CHAPTER 3

The Paradigm Shift in Disaster Management in Bangladesh

Mahfuzul Haque

Independent Researcher
Dhaka, Bangladesh

Introduction

Bangladesh is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. Floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, tidal surges, droughts, and river bank erosion continue to disrupt lives and livelihoods of the poor people in disaster-prone areas, especially in the southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh. The very geographical location of Bangladesh over the conical shape of Bay of Bengal attracts periodic cyclones and associated tidal surges. The country’s vulnerability to natural disaster is rooted in its geographic location in the world’s largest delta associated with a series of hydro-meteorological and geophysical factors (GOB 2009a). Out of 35 million people in 710 km stretch of coastal areas of Bangladesh, 7 million people live in a high disaster risk zone. Although, there was damages of properties and crops during the cyclones of Sidr in 2007 and Aila in 2009, the loss of human lives was only 3,406 and 190, respectively (Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief Bangladesh Secretariat 2012), which might help to draw a conclusion that perhaps effective networking and coordination between and among various levels of the government and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) concerning disaster risk reduction and preparedness programs did help to a great extent. During the earlier days, loss of lives and property was very severe during disasters like floods and cyclones. Cyclones of 1970 and 1991 killed as many as 330,000 and 138,882 people, respectively, in the coast of Bangladesh (GOB 2009a, p. 2). Massive awareness of the local community in recent days supported by updated cyclone warning systems, campaign of cyclone volunteers and developed electronic media played an important role in managing cyclones and related tidal surges these days.

Disaster management practices have developed over a period of time from a traditional top-down relief and response to a more integrated risk management method (Yodmani 2001). In recent years, there has been a paradigm shift in disaster management from post-disaster relief operation and rehabilitation to disaster risk reduction (The United Nations [UN], 2014). Disaster Management includes all aspects of planning and response to disasters. Both the risk and the consequences of disasters are addressed through disaster management. It suggests that prevention and preparedness measures are taken well in advance prior to the hazards (“pre-disaster” situation). There is a long-term rehabilitation (often referred to as “post-disaster reconstruction”) program in order to prepare the local community for facing the wrath of disaster with confidence (Task Force for Disaster, Community Readiness, and Recovery, The Society for Community Research and Action 2010).

In earlier times, disasters were considered as a sudden onslaught and responded by the governments, donor agencies, relief and rehabilitation organizations and they often do not address the causes of disasters. As a result, there were recurrence of disasters, which continued to cause deaths and damages without respite. Traditional policy planners used to put an emphasis mostly on disaster relief operation, which later gradually changed to an emphasis on disaster risk reduction and various long-term preparedness programs concerning disasters (National Plan for Disaster Management [NPDM] 2010 to 2015). This contingency planning did improve efficiency of the Cyclone Preparedness Program (CPP) volunteers and other relief agencies.

Over the four decades from the 1960s to the 1990s, there has been an increase in disaster-led human casualties and material losses across the globe. Yodmani stated that disaster-led damages and deaths varies from region to region depending on its socioeconomic development (Yodmani 2001, p. 2). A classic example given by Frederick Cuny (1983), stated that an earthquake of 6.4 magnitude (Richter scale) in California in 1971 caused only 58 deaths, while another earthquake in 1973 of lesser magnitude of 6.2 destroyed the central city of Managua, Nicaragua, causing the death of 6,000 people. It shows how a disaster can impact a locality depends primarily on the vulnerability of the community. Emphasis was given on “vulnerability analysis” as a tool in disaster management. This has led to a more comprehensive approach to disaster risk management. This approach has put emphasis on enhancement of management capacity following vulnerability analysis and hazard assessment. Disasters then are seen as not necessarily caused by nature but as consequences of faulty development activities. It is now recognized that unmanaged or mismanaged risks for a longer period of time would cause disasters.

Paradigm shift from relief and response to risk management has started to influence and guide policy makers and planners engaged in disaster management. Following this paradigm shift, in some countries, plans and programs were taken to reduce social and economic vulnerability and the undertaking of long-term mitigation and adaptation measures. There is a long way to go as these initiatives are yet to receive the priority of the development partners. Moreover, the poor are always left behind. The challenge is how to mainstream this paradigm shift in development plans and policies as emphasis is given on good governance, accountability, and bottom-up participatory methods. Similarly, community-based disaster management (CBDM), a term coined by the development practitioners, also gaining ground as increasing emphasis is given on the merit of traditional knowledge and practices in disaster management.

The chapter is mainly based on the secondary sources of literature. Available books and articles published in peer-reviewed journals were consulted. The overall goal of this chapter is to look at this paradigm shift in disaster management from traditional relief and rehabilitation to disaster risk reduction and to see whether there has been less deaths and loss of properties in the coastal districts of Bangladesh due to this paradigm shift. The chapter argues that the paradigm shifts from responding after a disaster to pre-disaster mitigation and preparedness through coordination and networking among various tiers of the local and the central government is a necessary and cost-effective approach in disaster management.

The chapter has been structured as follows: the first section has given a general introduction on the vulnerability of Bangladesh due to her geophysical conditions; traditional relief and rehabilitation approaches of the past; and loss of lives due to devastating cyclones. The second section deals with the global scenario including that of Hyogo Framework (2005 to 2015); Sendai Framework (2015 to 2030), and Paris Climate Agreement 2015. The third section highlights the plans, policies, and guidelines including that of the Standing Orders on Disaster (SOD) 2010 adopted by the Government of Bangladesh targeting disaster risk reduction (DRR) issues. The fourth section summarizes the best practices being followed by Bangladesh in DRR. The fifth section deals with the CBDM in practice. The next section focuses on the future challenges to be faced in implementing this paradigm shift; and the last section contains conclusions and suggestions.

Global Scenario

Due to global warming and emissions of greenhouse gases, natural disasters are on the rise both in frequency and ferocity affecting the livelihood of the rural poor. Disaster risk has increasingly become a global concern. Against the backdrop of this alarming situation, some of the unfolding global events to manage it are as follows.

Hyogo Framework (2005 to 2015)

World Conference on Disaster Reduction, held in 2005, adopted the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005 to 2015. The Agreement urged upon the participants to follow an integrated multihazard approach for sustainable development in order to reduce both the intensity and frequency of disasters. The Conference promoted a strategic and systematic approach to reduce vulnerabilities and risks to hazards. It underscored the need for building the resilience of people in risk-prone areas. (Hyogo 2015).

Sendai Framework (2015 to 2030)

Hyogo Framework for Action was followed by adoption of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction in March 2015 (UN, 2015). The Sendai Framework sent a strong message to the world community that reducing risk to disasters was the effective way in managing a disaster. It called for reduction of disaster risk by preventing new and existing risk and strengthening community resilience. The Framework provided a set of guiding principles, which clarified that it was the prime responsibility of a state to help prevent a disaster including that of disaster preparedness. Moreover, the range of disaster risk reduction widened to include both natural and man-made hazards including environmental, technological and biological hazards.

The international community also recognized contribution of indigenous knowledge and practices on disaster risk reduction, climate change, and natural resource management. The Sendai Framework put an emphasis on indigenous knowledge and practices and coping strategies of the local community in facing challenges of a natural disaster. Highlighting the role of the stakeholders, it stressed the contribution of the indigenous peoples through their experience and traditional knowledge in implementation of various international guidelines. The Framework stated that the indigenous knowledge and practices would support scientific knowledge in disaster risk assessment and help mainstream in national plans and policies.

Paris UN Climate Conference 2015

Twenty-first Conference of the Parties (COP-21) to UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris, France in December 2015, adopted the “Paris Agreement,” which put an emphasis on the involvement of local communities in disaster risk reduction. Countries agreed to limit global warming well below 2°C compared to preindustrial levels. It is generally understood that by undertaking mitigation measures through reducing greenhouse gas emissions, disaster risk is reduced by a great extent. There is no doubt that if we achieve reduction of greenhouse gases to a warming of 1.5°C, it would immensely contribute to reduction in disaster losses. The Paris Agreement, to be made effective from 2020, signed and ratified by 55 countries accounting for 55 percent of global emissions. The United States and China account for 40 percent of global emissions and, alarmingly, US president Donald Trump announced withdrawal from the Paris Agreement.

Meanwhile, the 23^rd Conference of Parties (COP-23), which took place in Bonn, Germany in 2017, focused primarily on challenges of the implementation of the agreement as the agreement is expected to come into force in 2020. It was the first conference of parties to take place after President Trump decided to pull out of the agreement.

Bangladesh Scenario

During the start of the new century, a series of plans, policies, and action plans were adopted by the government targeting reducing disaster impacts. In line with the Hyogo Framework, Bangladesh adopted the SOD in 2010, which described the role and responsibilities of various tiers of the government from central to local level involved in disaster risk reduction and emergency response. SOD detailed out risk reduction activities to be undertaken by various agencies during the warning period and during the disaster and postdisaster periods (GOB 2010a). It has become a unique document for the volunteers and officials engaged in disaster management.

Another important document, the NPDM 2010 to 2015 of Bangladesh followed a model aiming at disaster risk reduction and emergency response. The model has three key components, “which are defining the risk environment; managing the risk environment; and responding to the threat environment” (GOB 2010a, p. 2; GOB 2010b, p. 37). The Plan promoted understanding of the social, political, and community environment; establishing likely threats; examining likely consequences; ranking risks; and identifying actions to eliminate, reduce, or manage risk. The second element promoted community-based adaptation programs; and the third element helped the disaster management officials to understand the difference between risk reduction and emergency response (GOB 2010a, p. 2; GOB 2010b, p. 38). Response included “warning period (alert and activation); disaster onset (response); and post-disaster period (relief, early recovery and rehabilitation)” (GOB 2010a, p. 3). The government adopted the Bangladesh National Disaster Management Guidelines in 2015, which in its objectives put more emphasis on disaster risk reduction and food and livelihood security. The Guidelines laid out an emphasis on adaptation to climate change and overall disaster risk reduction (GOB 2015, p. 7251). It is noteworthy that the draft National Plan for Disaster Management (2016 to 2020) with caption, “Building Resilience for Sustainable Human Development” in its mission statement stated that the Plan would achieve

a paradigm shifts in disaster management from conventional response and relief to more comprehensive risk reduction culture, and to promote food security as an important factor in ensuring the resilience of communities to hazards. (GOB 2017, p.1)

The new plan would be a live and adaptive document in line with changes taking place in relation to disaster management.

Plans and policies cannot be enforced unless followed by legislations. Accordingly, the Disaster Management Act 2012 was enacted, which made provision of setting up of an authority to try offenders responsible for the failure to reduce disaster risks; failure in protecting lives and livelihoods of people; failure to predict and undertake contingency measures relating to natural disasters, etc. (GOB 2012, sections 36 to 51). The Act suggested a national fund for disaster response, relief, and rehabilitation activities, and it could declare an area as a “Distressed Area” in order to prevent people from undertaking any destructive activities. Earlier, embankments were damaged, holes were made allowing intrusion of saline water for shrimp cultivation which caused serious damages to embankments during storm surges. It would create water logging and there was no punishment for the offenders. Under this act, offenders could be tried—a major breakthrough in disaster management.

Best Practices in Disaster Risk Reduction

Bangladesh is one of the first few countries to have integrated disaster management into poverty reduction strategies and in macro-level plans like the five-year plans and long-term visionary plans. NPDM 2010 to 2015 has completed its term and draft NPDM 2016 to 2020 (GOB 2017, p. 1) is a follow-up of the earlier plan. It differs in framework because of alignment with recent global agreements including Sendai Framework on DRR, Climate Change Agreement, and the SDGs. Some of the best practices (GOB 2009a, p. 1) in DRR being followed by Bangladesh could be summarized as follows.

The country could boast of some of these best practices in disaster risk reduction. Focus on climate change–induced disasters has been in national plans and policies. Implementation of some of these plans (National Adaptation Programme of Actions (NAPA) 2009, Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) 2009) aptly reflect the country’s readiness in effective disaster risk reduction (MoEF 2009a, 2009b). Since climate change–induced disasters are development concerns, both NAPA and BCCSAP put emphasis on creating a synergy between disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation (Islam and Sumon 2013, p. 84).

A comparative analysis of four major cyclones in the last 40 years and their aftermaths in the coast of Bangladesh has been done. Due to lack of proper strategy and directions 330,000 people died in the Great Bhola cyclone of 1970 and another 138,882 people died in Gorky in 1991. Following the paradigm shift in disaster management and implementation of good practices, only 3,406 people died in cyclone Sidr in 2007 and another 190 in Aila in 2009 (GOB 2009a;). The comparatively low number of deaths caused by cyclones Sidr and Aila suggests that the paradigm shift in disaster management might have played a role. Recent calamities saw timely cyclone forecasting and early warnings, and successful evacuation of coastal communities. Moreover, under the CPP initiated after 1970 cyclone, nearly 43,000 CPP volunteers (out of which, 14,225 are women) are responsible for disseminating cyclone warnings among villagers via megaphones and by house-to-house contact (GOB 2009a, p. 6). CPP volunteers visit the affected communities and spread cyclone warning and evacuation orders via megaphones and bicycle-mounted loudspeakers.

Among other measures, the Storm Warning Center (SWC), Metrological forecasting and warnings have been made user-friendly. Currently, there are around 4,000 cyclone shelters providing security to coastal people. These cyclone shelters were constructed back in 1972 to protect coastal residents from cyclones and storm surges. These are multistoried buildings, built above the ground-level in order to resist storm surges, and they can accommodate 500 to 2,500 people. It could be said that strict adherence to SOD 2010 and National Plan for Disaster Management (NPDM) 2010 to 2015 were a factor in the reduction of casualties and less damage to properties.

Community-based Disaster Management

Due to global warming, climate change–induced disasters like cyclones and tidal surges periodically hit the coast of Bangladesh and the country is one of the most vulnerable countries of the world. Over the years, the coastal community has developed some indigenous practices to combat disasters. Community-based adaptation to climate change is a community-led practice, based on the priorities set by the communities themselves in line with their priorities and needs. It seeks to empower people to prepare for and cope with the impacts of climate change (Reid and Schipper 2014, p. 7).

According to Pandey (2005), CBDM promotes participatory planning based on grassroots-based consultation. Community-based disaster risk reduction aims to reduce the vulnerability and enhance the resilience of local communities to the impacts of disaster (Gero, Meheux, and Dominey-Howes 2011, p. 102). CBDM helps the local community to understand their vulnerabilities to hazard and develop their capacities to face a disaster. They are aware of the fact that they are the first ones to be hit by a disaster. They evaluate their own strength and weakness in the face of an impending disaster and undertake strategies accordingly. Through this process, the local community not only becomes a part of the plans and decisions, but also becomes an actor in their implementation.

How do they survive during and after a cyclonic disaster? What are the indigenous survival strategies? Women and children are the most vulnerable groups as they are confined in homes and less mobile than men (GOB 2009b, p. 18). In a study conducted on the people of the coastal islands, it was revealed that the islanders have developed certain short-term survival strategies of their own (Hassan 2000, p. 149). Survival strategies include holding onto and binding themselves to trees; looking for comparatively safer places like embankments and polders; using floating logs, thatched roof, straw piles, and bunches of coconuts.

People of the locality have also devised appropriate methods for food preservation during cyclones and tidal surges. Self-protection instinct dominated the indigenous survival strategy. The women prefer putting on Salwar and Kamiz dress instead of Saris (traditional female dress in South Asia), as the later makes it difficult to swim (Haque 2013, p. 282). In the aftermath of a disaster, coping strategies work well with the help of the community members to their mutual benefit. Generally, outside help and relief goods appear 2 to 3 days after the disaster. What do they do during this intervening period? People eat stems and roots of edible plants. For drinking purposes, they drink rain water, as cyclones are always followed by rain for several hours. In the absence of rainwater, they share coconut water. According to Nasreen (2000, p. 77), women in flood-hit areas, use herbal medicine for the prevention of diarrhea or dysentery. They use the juice of certain leaves to stop bleeding of injuries.

Among structural measures, the people in the coast are seen using roofing materials and design (sloping the wind direction). They plant local varieties of plants surrounding their homesteads. They raise the plinth level of their houses, construct killas (raised earth) for shelter of their cattle during a disaster. Another interesting phenomenon was that during tidal surges, people tied rafts to coconut trees so that they rose and fell with the level of the water (Haque 2000, p. 142; Haque 2017, p. 181).

Future Challenges

Aiming at achieving disaster risk reduction, Bangladesh faces a number of challenges in effecting the paradigm shift, which are as follows:

Conclusion

It is evident that disasters like cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal surges will continue to visit the coast of Bangladesh and they cannot be controlled. Only through better management practices, damages can be reduced to a large extent. Bangladesh over the years was able to decrease the number of deaths and loss of properties, mainly due to this paradigm shift reflected in various plans, policies, guidelines, and action plans adopted by the government from time to time. Bangladesh’s disaster management model did attract attention of the global community, as they have been striving to reduce casualties due to increasing disasters. The challenge remains to be the effective implementation and updating of the standing orders of, and rigorous monitoring by, the authorities for their enforcement. Dilapidated cyclone shelters need urgent renovation. Periodic training of the CPP volunteers is essential for a fruitful implementation of the new strategy shift.

CBDM is in a nascent stage and needs promotion and nurturing. Promotion of CBDM is a painstaking process, requiring continuous research and development in consultation with the vulnerable communities. Such a program has to be people-centered, process-oriented, community-led, knowledge-oriented, empowerment-focused, and accountability-driven. Time and again, people of disaster-prone areas have proved that instead of structural methods, local indigenous knowledge and practices have solved many problems related to a natural disaster.

The support of the government and the development partners is necessary to develop successful models concerning CBDM. Various initiatives undertaken by local and international NGOs and research bodies are to continue in order to mainstream it into all plans and policies at the national and global levels. There are many challenges. To overcome these challenges, good environmental governance is necessary, which would be transparent and pro-people, and practice democratic norms. The Parliamentary Committee on Disaster Management needs to be made effective. To achieve these goals, continuity of good environmental governance is a prerequisite.

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