable operating the computer and projector you’ll be using. Practise going through your slide show until you appear effortless in speaking and presenting your slides. Ask some colleagues or other observers to critique your presentation and provide feedback. Have someone make a video of your presentation so you can evaluate it yourself.
Meeting Venue
Before your presentation, check out the conference room, auditorium or other venue where it will be held. Meet with the technicians who will provide technical support. Work with them to make sure the venue is properly lit. The lighting can usually be adjusted for your presentation. Also, make sure the room is comfortable. Don’t use a podium, unless you’re required to do so by your company or other organiser of your presentation. Instead, speak directly to your audience, just as if you’re having an informal conversation with some colleagues or friends. Be prepared. Have a contingency plan in case of equipment failure or other problem. Will there be replacements available if equipment crashes? Or will you have to continue your presentation without your slides or a microphone? Save a copy of your presentation on a disc and print a hard copy. Finally, arrange for someone to record a video of your presentation.
If possible, do a complete run-through of your presentation at the meeting venue. If you will be using a microphone, check that it’s working properly, and that you can speak comfortably. Check the time of the runthrough against the time you planned (or allowed by a sponsoring organisation) for your presentation. Can you complete it within your time limit? Do a back-of-the-room test of your decks, transparencies, flip charts, slides or whiteboard to make sure your presentation can be seen properly. These preparations will help you familiarise yourself with the venue and get comfortable in making your presentation.
Presentation Day
Dress for the Occasion
Before you speak the first word of your presentation, the audience will judge you based on your appearance, so dress to convey the right professional image. If you are making a presentation to people in your company, you will know or can inquire about the proper attire for a presentation. If you are making a presentation to people outside your organisation, such as members of a professional society or other organisation, you can find out from the organisation’s directors or one of its members. In any case, it’s better to exceed than to fall short of the appropriate attire for the presentation.
Relax
American Comedian Jerry Seinfeld jokes about people fearing public speaking more than death, saying, ‘This means to the average person, if you go to a funeral, you’re better off in the casket than doing the eulogy.’
You may not be that afraid of speaking, but you may be nervous. It’s not uncommon. Even experienced speakers can get the jitters. To relax, get a good night’s sleep before your presentation. Before your presentation starts, get some physical exercise, such as taking a walk, or lie down in a quiet room and rest for a few minutes. Do some breathing exercises. Relax your vocal chords by taking a hot shower and drinking warm liquids. Warm up your voice by humming or singing softly. Put yourself in a positive mental state. Imagine you’re telling a story, and people are crowded around to hear you. They are totally immersed in your narrative.
You’re On!
You know your subject inside and out. You’ve practised and then practised some more. You have a story to tell, and you’re excited about telling it. You know that you can win your audience over. You walk confidently on stage. You begin your presentation.
So how do you get from an auspicious beginning to the conclusion of a successful presentation? Through the process of facing your audience, moving about the stage, maintaining eye contact and using your voice.
When facing your audience, stand straight, with your feet about shoulder width apart. But don’t stay rooted to the same place. Move about, but with intent. Walk slowly toward another area of the stage, and stop to make a point, or start a new section of your presentation. Repeat the process over the course of your speech, but do not move so often or so quickly that it becomes distracting. Glance only briefly at the screen when introducing or commenting on a slide, and then quickly resume looking at the audience. If you are using a computer and projector to present visuals, you can look at the slides on your computer, and you only need to glance at the screen occasionally to make sure the visuals are being presented correctly.
Maintain eye contact with the audience throughout your presentation. Look at one person in one part of the room and then another person in another part. Continue to look at people in different areas: those in the front, in the middle, and the rear, and those off to one side or the other. Some people may be smiling, some frowning, some may have blank faces. Regardless, make brief eye contract with them, and then move on. Through this process, you will connect with people throughout the room and pull your audience into your presentation.
Use your voice to communicate your enthusiasm and energy and establish credibility. Speak in a natural and conversational tone. Speak at a measured pace—not so fast that you appear to be hurrying through your presentation but not so slow that the audience is starting to look at their watches. Speak loudly enough that you’re heard in the back of the room, but without shouting. Use voice inflection—the alteration in the pitch and tone of your voice—to emphasise a point, delineate transitions in your presentation, or introduce a question.
After your presentation, follow up by talking to members of your audience (or contact them later). Ask for feedback. What did they like or dislike? Do they remember your key message or your call to action? Watch the video of your presentation (assuming you arranged to have one recorded) and think about how to improve your presentation and how to plan for your next one.
Questions
Think also about how you will respond to questions during the presentation and afterward. The circumstances may dictate the timing of your responses. If you are presenting to a single manager or small group, such as your supervisor or members of your team, or a few senior executives, you can expect them to ask questions during your presentation. If you are speaking to a large audience, you may ask that they hold their questions until you are finished, or you may decide to take questions during your presentation.
A risk in taking questions while you are speaking is that complicated, irrelevant or extraneous questions could sidetrack your presentation, or you could get blindsided by a hostile questioner. A risk in taking questions at the end is that you are preventing some people from leaving, and some may even head for the exit anyway, so you might take only a few questions at the end, conclude the presentation, and speak personally with questioners or communicate with them later.
CONCLUSION
It takes creativity, focus and discipline to develop a presentation that will stand out from the ordinary, resonate with your audience and communicate your message. But the result will hopefully be a presentation that achieves your goal, whatever that goal may be: to sell your boss on a new idea, motivate your team to complete a project, sell a product or service, enable your company to reduce costs or increase revenue, or something else. There is more at stake than just achieving your goal. Your presentation is a reflection on you as a professional. Your ability to deliver a winning presentation will add to your communication skills, build your reputation as a communicator and help you advance in your career, whether you work for a corporation or small business or become an entrepreneur. You can use your use your presentation skills to give back to your community, such as by raising funds for your favourite cause or teaching a class that helps high school students learn a skill or prepare for college. Your presentation skills give you the power to effect change in your organisation, your career and your life.
RESOURCES
There are many resources available for learning to make presentations or building on your existing knowledge and skills:
Your company. Your organisation may have in-house designers and other communication specialists who can assist you in developing your presentation. Your company may have formal training programmes on presentations, or you may be able to find an experienced presenter who can mentor you. Your company may also have a set of instructions for creating presentations that prescribes company standards for presentations but perhaps allows you to exercise your creativity and judgment within those standards.
Community resources. You could join organisations, such as Toastmasters, that help you develop your public speaking and presentation skills. Or, sign up for a class on presentations at a local community college or other institution.
Online education. You can find many outstanding presentations on the Internet. For some of the best, go to TED’s website. (TED stands for Technology, Entertainment, Design.) Another online resource for presentations is YouTube.com (search under ‘presentation skills training’). You can also search other sites, such as Quora.com (search under ‘presentation skills’).
Professional societies. Some professional societies and organisations, such as the AICPA or CIMA (Chartered Institute of Management Accountants), state accounting organisations, such as the Maryland Association of Certified Public Accountants (MACPA), and other organisations offer education and training for presentations.
Designers, design consultants, communication consultants. You (or your company) could hire a designer or design or communication consultant to assist you in preparing your presentation, if the cost were justified by the importance of the presentation, your desire to improve your presentation skills, or other reasons. Some designers and consultants are listed in the bibliography. You can also get advice on making presentations on the websites of consultants who write blogs or produce videos on the subject.
Books and articles. There are excellent books and articles on communication, presentations and design. Some of these are listed in the bibliography.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Presentations often fail because they’re too complex. Keep yours simple.
Know quantification, or how to present numbers so your audience understands.
Prepare thoroughly for your presentation. Know your subject.
Prepare your visuals (if you use visuals).
Practise.
Face the audience, maintain eye contact and move with a purpose. Use your voice, and speak from the mind—and heart.
Endnotes
1 Bob Parks, ‘Death to PowerPoint!’ Bloomberg Businessweek, 30 Aug. 2012 www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-08-30/death-to-powerpoint
2 SlideShare’s World’s Best Presentation contest was last held in 2010. Winning entries can be viewed at http://blog.slideshare.net/2010/12/10/the-convenient-truth-wins-worlds-best-presentation-contest-2010/
3 Deborah Dumaine, Write to the Top: Writing for Corporate Success, (New York: Random House Trade Paperback, 2003).
4 Nancy Duarte, ‘Avoiding the Road to PowerPoint Hell,’ The Wall Street Journal, 22 Jan. 2011
5 Michael Carmichael, ‘The Ad Age Stat Q.&A.,’ Adage.com, Nov. 2011 http://adage.com/article/adagestat/edward-tufte-adagestat-q-a/230884/
6 Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd edition, (Cheshire Connecticut: Graphics Press Inc., 2001).
7 Garr Reynolds, Presentation Zen: Simple Ideas on Presentation Design and Delivery, 2nd edition, (Berkeley, California: New Riders, 2011).