CHAPTER 5

Engendering Disaster Risk Reduction at Grassroots Level

Neena Joseph

Independent Researcher
Kerala, Kochi, India

 

Introduction

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is the crucial aspect of disaster management (DM). Global experience and research evince that hazards have disproportionally a more disastrous impact on women. Higher vulnerability and lesser coping capacity arising out of societally ordained lower position in the gender hierarchy lends partial explanation for this disparity. Hence, risk reduction initiatives, which are gender inclusively designed and implemented, would be inherently covering the risk reduction requirements of the general population. A comprehensive discussion considering the ground realities of politics, ethics, civic sense of the community, participation of vulnerable groups, inclusion of women and children, is needed before choosing a project for implementation vis-à-vis its alternatives. A framework for discussion around which all the relevant factors are put on the table by all the stakeholders and the alternatives are considered jointly and transparently, would be very useful. SWOT analysis can be used to mainstream gender concerns into the discussions.

Global and national policies advocate DRR, capacity building, multi stakeholder participation and participation of the community, especially that of vulnerable groups, and gender inclusiveness. “Paradigm shift” has happened from relief-centric response to proactive “prevention, mitigation and preparedness” driven approach (GOI 2009, p. 1). From the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005 to 2015) to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015 to 2030); this shift is visible. The subject of this chapter is related to the “Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): good health and well-being; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; decent work and economic growth; sustainable cities and communities and climate action” (Goals 3, 5, 6, 8, 11 and 13, respectively) (UNDP 2015, p. 18). For the success of DRR endeavors, the future international frameworks need to emphasize and highlight the active participation of the local community to a higher degree, than that done in the Sendai and Hyogo Frameworks (Tozier 2015). India’s National Policy highlights making use of “corporate social responsibility (CSR), Public Private Participation (PPP)” (p. 21), and utilizing the resources of “National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Service Scheme (NSS), Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan” (p. 14). Coordination with “civil society” (p. 20), “techno legal and techno financial regimes” (pp. 23–24) is mentioned, capacity development (p. 37), training of communities (p. 34), knowledge management through sharing and dissemination of good practices (pp. 35–36) are spelled out as necessary means for effective DM (GOI 2009). The relevant national act of India has made it statutory to institute “national, state and district level disaster management authorities” (GOI 2005, p. 3). Twenty-three countries proposed the resolution “Gender Equality and Empowerment of women in Natural Disasters” during the 58th session of the Commission on Status of Women on March 2014. This evidences the significance of addressing the gender-specific vulnerabilities of women and girls and of realizing their partnership throughout the entire cycle of DM viz. “prevention, response and reconstruction” (UNESC 2014, p. 3).

The objectives of this chapter are to identify the problems faced by women in a disaster-prone area and to assess, at the grassroots level, the technological alternative for DRR that can enable women’s participation, solve their disaster-related problems, and reduce their vulnerabilities.

Literature Review

The link between natural hazards, people’s vulnerability, and disasters is explicated by Wisner et al. (2003). There is strong link between children’s education and sustainable development. Children need to be educated in the sustainability of our planet. Eco literacy and critical thinking skills need to be developed in the future generation. (Wagner 2016). There are more poor women than poor men. Women’s predominant presence in informal jobs, underpayment to women, skewed succession laws, gender unfriendly customs and overreliance on male family members result in powerlessness and lack of access and control over resources. They stay tethered to home due to the gender division of labor and this restricts their access to politics and other economic and educational opportunities (Anderson 1994). “Gender related vulnerability is deep rooted in persistent inequalities” (Enarson 2000, p. 5). Women’s decision-making capacities are hampered due to the entrenched inequality. Risk of disasters are not homogeneously distributed among citizens. There is a gender effect in risk distribution (Enarson 2000). Disasters have more devastating impact on women (Enarson 2000). Women’s workload intensifies during disasters (Enarson 2000). Women who live alone receive only late warning signals (Enarson 2000). Among women there are most vulnerable groups who require special care. Eighteen (18) categories of vulnerable groups of women were delineated including the poor, the senior, the ill, the homeless, the disabled, the abused, the recently migrated, the undocumented, the indigenous and those who are isolated and women who head families (Enarson 2000). The impact of disasters on pregnant women show that exposure to disasters resulted in an absence of prenatal care, an increase in morbidity, delivery of underweight babies, or a premature delivery (ACOG 2010). Higher the intensity of a disaster, particularly higher is the female mortality. The decline of life expectancy is higher for women than men consequent to a natural disaster. Again, this decline is comparatively higher for women belonging to lower economic strata. Hence a clear appreciation of the gendered nature of vulnerability and especially that of poor women is essential for all the stakeholders including the policy makers (Neumayer 2007). Investment in DRR will be paid back seven times in terms of avoidance of development losses. If women are understood to be much more vulnerable to disasters than men, then engendered DRR endeavors would make DRR and ultimately development, more efficient (Bradshaw 2013). If women and girls are considered as “vulnerable,” their potential for DM will go unrecognized (Bradshaw 2013). The inherent strengths of women and girls need to be developed for efficacious DM. They need to participate in DRR as change agents (Bradshaw 2013). It is very important to accept community-based organizations (CBOs) as partners in DM (Enarson 2000).

During the contexts of the Great East Japan earthquake (2011); Fukushima nuclear disaster (2011); Sichuan earthquake in China (2008); Indian Ocean earthquake (2004); the four severe earthquakes in Mexico (from 2010 to 2012); typhoons, cyclones and landslides in New Zealand (from 2011) and the four earthquakes in Philippines (from 2010 to 2012), strong gender-sensitive interventions were made. Conversion of unremunerated domestic-level work to business opportunities, capacity building for entrepreneurship, setting up of botanical gardens, restoration of traditional handicrafts are a few examples. Involvement of local women, promoting community cohesion, forging of strategic partnerships etc. were common features in all these endeavors (SOM 2015).

The Area of Study and the Nature of Problem Faced by Women in This Area

The area of study is the Chellanam panchayat¹ in Ernakulam district, Kerala state, India (9.89° N Latitude and 76.26° E Longitude). The Chellanam Grama panchayat is selected for study because it is an eco-fragile and disaster-prone coastal panchayat. Chellanam is officially acknowledged as vulnerable as evidenced by its selection by District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) for implementation of two World Bank projects: The National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project and the Cyclone Shelter Project. It was also affected by the South Asian tsunami (2004). Funds are being planned for capacity development in this panchayat by DDMA. The problem of sea incursion in Ward 18 of Chellanam panchayat is taken up for study. This is not a disaster, cataclysmic in nature, but an issue of perennial vexation for the past 10 years. Sea incursion occurs at high tides during three and a half months in a year causing formidable cleaning challenges and health threats for the community and more so for women. The reason is that cooking, cleaning, and caring are socially ordained as women’s duties. Disasters of great magnitude in terms of intensity and spatial reach attract attention rather than small and medium disasters, even though the cumulative impact of the latter may be greater. Chellanam is a potential candidate for a disaster of huge scale.²

Currently, the problem is caused by just a 100-m gap in the rubble-mounted sea wall in the ward. This is a local problem, but a microscopic study unravels the ground-level dynamics in the context of larger issues beyond the scope of the panchayat. The high budget permanent solution of rubble-mounted sea wall is beyond the scope of the panchayat. At the time of study, the panchayat was seriously considering to put up geotextile protection walls (GTPW) in the gap.

The significance of the study lies in the suggestion of a workable and simple model for engendered discussion around the jurisdictionally feasible local-level project alternatives to solve local problems.

The chapter attempts to address the following questions:

GTPW Technology and Its Technological Alternatives

Bags (2 m × 1 m × 0.4 m) made of geo-synthetic unwoven UV-susceptible material (with petroleum base) are filled with water and sand from the worksite itself. The material will be densified as and when it is filled. Mechanized filling is more efficient (usually up to 1,100 kg) than manual filling (800 kg). Machines are used to stack the bags up to a height of 3.6 m or so according to the requirement of the pertinent spot. The “wall” is wrapped with geotextile and securely sewed up. Then, sand is piled behind the GTPW. The creeper, adambu³ is planted in the sand behind the bags. As it grows, it crawls up the GTPW and into the front side of the wall and becomes a bio fence. Adambu consolidates the sand pile and bolsters up the geo bags. The approximate cost of this work is about Rs15 to 16 lakhs per 100 m (approximately US$22,000). The duration of the wall is 4 to 5 years. The wall is supposed to last from 4 to 5 years. GTPW is a relatively new technology. But the same technology had been applied 1 year ago in Purakkad beach in the Alappuzha district, Kerala, with a nearly 100-m-long protection wall. There are not many complaints. A costlier but more lasting alternative to GTPW is geo tube protection walls (GTbPW). The most lasting permanent solution is a rubble-mounted protection wall, which is the costliest alternative and which can be the most useful if a large-scale natural hazard occurs. A variation of GTPW, that is, Gj/cPW, is also in use where coir and jute are used instead of geothermal textile. The size of the tube is considerably larger when compared to the bags used in GTPW.⁴ These technical details are collected from the records and pamphlets of the Irrigation Department, District Office, Ernakulam, Kerala and by interviewing the engineers of the department.

Research Methodology

The study was undertaken during August and September 2017. Secondary data was collected from the records and publications of Chellanam panchayat office. Key informants were interviewed including panchayat presidents⁵ (current and previous), vice-president, CDS (Community Development Society) Chairperson,⁶ Ward members, ADS chairpersons, neighborhood group members of Kudumbasree. Functionaries of Government of Kerala from various departments such as Irrigation, Coastal Engineering, Public Health, Revenue, Rural Development were interviewed. MGNREGS (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) and DDMA functionaries helped with relevant information. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with Neighbourhood Group (NHG) members from Ward 18 and with previous and current ward members (see Table 5.1). The contemplated GTPW technology initiatives are then subjected to the SWOT analysis (strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat analysis) keeping in view the gender concerns and the alternatives of using coir/jute materials for the bags.

Table 5.1 Details of the FGDs

	FGD: NHG members	FGD—Current and former ward members
Date	Sept 7, 2017	Sept 12, 2017
Number of members	20	15

Source: Field Work.

The information about the issues and problems of women and their vulnerability was collected through FGDs with NHG members. Subsequently the discussions with ward members yielded information about the current realities of the bureaucratic dealings. Technical details related to construction were obtained from the engineers of the Irrigation Department. They also provided information related to the dealings with the local body leaders and prominent citizens. The information collected from various sources were triangulated.

Technical details were collected from office of the Irrigation Department, Government of Kerala. Information about the Panchayat and Kudumbasree were collected from the respective websites, the references of which are given as CP (2017) and KS (2017) and supplemented with information from the relevant interviewees.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This chapter attempts to bring out all the gender aspects within the panchayat, which need to be considered while choosing an appropriate DRR alternative. A SWOT framework is presented to bolster an engendered discussion and preliminary choice. This is a microscopic study. Only DRR alternatives, which is within the scope of the grassroots level are considered. The details of how women can learn about DM and DRR alternatives, how they can advocate their case in the panchayat through the CBOs, how to develop the advocacy skills and influence the powers to be for bringing a permanent solution that can withstand a major disaster is beyond the scope of this chapter. Rubble mounted walls can provide permanent solutions for major disasters. But this requires quarring which in turn can create ecological problems at the site of quarries. All these important aspects are beyond the scope of this study, but constitute useful subjects for future studies.

Conceptual Framework

Risk Reduction

A hazard is defined as

a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. (UNISDR 2009, p. 17)

There are natural hazards and human-made disasters. A disaster is

a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, or environmental losses and impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected community to cope using only its own resources. (UNISDR 2009, p. 9)

“Risk is defined as the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences” (UNISDR 2009, p. 25). Thus, risk is associated with the degree to which humans cannot cope (lack of capacity) with a hazard.

Disaster Risk Reduction is defined as the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disaster, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land environment and improved preparedness for adverse effects. (UNISDR 2009, p. 10)

Hazard is the cause and/or trigger. A disaster is the result of a hazard’s impact on society. The impact of a disaster is the result of a spectrum of many dynamic non hazard factors such as “physical, social, cultural and institutional.” It depends on the profile of the individual defined by factors of “class, caste, ethnicity, gender, age, disability” (Twigg 2001, p. 9). Hazards per se do not constitute disasters.

Vulnerability is defined as “the characteristics of a person or group and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard.” The main determinants of vulnerability are “class, occupation, caste, ethnicity, gender, disability, health status, age, immigration status and the nature and extent of social networks.” “Legal rights, access to physical and social networks, information” are also determinants (Wisner et al. 2003, pp. 11–12). Vulnerability is associated with lack of capability to prevent a hazard or manage its consequences (Wisner et al. 2003, pp. 13–14).

Disasters occur due to the interplay of hazard, vulnerability, and coping capacity (UNISDR 2002, p. 15). This interaction is depicted as

Disaster risk (R) = Vulnerability (V) 3 Hazard (H)/Capacity (C) (USAID 2011, p. 15).

SWOT Analysis

In a SWOT analysis not only the strengths and weaknesses (which are internal to an entity) but also the threats and opportunities (which are external to the entity) are discussed thoroughly. Thus, a SWOT framework if used in discussions can take the discussions beyond the tangible, immediate, and obvious factors of the entity that is subjected to analysis. When discussions are made using the SWOT framework, a lot of information is generated which will facilitate the decision-making to address the objectives of the entity and the pertinent social milieu (Morrison 2012). For example, a SWOT analysis can be performed on a community organization with the objective of comprehensively diagnosing the factors that can facilitate the implementation of a scheme. A SWOT can be performed on the same organization with another objective of assessing the suitability of diversifying into a new service. The first step in conducting a SWOT analysis discussion of the entity is: fixing the objective of the discussion. The next step is the exploration of “the internal and external attributes of the entity,” which are helpful for the achievement of the objective (strengths and opportunities) or detrimental for the same (weaknesses and threats). Strengths and weaknesses are the current realities, while opportunities and threats future possibilities/probabilities (Morrison 2012). The external factors are the larger economic, technological, legal, social, cultural, and market-related in nature. Strategies are to be devised to use/build/leverage the strengths; stop/remedy/overcome the weaknesses; exploit/prioritize/capture/build/plan/manage the threats (Morrison 2016). Generation of comprehensive data and discussions around these open up many possibilities for conversion and matching. Weaknesses can be converted to strengths using opportunities. Threats can be converted to opportunities using strengths. Threats and weaknesses can be converted to strengths and opportunities (Team FME 2013). Strengths are matched to opportunities to gain competitive advantage. A SWOT analysis is a data capture process and is only the initial step toward the more in-depth analysis. A SWOT analysis is a simple and versatile tool. But it is subjective. What is classified as strength and weakness depends on the judgment (Team FME 2013) of the person/s concerned. A SWOT cannot be done effectively by just one person. It requires team effort (Morrison 2016). Although it is simple, oversimplification is to be avoided. Ideas are generated using brainstorming. Persons with vested interest might misrepresent strengths and weaknesses to their advantage (Team FME 2013). A SWOT aims at collecting and utilizing the knowledge about the “internal and external environment” for “strategy formulation” (Sammut-Bonnici and Galea 2015, p. 2). The objective of a SWOT analysis is to use the knowledge an organization has about its environment and to formulate its strategy accordingly (Sammut-Bonnici and Galea 2015).

Discussion and Findings

Issues Related to Sea Incursion

Sea incursion and water logging throw formidable challenges in the spheres of paddy, shrimp, and vegetable cultivations and also on health and sanitation. It is women who bear the brunt of all these impacts given their socially ordained roles of caring for the sick and based on the societal expectations to compromise their needs in the eventuality of a financial breakdown in the family.

Chellanam panchayat is situated in the southwestern part of the Ernakulam district with the Arabian Sea on the west and backwaters running from north to south on the eastern part. It is only 19.6-km long and 1-km wide. The fact that the area is only 1-km wide makes it more susceptible to the perils of sea incursion. The panchayat is on an average 30 cm below sea level seawards and 30 cm above sea level landwards. These geographical factors make the site eco-fragile.

Ward 18 is protected along the coast with sea walls made of granite rubble, but there is a gap of 100 m caused by damage to the sea wall. During high tides, episodes of sea incursion occur starting from the middle of May and last till the end of August. These episodes are unpredictable. During these months, episodes can happen during high tides commencing at any time from 11 a.m. to 10 p.m. There could be intermittent episodes also. In Ward 18, the houses are situated as close as 3 to12 m from the sea. During high tides, the sea water rushes into the land through the gap flooding the already infirm terrain of loose soil. The water floods the courtyards and backyards of the houses bringing along with it sand and clay. Many of the houses and latrines happen to “sit” because the inundating waters carry away with it the sand under the floors of the houses. The water, clay, and waste enter the houses and create perpetual cleaning challenges to women, because cooking and cleaning are the roles set apart exclusively for them. The sea sometimes takes away in its sweep the utensils, coconut, and anything which lies on its way. The sea water damages the houses and there is the never-ending maintenance work consuming time, energy, and money of the citizens. The maximum amount obtained from Revenue department is only 5,000 and that too with inordinate delay of up to 1 year. Everything together makes house management a nightmare for women.

In the houses without septic tanks, with only ring-type latrines, as the water inundates the yards, the latrine waste seeps up. This generates an abominable health-threatening environment, causing the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera, hepatitis A, and typhoid, which are acute diarrheal diseases.

Vijayam canal, the major canal constructed along the length of the panchayat, has inadequate depth and is ill maintained. The ducts and canals that are constructed to carry the flooded sea water from the western part of the panchayat to the backwaters in the eastern part eventually becomes silted up. A glance at the canals evidences the callousness and disregard for the maintenance of the canals and the indiscriminate waste dumping. Hence, it cannot contain the water that enters from the western part of the panchayat.

Culex mosquitoes, which breed in dirty water, serve as vectors of Japanese encephalitis, filariasis, etc. When there is any illness for anyone in the family, going by the socially constructed caring role of women, it is on the shoulders of women that the entire burden of the nursing of all family members falls. When the treatment expenses increase and consequently the non-health component of the family budget shrinks, it is on the women’s needs that the budget cut ultimately happens. This situation has been prevailing since the last 10 years and the situation has exacerbated in the last 6 years.

Drinking water shortage is a perennial issue in the panchayat. The incursion of the sea and seepage of toilet waste together contaminate the quality of water in wells. Drinking water is brought in tanker lorries and from there it is pumped through pipes directly into the households. Water reaches every week or fortnight and each family gets about 350 to 400 L. The persons at the upper end (near the source of supply, i.e., the tanker) get more water and the quantity decreases progressively toward the lower ends.

The amount spent for preventing sea incursion in Chellanam village⁷ is Rs 360,805 during the financial year 2016–2017. From the village, aid is given to the flood-affected persons. The maximum amount disbursed is Rs 5,000 and the average amount paid is in the range of Rs 2,500 to Rs 3,500. The system is so slow that none out of the 99 applicants had received compensation during the previous year.

Vulnerability of Women in the Panchayat

The sex ratio⁸ is 1,009 in the panchayat. But literacy rate for women is only 91.4 percent whereas it is 93.47 percent for the entire panchayat (CP 2017). Detailed occupation-related data was obtained for Chellanam village. Ward 18 comes under Chellanam village and hence the data throw light on the dismal employment status of women there. Women comprise 22.86 percent of the total workforce. But they mainly fall into the category of marginal workers, constituting 77.43 percent of this category (DCO 2011). Information gathered through the FGDs and interviews revealed that most women are dependent on husbands and that their main type of work is going out to the nearest town of Kochi (approximately 25 km away) as domestic workers, in which case they do not get time for community-based activities. During the FGDs with NHG members and interviews with ward members, there was clear indication of male domination as evidenced by the prevalence of domestic violence, alcoholism, and the practice of dowry. About 68 percent of houses are not solidly constructed, 20 percent of houses do not have sanitary facilities, and 6 percent of houses do not have safe drinking water (from files and discussions).

SWOT Analysis: GTPW

SWOT Analysis at a Glance

The analysis revolves round the objective of generating and classifying information to make a choice between the various technologies to prevent sea incursion. The objective is to facilitate the choice of a technology in which women can get remunerated, can participate, and can be involved in averting disasters in their own locality so as to reduce their vulnerability. At the time of the study, the panchayat was seriously contemplating the choice of GTPW technology in Ward 18. So, a SWOT analysis will be done from the vantage point of GTPW technology. Using a SWOT, facts related to the economic, technological, ecological, cultural, social, ethical, and administrative ecosystems are captured. Strengths and weakness of the project are examined based on ground-level realities. Missed opportunities are regarded. The facts beyond the tangible and direct aspects of costs and benefits and strengths and weaknesses are considered.

Here the entity under discussion is GTPW technology vis-à-vis its alternatives applied for the 100 m of sea coast in Ward 18 of Chellanam panchayat. Since the rubble-mounted protection wall and geo-tubes are beyond the scope and jurisdiction of the panchayat, the main discussion is in comparison with the variant of GTPW using coir and jute material.

The points at a glance are displayed in Table 5.2.

Strength

The filling material for GTPW is locally available sand and water. Hence all costs and problems associated with raw materials and transportation are avoided. The total cost per 100 m is Rs 15 to 20 lakhs (US$22,000 to 28,000) for GTPW, whereas it is Rs 57 lakhs (US$82,500) and 60 to 62 (US$87,000 to 90,000) lakhs, respectively, for geo-tubes and rubble-mounted walls. The ease and speed of implementation is comparatively more for GTPW while rubble technology is plagued with raw material scarcity, transportation hurdles, gawking charges, extortion from police, local leaders etc. GTPW is a temporary but quick solution to the problem of sea incursion. The heaviness of bags (1,100 kg) prevents stealing of sand whereas in the jute/coir alternative, probability of stealing is a negative aspect and hence the need for continued supervision is far less in comparison with Gj/cPW.

Table 5.2 SWOT analysis of GTPW (vis-à-vis the technological alternatives, especially the Gj/cPW alternatives)

Strength of GTPW • Free availability of the filler material at site • Comparative inexpensiveness vis-à-vis rubble walls and geo tubes • Heaviness of bags prevents stealing • Speed of implementation and suitability as a quick solution • Avoidance of raw material scarce and procedurally cumbersome rubble technology, plagued with macro-level hurdles and ground-level petty goondaism* • Less supervision needed against vandalism and stealing

Weakness of GTPW • New technology and hence not tried and tested • Not labor intensive in comparison with Gj/cPW • Not women-friendly technology when compared with Gj/cPW • Non-UV-resistant and hence not long-lasting when compared with the rubble-mounted wall and geo-tubes • Temporary solution only vis-à-vis rubble and geo-tube technology • Non-biodegradable material and hence has inherent environmental issues

Opportunity for Gj/cPW • Favorable global thinking, national policy, and national statute pivoted on community participation; roles of local governance and administration; gender equality, and capacity building • The area is already recognized as eco-fragile and there is already fund allocation for training and DRR activities Opportunity (missed/unutilized if GTPW is chosen) Unutilized opportunities • Organized and strong network of Kudumbasree and Balasabhas, which facilitate formation of vigilance groups and captive trainees • Robust MGNREGS set up • Power of panchayats in supervision against vandalism and stealing • Unemployed female labor force Missed opportunities • Not labor intensive. Hence missed opportunity to pump in MGNREGS funds to the local economy and for generating employment, mainly for women • Missed opportunity to decrease the vulnerability of women through income generation • Missed opportunity of participation of women and children in DRR-related community involvement and social action Capacity Development and community action missed • Opportunity for women to enter into DRR activities and to become partners to solve their perennial problem of sea incursion • Acquisition of technical skills for women • Gaining practical knowledge on DM and more specifically on DRR • Eventual development of advocacy skills and bargaining skills to work toward more robust solutions beyond the scope of the panchayat • Education of women and children on sustaining the environment and for developing civic sense • Conscientization and training against vandalism • Community mobilization for vigilance against theft and vandalism • Training and R&D around DRR activities • Offering leadership to inculcate civic sense and ethical operations • Exploration of opportunities for repair work • R&D to consolidate indigenous knowledge and to promote innovativeness

Threats (if GTPW is chosen over Gj/cPW is chosen) • The material used in GTPW is not biodegradable and can harm the environment Threats averted (if GTPW is chosen over Gj/cPW) • The very much needed supervision getting diluted to the detriment of the Gj/cPW in the eventuality of local governance becoming inefficient and the CBO members becoming indifferent • Lack of adequate civic sense to sustain the project

*Goondaism: Anti-social behavior of persons who generally indulge in violent and other illegitimate means to get things done.

Weakness

Experience with GTPW is as short as 1 year, for example, Purakkad beach, Alappuzha district, Kerala. Though it was maintenance-free up to 1-year, longevity is unknown. Being⁹ UV nonresistant, the material of the bag is at risk of damage and replacement. The material is not biodegradable whereas coir and jute used in Gj/cPW are perfectly biodegradable. The predicted life of GTPW is only 4 to 5 years against 10 years that of GTbPW. GTPW and GTbPW are temporary solutions. They cannot withstand cyclones like the rubble-mounted wall. This technology is machine-based unlike that of Gj/cPW, which is labor intensive. GTPW technology is not women friendly. Each bag weighs about 1,100 kg, approximating the weight of 22 cement sacks.

Threats

GTPW poses environmental problems since the material used is not biodegradable. In GTPW there is no threat for children and others to cause damages. Such type of vandalism had happened in Alleppey district with the Gj/cPW. Also, there is no threat of stealing the covering materials. The miscreants are usually those who own houses in the eastern parts or coastal areas and who encroach the sea shore (on the west) and put up houses with the sole objective of getting government aid. In short, the efficacy of Gj/cPW heavily depends on good governance related to timely repairs, vigilance, handling of miscreants, and civic sense education for the stakeholders including children. If there is ineffective leadership or lack of enthusiasm from the community, the sustainability of Gj/cPW will be at stake.

Opportunities

The global thinking, national legislation, and the national policy align with the concepts of DRR, community participation, partnership of women and children, involvement of local bodies and government, R&D, documentation of best practices, knowledge sharing and dissemination, public–private participation, capacity building, banking on corporate philanthropy etc. To prevent disaster in the making, when decision has to be taken at panchayat level, rubble-mounted technology may not feasible and so also the GTbPW (though theoretically it can be said that the panchayat can assert at higher level through lobbying and advocacy). So, the panchayat is left with the opportunity of choosing GTPW and its less sophisticated version, Gj/cPW.

The panchayat has a huge support system comprising of Kudumbasree with 4,864 women along with Balasabhas for children. Also, the panchayat has the MGNREGS scheme with a high potential for generating employment for eco-restorative activities. Female unemployment prevails in the panchayat as mentioned earlier. The closer supervision demanded by Gj/cPW is very well within the power of the panchayat. If Gj/cPW technology is chosen, we could utilize all these structures. The panchayat misses these opportunities if GTPW is chosen. Through MGNREGS, the panchayat can obtain funds from the state and central government if the panchayat opts for Gj/cPW. Choice of Gj/cPW can provide employment to the women within their locality and hence offers them more time for community participation. Choice Gj/cPW technology can reduce their vulnerability, not through wages alone, but also through the control women get over their environment by averting the damages caused by sea incursion through participation in both technological and community-based activities. Choice of Gj/cPW can make them active partners in R&D on substitution materials for the bags (through multi stakeholder groups including women who search for improvising indigenous knowledge). They can partner in civic sense education against vandalism and stealing and in other pertinent community actions along these lines. Literature shows that all these activities have reduced the vulnerability of women across the globe. Thus, many opportunities will be lost if GTPW technology is chosen.

DDMA has an allotment of Rs 5.9 lakhs (US$8,550) for training activities within the district. Training on technical aspects such as repair of bags and consciousness raising to promote civic sense can be undertaken. A heterogeneous team consisting of local people, leaders, academicians, community leaders, and engineers can visit sites where a range of technologies are used against sea incursion and an interested team can engage in R&D activities. Initiation into the construction activities through Gj/cPW could have given an entry to women into the world of DM and DRR. This could lay the foundation for skills, knowledge, and public action to know and think about alternate DRR activities and to negotiate and dialogue for other more robust alternatives. These skills could be taken further in due course to negotiate with the larger power centers to find permanent solutions even against large-scale disasters.

Scope can be explored for labor mobilization for repair work in the alternate technologies. The already existing Kudumbasree and Balasabhas can be mobilized for DRR projects. In Ward 18, there are 265 registered¹⁰ job card holders and of those 210 are active out of which 95 percent are women. For the district, the figure is only 93 percent. But the average number of days of employment is only 30 days versus the district figure of 44. Many women go to cities for domestic work and the daily earnings is about Rs 231 (US$3.35); whereas repair work would fetch them Rs 258 (US$3.70) per day. Very few women work in more than one home and earn more. Preference is for work available near their home. There is reason for the desire for engagement in DRR-generated employment, which in turn is for solving one of their perennial problems. Employment near home enables more participation in community activities.

At panchayat level, the situation has reached a sort of TINA point (There Is No Alternative) except going in for the non-rubble-mounted alternatives. The rubble-mounted wall work is undertaken by contractors who might collude with the engineers and profiteer compromising on the quality of work. Often local formal and informal leaders have to be pacified with money to prevent possible trouble-making by way of reporting to vigilance even in cases of honest work. The restrictions against quarrying, unavailability of granite rubbles, exhaustion of material of currently licensed quarries, the multilayered license procedures,¹¹ nokkukoolie¹² at the quarry and work sites, speed money to the police during transportation, lack of good roads to take the rubble to the work spot, denial of permission by private parties to drive through their compound to download the rubbles together make the rubble-mounted protection wall a very unattractive work for the contractor, especially when the work is small in magnitude and cannot contain the “unaccountable” expenses. If the money is not paid, the extorters can “scrupulously” inspect the rubbles and raise inconvenient questions about the conformity of the stipulated size of the rubbles¹³ and land up the contractor in heavy loss and could even prevent the very execution of the work. Hence contractors are reluctant to take up small works such as repairing of a 100-m gap.

There are two Balasabhas¹⁴ in Ward 18. The participation of children can be assured for keeping vigil to protect the public property and for reporting need for repairs. Thus children can experientially get trained on civic sense and responsible citizenship. Instances of drug abuse by children are being reported and in response, Excise Department is conducting awareness generation classes. Involvement in DRR activities can provide meaningful engagement for children and reduce the possibility of drug addiction. When women are organized around DRR activities, probably they could develop strength to resist such local-level goondaism.

The Choice of the Project

SWOT is a data capture tool. Final choice of the project can be made only after a detailed analysis based on financial, economic technical, political, social, ecological and implementation viabilities. But SWOT analysis definitely brings our Gj/cPW as the most effective project, which can solve the problems of women related to sea incursion under the constraints of decision-making at panchayat level. It makes the most vulnerable potential victims that is, women, active agents and drivers to prevent disasters. Once a robust engendered implementation mechanism is in place, the local women become the implementers of the preventive measures against a perennial problem, which had been plaguing them for the last 10 years. They can be legitimately expected to discharge the DRR work most devotedly, this work being a solution for their day-to-day problems.

Women, fetching income into the house through labor, can benefit through the higher status and gender role reversal within the home. They enjoy higher economic independence, increased freedom to make financial decisions, and enlarged entry into the public places and enhanced sharing of sociopolitical power (Pankaj 2010 pp. 50–52).

Not only the women in the currently unutilized labor pool, but also the currently unemployed women outside the pool as well, get a chance for wage earning. An engendered implementation mechanism has the potential to make them supervisors, labor supervisors, and labor contractors. Opportunities open up for learning new skills - not only the direct construction skills, but also the skills for becoming more effective members in the community. They can also learn to become creators of a culture of responsible citizenship (by preserving the construction against vandalism and theft and making their voices heard in appropriate forums). Once they are more immersed in the community affairs, lobbying and negotiating skills develop eventually and could even lead up to taking the matter to higher levels for the solution of more robust, durable and perhaps much more expensive protection walls which can offer a permanent solution.

All the above benefits accrue to the local women when the choice is made of Gj/cPW technology. Choosing this technology enhances the income of women and becomes instrumental in reducing the vulnerability of women. As discussed in the literature, vulnerability is not a function of income poverty alone. Lack of information and knowledge about DM and DRR, lack of participation in DRR, lack of access to networks, lack of capacity to prevent disasters, lack of voice in decision-making spaces, etc. contribute to vulnerability to disasters. As discussed, Gj/cPW technology not only provides opportunity for income generation for women, but also eliminates or reduces the current and future intangible aspects of vulnerability. Hence Gj/cPW can be a preliminary choice from the point of view of these obvious criteria and also from the point of view of reducing the vulnerability of women to disasters. Effective DRR contributes to development and participation of women and children lends sustainability to this development.

Conclusion

Since tackling issues related to rubble-mounted protection wall is beyond the jurisdiction of the panchayat, the temporary solution is sought and mainly the comparisons are made between GTPW and Gj/cPW. When the factors for reduction of vulnerability of women—lack of employment, low income, lesser opportunities for social action, lesser control over the raging sea—are considered, Gj/cPW opens up the possibilities for tackling all these. The issues were analyzed in the larger context of bureaucratic and ground-level unwelcome practices. Gj/cPW comes up as the most likely temporary solution for the problems of the citizens in general and women in particular. Gj/cPW offers labor participation, income for women, future and eventual possibilities of community participation and participation in local political affairs. Income generation elevates the status of women within and outside their homes. Immersion in the community affairs give them control and participation over larger forces, which makes decisions about, say the preventive measures against sea incursion. Thus, Gj/cPW carries the potential to reduce their vulnerabilities.

A SWOT analysis is only a data capture tool. But all data have to be captured and put on the table transparently for the decision-makers (in this case, panchayat samithy) to see and to initiate a fact-based and evidence-based discussion. Again, a SWOT not only facilitates the discussion of the current situation, but also forces thinking about future opportunities. Being a data capture tool alone, further exploration and rigorous analysis is required regarding various types of viabilities mentioned earlier. The contribution of this study is that the methodology of a SWOT analysis can be taught and applied for data capture in decision-making for project alternatives and such discussions by all stakeholders together around this framework can bring to table all the dimensions of the issue and lend transparency regarding decision-making criteria. Such discussions will bring to focus the larger systemic issues (for example those related to rubble-mounted sea wall) which, if handled at a higher level, can provide permanent solutions and prevent catastrophic damages in the case of a cataclysmic hazard. A SWOT analysis is used as a tool to engender DRR. Through SWOT, in discussions on DRR, the gender issues can be made visible and views can be generated to engender DRR initiatives. While technology is chosen for DRR, the technology needs to be assessed in terms of the reduction of vulnerability of women.

References

ACOG (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists). 2010. Preparing for Disasters: Perspectives on Women. https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Health-Care-for-Underscored-Women/Preparing-for-Disasters-Perspectives-on-Women, (accessed June 21, 2018).

Anderson, M. B. 1994. “Understanding the Disaster-Development Continuum: Gender Analysis Is the Essential Tool.” Focus on Gender 2, no. 1, pp. 7–10. Development Continuum: Gender Analysis Is the Essential Tool

Bradshaw, S., and M. Fordham. 2013. Women, Girls and Disasters, A review for DFID. London, UK: Middlesex University.

CP (Chellanam Panchayat). 2017. 625 Is the Number of Families Who Require Houses. http://lsgkerala.in/chellanampanchayat/files/2017/06/grama_sabha_list__2016.pdf

DCO (Directorate of Census Operations). 2011. Census of India 2011: District Census Handbook Ernakulam. Thiruvananthapuram, India: DCO.

Enarson, E. 2000. Gender and Natural Disasters. Geneva, Switzerland. InFocuProgramme on Crisis Response and Reconstruction. Working Paper 1, ISBN No. 92-2-112260-3. http://www.ilo.int/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_ent/---ifp_crisis/documents/publication/wcms_116391.pdf

GOI (Government of India) Ministry of Home Affairs. 2009. National Policy on Disaster Management. New Delhi, India: GOI. https://ndma.gov.in/images/guidelines/national-dm-policy2009.pdf

GOI (Government of India) National Disaster Management Authority. 2005. Disaster Management Act, December 23, 2005. https://ndma.gov.in/images/ndma-pdf/DM_act2005.pdf

Jawahar, M. n.d. Report on Visit to Kudumbashree Institutions. Thiruvananthapuram, India: Kudumbashree.

KS (Kudumbasree). 2017. Balasabha. http://www.kudumbashree.org/pages/66#, (accessed August 26, 2017).

Morrison, M. 2012. How Do I Do SWOT Analysis. https://rapidbi.com/how-do-i-do-a-swot-analysis

Morrison, M. 2016. SWOT (TOWS matrix) Analysis Made Simple. https://rapidbi.com/swotanalysis

Neumayer, E., and T. Plumper. 2007. “The Gendered Nature of Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy. 1981–2002.” Annals of the American Association of Geographers 97, no. 3, pp. 551–66.

Pankaj, A. July 24, 2010. “Empowerment Effects of the NREGS on Women Worker: A Study in Four States.” EPW (Economic and Political Weekly) 45, no. 30. http://www.environmentportal.in/files/Empowerment%20Effects%20of%20the%20NREGS.pdf

Sammut-Bonnici, T., and D. Galea. 2015 SWOT Analysis. Wiley Online Library. Wiley Encyclopedia on Management. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118785317.weom120103

SOM (Steering Committee on Economic and Technical Cooperation) (SME), Policy Partnership on Women and Economy (PPWE). 2015. “Good Practices on Economic Empowerment of Women in Post-Disaster Reconstruction in Tohoku and the Asia-Pacific.” Singapore: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. APEC#215-ES-01.3.

Team FME. 2013. SWOT Analysis: Strategy Skills. Team FME. www.free-management-ebooks.com. ISBN 978-1-62620-951-0. http://www.free-management-ebooks.com/dldebk-pdf/fme-swot-analysis.pdf

Tozier, A, and B. Ange. 2015. “From Yokohama to Sendai: Approaches to Participation in International Disaster Risk Reduction Frameworks.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 6, pp. 18–19. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0053-6

Twigg, J. 2001. Corporate Social Responsibility and disaster Reduction: A Global Overview. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute.

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2015. Transforming Our World, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf

UNESC (United Nations Economic and Social Council) Commission on the Status of Women 2014. Report on the 58th session. “Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women in Natural Disasters.” E/CN.6/2014/L.4. http://www.gender.go.jp/policy/saigai/pdf/58th_gender_equality_e.pdf

UNISDR (The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction). 2002. ISDR Background paper for WSSD. Geneva, Switzerland: UNISDR. http://gfmc.online/wp-content/uploads/ISDR-WSSD-Background-Paper-Version-June-2002-2.pdf

UNISDR (The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction). 2009. UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Rduction. Geneva, Switzerland: UNISDR. https://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf

USAID (US Agency for International Development). 2011. “An Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction” https://www.preventionweb.net/files/26081_kp1concepdisasterrisk1.pdf

Wagner, D. 2016. “Learning, Literacy and Sustainable Development: Inclusion, Vulnerability and SDGs.” In Children and Sustainable Development Ecological Education in a Globalized World, eds. A. Battro, P. Lena, M. S. Sorondo and V. J. Braun, (pp. 45–65). Philadelphia, PA: Springer. http://www.thecollo.org/gpsd/resources/WAGNER_Learn-Sustain_Vatican_dw_v3.1c_June2_16.pdf

Wisner, B. Blaike, P. Cannon, T. and Davis, I. 2003. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. https://www.amazon.com/At-Risk-Vulnerability-Disasters-2003-12-21/dp/B01FKS90Y8

¹ Grama panchayats are the local bodies in rural area which are endowed with powers of local self-government through the 73rd Constitution Amendment Act 1992.

² A severe cyclonic storm Ockhi hit Kerala on 28th November 2017. Chellanam was affected.

³ Adambu is a type of creeper on which rabbits usually feed.

⁴ These technical details were collected from the office of the Executive Engineer, Irrigation Division, Ernakulam District and by interviewing the Executive Engineer.

⁵ Panchayat president heads each panchayat samithy (committee), which in turn is constituted by ward members. A panchayat is divided into wards and from each ward, a representative is elected to the panchayat samithy as ward member. In Kerala there are 941 panchayats. Chellanam panchayat has 22 wards.

⁶ CDS Chairperson heads CDS, which is the local body level institution of Kudumbasree (literal meaning is prosperity of the family) launched in 1998 to eradicate poverty through community action under the leadership of local bodies. This is a three tier network with Area Society (ADS) at ward level and Neighbourhood Groups (NHG)s at grassroots level. In Kerala, grassroots democracy is facilitated through functional linkages with panchayats. As on March 2017, the system has 277,175 NHGs affiliated to 19,854 ADSs and 1,073 CDSs with a total membership of 4,306,976 women (Jawahar M). Chellanam panchayat has 21 ADSs, 320 NHGs with 4864 women as members.

⁷ Village is the basic unit of division of land by Revenue department, whereas panchayat is the basic unit for the department of local self-government. Three villages lie within the boundary of Chellanam panchayat. They are Chellanam, Kumbalangi, and Rameswaram villages. Only Chellanam village is plagued by sea incursion.

⁸ Sex ratio: The proportional distribution of the sexes in a population. Here it is expressed as the number of females per 1,000 male population.

⁹ Not resistant to ultra violet rays

¹⁰ This is a national-level program in India, which guarantees 100 days of employment to all the eligible members of each family registered at the rate of Rs 258 (US$3.70) per day. The panchayat is expected to maintain a shelf of projects and employment is to be provided within 15 days after the person places a request. If the panchayat is not able to provide employment within 15 days of demanding the job, unemployment wages have to be provided. Panchayat will have to pay compensation for the delay of wages. Out of the total amount spent by the panchayat per year, 60 percent needs to be a labor component and this would be reimbursed by the central government. Out of the material cost, i.e., 40 percent of the total, three-fourths would be met by central government and one-fourth by state government. Although when the scheme was lodged, the idea was to spend the entire budget on soil and water conservation, land development, eco-restoration etc., in subsequent years, there was permission to include works related to asset formation as well.

¹¹ Clearance is required through DEAC (District Expert Appraisal Committee) and DEIAA (District Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority) and if required to be taken up to SPEIA (State Environment Impact Assessment Committee).

¹² A phenomenon found particularly in the state of Kerala where the organized labor force extort labor charges even if they do not do any work in the location, in the eventuality of some other agency undertaking the work at the behest of the person who wants to get the work done for wages. The term gawking wages also is being used to denote the same.

¹³ The stipulated size is 1m³ (meter cubed) for regular rubbles and below I m³ for irregular rubbles.

¹⁴ The Balasabhas are the network of children in a ward. Each Sabha consists of 15to 30 children in the age group of 6 to 18 years, constituted with the purpose of preventing the intergenerational poverty transmission and the intended route toward this is capability enhancement of children. Study groups are constituted for experimental and systematic learning, for understanding democratic process, participation in conserving environment etc. This helps children to understand the intricacies of collectivization. At present, 66,743 Balasabhas, covering 10,59,283 children, creating glorious dimensions to the endeavor. Balasabha is set as the three-tier system as NHG, ADS, and CDS level.