Chapter 7
CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

Not only has the workplace changed (as discussed in prior chapters) but also the landscape of our daily lives. Home, workplace, and everything in between seem to have incorporated many different resources, processes, and possibilities than ever before. Rather than only having to attend formal classes to learn new skills and hobbies, more people search and participate in online sites and communities to address their quest for immediate how-to instruction and information (King, Leos, & Norstrand, 2016; Pew Research Center, 2014; Reeves, 2001).

As illustrated in Melissa's plumbing scenario, many tasks cannot be completed solely by accessing information. Instead, users must determine their information needs, plan and implement information gathering, sort and analyze their findings, and make a decision regarding how to best use the information. Although individuals pursue these steps in different ways, everyone needs to use critical thinking and problem-solving skills to bring the cycle full circle.

On the work front, across recent decades, technology has continued to be more powerful and less expensive; therefore, it became much easier to design automated systems for routine tasks. This innovation ultimately requires either retraining of personnel or layoffs as their positions morph to more advanced responsibilities. Suddenly, employees who used to follow one or two steps of instructions day after day are expected to engage in effective analysis, evaluation, decision making, and problem-solving several times a day.

This change assumes a much greater level of achievement in content knowledge and cognitive skills. How are adult education, career and technical education, higher education, business, and industry accommodating these changing demands and expectations in the workplace?

Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving

Two frequently referenced examples of practical needs for these skills in the workplace include (1) the high stakes need for critical thinking (Brookfield, 1991; Thompson, 2011) when searching for and understanding Internet content (Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra, 2003) and (2) the demand for employees who can problem-solve and not just follow routines (Brookfield, 1991; Jonassen et al., 2003). These experiences are representative of many others that pervade life in the digital age and make critical thinking and problem-solving essential skills for success. The following sections discuss cultivating critical thinking and problem-solving skills and provide direction for strategies to apply them.

Critical Thinking

Defining critical thinking is not an easy task. It has been widely held as a hallmark of excellent education since World War II and promoted by the progressive movement of educators. These connections gained great popularity with Dewey and his followers because they were strong proponents of critical thinking as a goal of public education. Dewey (1938) thought that education's supreme purpose was to prepare all citizens to participate in the democracy. From a different perspective, Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of cognitive process placed a premium emphasis on critical thinking to transition into higher-order thinking skills.

Although there is substantial unanimity in the need for critical thinking, while reviewing the literature on it again, it is evident there is no single definition for the term. Nonetheless, a consensus of understanding of the term is available. Across the educational literature, authors agree that critical thinking involves people using a systematic approach to evaluate information, develop viable solutions, and test them as they seek to solve many different types of structured and ill-structured problems (Laxman, 2010; Nosich, 2011; Shah, 2010; Winch, 2006).

Characteristics of critical thinkers have been studied in the literature, in part because describing the users' behavior and attributes sheds additional light on the complex skill set. Researchers describe learners who are adept with critical thinking as creative, curious about intellectual matters, not satisfied with simple answers, and ready to pursue multiple solutions (Jonassen et al., 2003; Thompson, 2011). Several different theories and models have posed the process of critical thinking; however, to create a universal model is problematic.

Critical thinking is a highly individualized, context-specific, multi-branching process. Therefore, it is very difficult to develop a comprehensive model that captures the many variations inherent in critical thinking and fits all situations. Bloom's (1956) taxonomy is probably one of the most familiar cognitive models that illuminate many of the discrete, but interconnected, steps of critical thinking. However, it does not capture the details of questioning, inquiring, and so on that are essential to the process.

The Foundation for Critical Thinking (2007) provides one model of understanding critical thinking that has drawn a substantial following. Originally based on the work of Richard Paul and Linda Elder (2007), this approach includes two strands and provides a platform for teaching people of all ages how to learn to be critical thinkers in a wide range of settings. The first strand is named “the elements and standards” (Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2007) and includes eight elements: generating purposes, raising questions, using information, using concepts, making inferences, making assumptions, generating implications, and embodying a point of view. The premise is that understanding, reflecting on, and practicing these functions in focused activities will contribute to cultivating a practice of critical thinking.

The second strand of this model is entitled the “universal intellectual standards” (Elder & Paul, 2010). These standards provide guidelines for evaluating information and situations. The standards include clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness.

This model of critical thinking appeals to people because it captures the necessary and dynamic interplay between both strands. For instance, as individuals determine whether or not to undergo radiation treatment of cancer they will progress through the first set of guidelines. However, whenever they evaluate information during this process, according to Elder and Paul's model (2010), they are taught to use the standards. This approach to critical thinking incorporates a great deal of reflection on learning to evaluate and improve one's skills.

From P–12 education (Jonassen et al., 2003) to higher education (Brookfield, 1991) there has been great emphasis on the need to incorporate critical thinking in the curriculum. Nonetheless, many faculty members still struggle to change their teaching style and incorporate critical thinking in their course work in meaningful ways (Paul & Elder, 2005, 2007, 2013; Thompson, 2011).

Traditional and recent educational theories have not provided consistent rationales for teaching critical thinking in public schools. The result is that American schools have consistently graduated students who are not successful problem-solvers. Thompson (2011) identified many reasons for this enduring shortfall. These complications range from teachers not being able to consistently define critical thinking ( Jones, 2004; Kennedy, Fisher, & Ennis, 1991), to the teachers' lack of confidence in guiding students through problem-solving stages and competencies (Goddard & Goddard, 2001; Wheatley, 2002), to students' lack of self-efficacy regarding their critical thinking abilities (Bandura, 1993; Caliskan, 2010; Zimmerman, 2000), students' inadequate information-searching skills (Laxman, 2010), and teachers' preference for more behaviorist than constructivist approaches to teaching. The approach provided in the research includes a strong interrelationship for building critical thinking and problem-solving.

Problem-Solving

Employers no longer want to have to train their employee for every imaginable special case and contingency for at least three major reasons: (1) The low cost of technology makes it easier to automate routine tasks. (2) Because of the great number of customizations available through technology, production of small alterations is possible. (3) Employers want staff members to be able to troubleshoot (problem-solve) automated systems, client situations, project management, and so on. Therefore, educators and educational institutions have been under increased pressure to incorporate the attainment of problem-solving skills into learning outcomes (Enriquez, 2001; Fink, 2014; Friedman, 2005; Jonassen et al., 2003; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2015).

Teaching problem-solving skills (referred to in the literature as problem-based learning [PBL]) for application has been the subject of much research, discussion, and publication in recent years (Barber, King, & Buchanan, 2015; Fink, 2014; Jonassen et al., 2003). Although there are several models for teaching problem-solving, in this chapter, the selected division is between critical thinking and problem-solving. More important, there are many definitions of problem-solving. Beginning with the very basics, this section discusses the definition of problem-solving and explores effective strategies for teaching this important skill set.

Defining Problem-Solving

The literature agrees that problem-solving is not an isolated skill but instead may be thought of as a constellation of processes and perspectives that lead to posing multiple solutions to dilemmas, conflicts, situations, or problems (Bell, 2010). In the digital age, situations to which people apply problem-solving range from grade school word problems to research design and everyday concerns; from international negotiations to political relations within a local community; and from determining best strategies to space exploration, agricultural challenges, human rights, and everything in between and beyond (Barber et al., 2015; Jonassen et al., 2003). Indeed, the scope of concern for problem-solving has expanded exponentially during the technological revolution because of global, instant communications and the internationalization of industry, which are considered vital 21st-century capacities (Bell, 2010).

Given this wide expanse of needs for and applications of problem-solving, what is embedded in this cognitive concept and process? Definitions and explanations of problem-solving depend on the educational philosophy of researchers, educators, and authors. A few salient examples illustrate this point. Behaviorists define the skill set in terms of the anticipated outcomes. By contrast, humanists see the unveiling of human potential as problem-solving develops within individuals' lives. Pragmatists recognize in problem-solving the sine qua non ability to navigate the ever-changing, complex concerns of daily life and the means to discover society's survival solutions. However, constructivism understands problem-solving as an active cognitive process.

When applying a constructivist lens, problem-solving represents the process by which learners discover and internalize knowledge. Learners of all ages explore the issues and dilemmas that surround them and experiment with potential strategies to interact, dissect, and evaluate their theories and suppositions. In the process, they not only pose, test, and refine solutions but also they gain a deeper, personal comprehension of the directly and indirectly related concepts and issues. Whether learners problem-solve technology, language learning, relationships, or any other issues, they continually add to their transferable repertoire of problem-solving strategies and their personal knowledge base.

Another step in the problem-solving experience is meaning-making. The concept of meaning-making represents another step in the experience of learners personally internalizing learning that they have gained from, in this case, problem-solving. Rather than another person (e.g., the teacher) validating their answer or telling students what their answer means, meaning-making places the learner in control (Brookfield, 1991, 2011; Fink, 2014). Many techniques can be used to facilitate critical reflection and meaning-making, including peer dialogue, questioning, journaling, think-aloud, presentation of solutions to others, defending (building a case) for the solution, deconstructing the solution, and so on.

STEM education (including the applied and hard sciences of chemistry, physics, etc.) may frequently include applications of problem-solving techniques for learning. Nonetheless, even in the STEM content areas, many times instructors hold back from using the powerful meaning-making potential of problem-solving because of expectations and convenience of traditional instruction and urgent demands to deliver all the content expected in courses (Donald, 2003; Fink, 2014).

However, the research in the field of problem-solving and my experience with adult learners in several different postsecondary and ABE settings confirm that problem-solving learning experiences are grossly underused in the teaching of other disciplines (Fink, 2014). The next sections provide examples of understanding the strategies, means of, and barriers to learning critical thinking and problem-solving in different contexts and for different goals.

Stages of Problem-Solving

Discussing the stages of problem-solving is an enlightening experience for many adults. Although adults engage in problem-solving daily, many do not explicitly contemplate or analyze their approaches, alternative techniques, assessment, or ways to overcome obstacles. Incorporating time to reflect on prior problem-solving techniques, mental models of problem-solving, and additional applied strategies opens new worlds of possibilities (Jonassen et al., 2003).

Figure 7.1 is a common problem-solving model that is seen in the literature. It was developed from a review of many familiar theoretical and practical models to represent the commonly understood stages. It is critical to note that the graphic represents an ongoing cycle that under ideal conditions would repeat all stages until achieving the optimum solution. Problem-solving is a powerful strategy indeed.

A diagram for a problem-solving model type with text connected in a circle with arrows.

Figure 7.1 Popular Problem-Solving Model

Building on this foundation, Figure 7.2 provides a more in-depth vantage point to understand problem-solving. The thinking actively in a social context (TASC) problem-solving model is based on Wallace's (2002) work in P–12 schools, and yet the vital community-integration component makes it invaluable for adult learners. In this model, the white hub, labeled TASC, represents social context. Whether pursuing self-development, informal learning, or teaching adults in formal educational or workplace settings, whether working with ABE, undergraduates, graduate students, or workplace training, this model demonstrates that the context and community are critical players and stakeholders in the real-life problem-solving process. For adults, a problem-solving model that includes constituencies in multiple phases can be an important paradigm and skill set to change their future problem-solving approaches.

A process diagram of thinking actively in a social context (TASC) problem-solving model with a circle split into eight parts with text and headings and T A S C at the center with arrows.

Figure 7.2 Thinking Actively in a Social Context (TASC) Problem-Solving Model

Source: Wallace (2000, 2002, 2008). Used with permission.

Barriers to Problem-Solving

Recognizing that not everyone finds any or all problem-solving situations approachable or easy, considering the barriers that learners may confront helps us plan better. The literature on barriers to problem-solving is vast. However, some of the most interesting research relates to the limitations that learners experience from their own situations:

  • Cognitive strategies
  • Learning styles
  • Learning preferences
  • Mental models
  • Assumptions
  • Real and perceived constraints and threats (Beckmann & Goode, 2014; Gambrill, 2014; Walinga, 2010)

The research on creativity has illustrated extensive work in the power of engagement, exploration, collaboration, and play to open the human mind to new possibilities. However, research (Walinga, 2010) has revealed how the mind alone can limit problem-solving by shifting attention away from the major goal when a perceived or real threat exists. In Walinga's study, she demonstrated that once users recognized a threat may be present (decreased time line, decrease of resources, danger, etc.) the quest for solutions was nearly abandoned and attention turned to coping with the threat. Certainly, such action is appropriate when real, physical danger is present; however, there are large applications of this finding in other directions.

Walinga's (2010) research and theory development demonstrated that when engaged in problem-solving the perception of a threat is a powerful disruption. Therefore, visual aids, tracking tools, and dialogue become even more essential in order to help learners internalize practices of continually refocusing their attention to the primary problem. Based on this discussion, it is more important than ever for educators to encourage learners to use tools that will expose their prior and current values, beliefs, and assumptions and uncover their blind spots as well as new opportunities.

Tools for Problem-Solving

Given its potential, it is exciting to discover there are many tools that support not only problem-solving but also develop problem-solving skills. From manipulatives (physical objects) to concept maps and computer-based applications, learners and educators can tap into scores of problem-solving aids to address their specific situations and learning preferences. The following list provides many examples of such tools and how they can be used. Please note, these examples only scratch the surface of possibilities for developing problem-solving skills.

Animation Software

What Is It?

  • Advances in animation software has made this its era of coming of age. It is now available for all skill levels from novice to expert.
  • In essence, this specialized software simulates motion pictures by creating the allusion that drawn or virtually constructed objects are in motion (Musa, Ziatdinov, Sozcu, & Griffiths, 2015).
  • These programs and applications (for portable devices) enable users to design, create, and distribute their message through a story line with characters of their choice. In turn, users transfer these animations to their intended audience to be viewed with most digital devices (e.g., cell phones, tablets, wearable computing devices, portable and desktop computers, etc.).

Action Steps

  • Problem-solving through the use of animation may include teams designing varied role-playing scripts and exploring what different parameters or choices may lead to in terms of alternatives or outcomes. The experience brings abstract reasoning to new levels of experience and awareness. By creating an animation, users can watch the action and determine what results or consequences might occur when the scenario was experienced.
  • Animations are also used to illustrate, bring to life, or anthropomorphize abstract concepts. The needs of students with different learning preferences can be addressed as they control chemical bonding with spheres moving, wiggling, and connecting in a defined space. The instructor designs the animation so that users change parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, etc.) corresponding to changes in the animated spheres, movements, and bonds.
  • Learners may be excited and pleased with creating their own animation to illustrate concepts being studied. In many of these situations, I have seen that the creative learning process becomes a positive motivation because learners of all ages enjoy expressing themselves, sharing their ideas, and creating their own digital media products.
    • When students develop animations to illustrate concepts or their process, such as research techniques or problem-solving techniques, they extend their research, questioning, logical reasoning, and understanding further.
    • This greater learning occurs because in order to develop an animation that illustrates concepts, students must understand a great deal more about its principles, dynamics, and interrelationships with other variables than when they simply recall the concept.
    • In addition, once created, the animation (1) contributes to their discipline-specific learning, (2) provides new strategies for problem-solving other issues, and (3) becomes available for others to use as a learning resource.
Case Studies

What Is It?

  • Cases are written accounts that describe complex content-focused situations that need to be solved based on the material covered and the students' level of skill and proficiency.

Action Steps

  • Case study learning can be facilitated in many contexts including homework, in-class activities, and discussion board forums.
  • Assign one case to each group of students. They will strategize and solve the assignment together.
  • Have each group report back to the class to share not only their findings but also complexities, dilemmas, resources used, and their problem-solving approaches.
  • As Beckman (1972, p. 489) stated, “The emphasis is on student participation in the educational process. Students are expected to carry the discussion, assessing the facts, making the analysis, weighing the considerations and reaching a decision.”
Concept Maps

What Is It?

  • Concept maps are graphical designs that illustrate the relationship (and potentially the dynamics or action) among topics being studied (Novak & Cañas, 2008).

Action Steps

  • Concept maps enable people to examine and understand information in different ways because users design a visual and try to determine the relationships and connections among parts.
  • Literature review maps are an example of concept maps. As students work on researching the literature on a specific topic, one part of the assignment can be to develop a graphical representation of how the information and sources interrelate. They can group common information together with the sources identified and illustrated and document if and how information might overlap, affect, emerge, or derive from one another, for instance.
  • Encouraging students to Google images of concept maps or literature review maps provides copious diverse examples and encourages creativity, discovery, and freedom of expression.
Databases

What Is It?

  • One of the most familiar nonelectronic databases that people were familiar with 20 years ago was the telephone book. Each person who had a phone was represented in this volume and it was sorted alphabetically by last name.
  • In database terminology, the individual accounts would be records (e.g., John Ellis's home address and telephone number), and each piece of information, a field (e.g., last name, street address, city, etc.) (Beal, n.d.).
  • Since 2000, databases are ubiquitous in daily life. From our telephone contacts in our cell phones to the software serving up websites, airline tickets, book purchases, and so on we use databases many times a day. However, databases also incorporate exciting analysis tools that can assist in many problem-solving activities.

Action Steps

  • Adult learners might be introduced to using databases effectively in problem-solving when they write a report or letter about community needs. Accessing government websites to search and retrieve data about their community's demographics, tax base, rate of employment, and so on provides information that will build the persuasiveness of their case.
    • Educators may cultivate new problem-solving skills introducing how to use or combine search operators (e.g., and, but, or, etc.), use quotes, as well as how to refine keywords for searches.
    • Users can also learn how to construct a simple database to tabulate, sort, and report data in different formats and arrays. This empowering experience develops a new perspective of thinking about data analysis and new possibilities for collecting and managing moderate and large bodies of information. Using technology to solve problems in this manner provides critical links to the nature of 21st-century work.
Dialogue and Questions

What Is It?

  • Shor and Freire (1987) provide an excellent definition of dialogue when they describe how instructors plan them.
    • Scaffold and model strategies for developing deeper understanding and analysis by asking questions that aid students in uncovering the meaning of reading, assignments, and so on (Shor & Freire, 1987).

Action Steps

  • Based on the session content, dialogue leaders must strategically design sequences of questions that will develop deeper understanding (Shor & Freire, 1987).
  • Before the class session, have students prepare to lead an in-depth discussion of a specific portion of the reading. You might also have them post their questions online for their classmates to prepare for the activity as well.
Digital Recordings (Audio and Video)

What Is It?

  • Digital recordings are audio and video recordings in digital format. These can be created with many devices including cell phones, tablets, laptop computers, and digital recording devices. What is more, if one needs to amend the recording for any purpose the editing software may be downloaded for free.
  • These tools provide opportunities for learners of all ages to articulate their opinions and concerns as well as distribute them to a global audience.

Action Steps

  • As problem-solving tools, digital recordings might be used to collect data (e.g., interviews, comments, etc.), which can be used in decision making. They might also be used to create, practice, or record presentations in the process.
  • The World Wide Web was originally intended to enable users to easily create and disseminate content globally. These goals were not accomplished, however, until in approximately 2000 with the release of Web 2.0. Wikis, blogs, and social media were significant contributors to this widespread adoption of user-generated content (Kaletka, Kopp, & Pelka, 2011).
  • Audio and video recordings are among some of the most exciting ways users can create their own content with technology. Digital recorders convert the traditional signal and sound we hear (analog) into digital data that can be further manipulated and amplified (this process is also known as analog-to-digital conversion) (Boyd, 2012).
Facilitators or Guides

What Is It?

  • Instead of telling students how to solve the problem at hand, an instructor allows them to work out solutions individually or collectively.
  • The focus of the instructor's responses should be on resources, not solutions.
  • In addition, as in all group activities, facilitators actively sustain goodwill, open communication, and mutual trust among the participants. These points illustrate the attitudinal characteristics that Rogers (1983) identified as essential when facilitating learning.

Action Steps

  • During traditional in-class sessions, the instructor might circulate the room, answer questions, and provide encouragement to the groups.
  • In distance learning, facilitative instructors hang back from the discussion board where all can see how the dialogue progresses. Instructors allow learners to work out solutions and usually interject for only a limited number of reasons.
Flowcharts

What Is It?

  • Flowcharts are structured diagrams that document how information, processes, or concepts develop and progress (Grais, n.d.; International Standard Organization, 1985/2015/2015). Flowcharts especially enable people to examine explicitly the logic of the area under study. In problem-solving, flowcharts can help users understand relationships among parts and processes more explicitly and assist in troubleshooting. A few examples illustrate the wide diversity of flowchart applications.

Action Steps

  • Computer programming might be where many people are first introduced to flowcharts. They are used to help novice and experienced programmers use logical reasoning to identify all the steps and issues that must be addressed. Furthermore, by charting out all the steps, interrelationships, dependencies, and contradictions can be studied and solved.
  • A process flowchart can be a useful tool for adult learners to determine how to approach a particular task or figure out what is required to reach a final goal. Similar to the previous example, by documenting all the required conditions, steps, and concerns, process flowcharting can provide clarity regarding the necessary stages and reveal potential challenges.
  • Learning about flowcharts, planning flowcharts—the list is endless as to how educators might introduce adult learners to scaffolding this fundamental analysis tool in many different contexts.
Geographic Information System (GIS)

What Is It?

  • GIS is a type of extensive computer program that enables users to visualize, query, analyze, and interpret geographic or map data regarding relationships, patterns, and trends.
  • However, the general public uses GIS frequently, transparently, and unknowingly. For instance, we use GIS in our cell phones every time we search for nearby restaurants, gas stations, stores, and so on. In addition, many businesses have grown to depend on GIS to optimize their delivery routes, allocate resources, guide planning efforts, and so on.
  • There are many introductory videos that define GIS and describe how it is used. A video from Orange County schools describes how they used GIS data to determine rezoning for new schools being established (see Downs, 2014).

Action Steps

  • Activities that introduce problem-solving with GIS can use publicly accessible sources that can be queried for case study problem-solving. A simple search will provide instructors with the latest freely available GIS data sets as well as instructions as to how to use them.
  • GIS provides an exciting hands-on and real-world application of technology-guided problem-solving.
Learning Contracts

What Is It?

  • Learning contracts are an agreement between learners and instructors, or in the case of self-directed learning, an accountability plan.
  • The learning contract or accountability plan includes deadlines, assessment, and more to provide specific direction for a project.

Action Steps

  • In the realm of problem-solving, learning contracts can be used to structure the process and delineate the intended outcomes. A learning contract may be used for a learner's own project or when the learning plan and outcomes need to be agreed on with another party.
  • Learning contracts can be formal or informal as is evident in the relative amount of detail included.
  • The benefits of learning contracts include preplanning, assessment of resources prior to commencing the project, accountability, and the structure they can provide to an endeavor (e.g., resources to be used, time limits, scope, specificity of expectations and deliverables, etc.).
Manipulatives (Clay, Cubes, Miniatures, and So On)

What Is It?

  • Replicas, miniatures, or abstract representations can be used as manipulatives to explore, brainstorm, and test different problem-solving abilities and techniques in developing solutions (McNeil & Jarvin, 2007).

Action Steps

  • For example, engineering students build scale model cars with different fins, hoods, and roofs in order to minimize wind resistance. Then they test them in a wind tunnel and learn which modifications are most effective.
  • Design students might work with paper, plastic, or wooden cutouts to determine how parts will fit together.
  • Research students might use notecards to represent their literature sources and topics. Once separated and laid out on a flat surface, they can move the cards around to analyze and visualize the themes and groupings of their sources.
Mind Maps

What Is It?

  • Mind maps are graphic representations of how someone thinks about a topic.

Action Steps

  • They are used strategically in problem-solving to dissect a concept into many pieces and illustrate how those parts are connected. Ultimately, mind maps may assist users in building more complex conceptual schemas (Zhao, 2003).
  • Many educators consider that mind maps enable more personal and flexible interpretations and representations of information compared to concept maps (see previous definition).
  • Mind maps can be used for problem-solving by assisting in the analysis of complex topics. In addition to helping students decipher the parts and interrelationships of a topic, they can be used as a basis for discussing their understanding and questions.
  • In collaborative problem-solving, mind maps can also be introduced as powerful tools because they enable individuals to communicate their understanding, plans, and projects in a different medium. After expressing their individual perspectives, participants can then collaborate in developing a composite or group mind map to represent a collective view.
Peer Learning

What Is It?

  • While they work on different projects, participants serve as peer learners, advisors, or resources. In these roles, they explain concepts, share insights, and provide feedback.
  • In reciprocal peer learning groups, participants are more likely to ask one another for help. Peer learning affords opportunities for students to support each other's learning.
    • Boud, Cohen, and Sampson's (1999) definition of reciprocal peer learning aligns with the suggestions provided in this book: “students within a given cohort act as both teachers and learners” (p. 414).

Action Steps

  • Students may assemble in small groups (dyads or triads) to share their approaches to solving assigned homework or an in-class activity.
    • Next, the groups share the similarities and differences among their problem-solving approaches.
  • Ask the students to form groups of two or three and review the upcoming homework problem-solving assignment. Although not solving the problem yet, the groups may discuss how they think they will approach it and gain insight from the methods classmates are considering.
Statistical Software

What Is It?

  • Statistical software programs (e.g., SPSS, SAS, etc.) are able to perform advanced statistical functions on quantitative data. These programs are more advanced than general databases or spreadsheets.

Action Steps

  • Focusing on using the software to solve research problems in their discipline is an effective way for students to understand the benefits and far reach of these tools.
  • Problem-solving data sets with statistical software certainly introduces a fast track for calculations. However, problem-solving also provides real-life opportunities to determine the appropriateness and fit of statistical tests and functions.
  • In these situations, software provides users with a new option. Users face the option to execute a copious list of statistical tests on the data, let the program run the selected tests, or invest time discerning which are most appropriate.
Three-Dimensional Modeling (3D Modeling) Software

What Is It?

  • Specialized software that portrays a three-dimensional (3D) model of an object or space can be very helpful in problem-solving related to design concerns.
  • 3D modeling software now is available in a fully integrated program that dovetails 3D modeling, testing, and simulation, as well as sending the final product to computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) production (Autodesk, 2016).
  • In the 1990s, computer-aided design (CAD) software cost over $3,000 per computer. Now we can download free programs that are compatible with engineering industry standards. Fusion 360 is one example of such complete design and production products, which are free for educational use (Autodesk, 2016).

Action Steps

  • 3D modeling may be used to assist learners in better understanding design limitations and process, the proposed or existing objects' physical appearance and dimensions, space capacity, appropriateness of fit for a specific space (a car in a garage or a crate in a storage unit), compatibility of style, effects on them from proposed dimension modifications, and many more outcomes.
  • Exciting contexts for these learning projects could include woodworking, mechanical repair and design, home do-it-yourself (DIY) projects, space planning, real estate, gardening, landscaping, automotive and architectural design, and so on.
Virtual Reality (VR) Programs

What Is It?

  • In a truly VR program, the user is more fully immersed in the environment by wearing eyepieces (visor, goggles, etc.) and gloves to enable him or her to see and interact with the alternate world.
  • In summer 2016 when the Pokémon Go VR game became a hit, the media outlet headlines were dominated by accounts of Go players wandering the streets individually and in throngs with eyes transfixed on their mobile devices, chasing virtual creatures (Associated Press, 2016).
  • Note that, even though many people had not adopted the game, their physical experience was affected by Pokémon Go virtual reality as the players entered private property, crowded streets, and shops with their eyes glued to their cell phones.
  • This technology-VR-social interaction was a unique (so far) demonstration of societal issues when coping with early and later adopters of technology including confusion, frustration, and anger as the VR phenomenon intersected with nonuser's everyday lives.
  • In addition, Pokémon Go illustrates the difference in readiness among sectors of our society to embrace virtual and augmented reality. This fact has been highlighted by experts when they discuss that the interface is clunky because it relies on a smartphone instead of advanced VR interfaces (Ganz, 2016).

Action Steps

  • When educators use VR programs to teach physical activities, they provide learners with the opportunity for new insights beyond their prior experience.
  • Some VR programs have failed because they require too much costly equipment or setup (e.g., Second Life). However, this technology has continued to be used heavily in training for high-end and high-stakes careers such as surgeons, astronauts, geologists, and so on and is now being more fully introduced in the P–20 education stream (Gaudiosi, 2016; Pierce, 2016; Reede, 2016).
  • In educational settings, problem-solving can be accelerated through the use of virtual experiences in the contexts or principles of study. Through such hands-on approaches, learners can understand the topic, issues, and ultimately problem-solve with new information and perhaps choose different strategies. VR provides a different level of comprehension. Freely available, current VR programs exist for key historical events, new careers, or to learn foundational concepts.
  • The following websites provide examples of VR experiences that are currently available:

Strategies to Cultivate: Critical Thinking and Problem-Based Learning

The previous section provided many examples of tools and resources that could be used to facilitate the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. And we have established the importance and relevance of critical thinking and problem-solving in the digital age. This section discusses several strategies as examples of how educators may incorporate these vital skills into learning experiences. First, I'll provide a definition of problem-based learning and an important comparison of it to project-based learning.

Discovery Learning: Problem-Based Learning and Project-Based Learning (PBL and PjBL)

Although at first, the terms sound and seem conceptually very similar, there are important distinctions between these two important learning constructs that people use daily: problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL). In this discussion, I propose the phrase discovery learning as a descriptive term to encompass both types of learning because it emphasizes their common constructivist experiences. In addition, in PBL and (PjBL), learning is self-regulated, which means the learner is in control of all the action (English & Kitsantas, 2013). Discovery learning modes of PBL and PjBL are active learning, learner-centered, context-specific models.

In the preparation of doctors, nurses, engineers, and managers, PBL has been demonstrated to be more effective than traditional (lecture) formats (Carriger, 2016; Fink, 2013; Stefanou, Stolk, Prince, Chen, & Lord, 2013). PjBL has been studied and found effective among the same population (Carriger, 2016; Fink, 2013; Stefanou et al., 2013; Stolk & Harari, 2014).

Table 7.1 illustrates some of the important similarities and differences between PBL and PjBL. Overall, an important, major difference between the two approaches is that PBL is more focused on generalizable skills and theory building, whereas PjBL explores solutions for a specific context and problem. This difference is one of the critical reasons of how and why people choose either of the strategies over the other.

Table 7.1 Discovery Learning Comparison: Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Versus Project-Based Learning (PjBL)

PBL: Problem-Based Learning PjBL: Project-Based Learning
Organizing principle for learning approach Learning tutorial organizes the activities Project management guides PjBL because it is the context of learning
Main activity Investigate and solve a problematic situation Produce results that can be applied to the specific project
Outcomes Deeper understanding; theory building Case-specific understanding; practical products
Self-directed learning Fully student-centered in loosely predefined settings Student-centered within the confines of projects' conditions and scope

Source: Some elements derived from Brundiers and Wiek (2013).

In general, PBL is more often used in formal educational settings, because it tends to be more associated with learning theory and application across nonspecific or varied contexts. By contrast, PjBL tends to be better suited for learning that fits specific situations. Familiar examples of PjBL contexts include workforce development, continuing education, and independent, informal learning.

A study by Stefanou et al. (2013), funded by the National Science Foundation, compared PBL and PjBL in course work across several universities. The results revealed that the context focus and specificity of PjBL made a difference in the learning outcomes and experience. In this study, PjBL resulted in the participants engaging in more advanced critical thinking, elaboration, and understanding of their own self-regulation. As such, the findings confirm what the field has experienced for many years, although some educators might shortchange PjBL because it is context-specific. It is this very parameter that affords PjBL greater cultivation of higher-order thinking skills. By contrast, PBL efforts also facilitate such skill development, but to a lesser degree.

Figure 7.3 provides a different visual analysis of the similarities and differences between PBL and PjBL. Brundiers and Wiek (2013) point out that when both PBL and PjBL are used together, it becomes a hybrid format of instruction that offers multiple benefits.

Image described by caption and surrounding text.

Figure 7.3 Problem- and Project-Based Learning (PPBL) as a Continuum of Constructivist, Experiential Learning Approaches

Source: Brundiers and Wiek (2013). Used with permission of the authors.

Brundiers and Wiek's (2013) work is one example of using the collective term to refer to both modes: problem- and project-based learning (PPBL). Rather than just making a compound term, discovery learning may provide a more descriptive name. Discovery learning communicates several of the key principles that PBL and PjBL include.

PBL and PjBL methods incorporate strong adult learning principles. By incorporating learning that is tied to professional application and real-world situations, participants not only are motivated but also see connections for using the learning in their lives. These situations also require participants to cope, prioritize, and evaluate several streams of information that sometimes conflict with each other. Finally, learners adapt to functioning with leaders or instructors as facilitators. These experiences create complex but relevant learning environments through which adult learners advance their essential 21st-century learning skills.

Chain Reactions and Daily Applications

I have observed a chain reaction effect that occurs once educators shift their philosophy and practice of teaching from dispensing to facilitating learning. As learners exercise their critical thinking skills, they gain confidence in different perspectives of questioning and analysis. With problem-solving, learners apply their critical thinking to real-life situations. Context-based learning increases focus and motivation for most learners (Walinga, 2010); therefore, it is not surprising that many times they develop multiple, innovative solutions. In turn, these experiences highlight the open-ended aspect of problem-solving rather than simple dichotomous solutions. In these ways, problem-solving provides multiple contexts for students to practice critical thinking with purpose.

Problem-solving also leads to more advanced skill development (Stefanou et al., 2013). Thompson (2011) also explains this understanding: “As teachers facilitate the development of problem-solving skills, students must be taught more advanced information-gathering skills that will equip them to unearth the correct resources that are needed to solve complex problems” (p. 2). Therefore, educators may discover that as they employ more problem-solving and critical thinking–related activities in their teaching, learners reach beyond prior expectations of learning, achievement, and extensions. The following examples and strategies may jumpstart and support your efforts for instructional innovation.

Know-Want-How-Learn-Action-Questions Method (KWHLAQ)

The Know-Want-Learn Method (KWL) is a popular and effective strategy for organizing problem-based learning activities. The KWL premise is that learners become primary agents in determining the focus and means trajectory of their learning effort. These goals are accomplished by learners using a streamlined learning plan of action as identified by the acronym KWL. Participants identify what they already know about the topic, isolate what they want to learn, and, when finished, review what they learned. This section briefly explains the original KWL model and then introduces a powerful 21st-century variation, KWHLAQ.

In the brief preparation stage for the KWL, most often participants will use a simple three-column chart to facilitate and organize their work, as well as provide a comprehensive record and perspective of the process. These columns are labelled at the top, from left to right, KWL. (A simple search of KWL images on the web provides many variations of these charts for participants to consider.) As learners proceed through the three stages of this process, they write their observations or findings in the appropriate column.

The power of the KWL cycle is the streamlined, realistic model it provides to develop better research and critical thinking skills. It also affords a common foundation for collaborative problem-solving, which can be applied to other settings. (See Ogle, 1986, for more step by step guidance for the KWL.)

More recently, scholars and instructors have built on the strengths and success of the KWL to include and address critical 21st-century learning needs. The KWHLAQ model includes the essential additional elements of how, analysis (action), and question (Barell, 2006) (see Table 7.2).

Table 7.2 21st-Century KWHLAQ Model

KNOW
What do I know?
WANT
What do I want to know?
HOW
How do I find it?
LEARN What have I learned? ACTION
What action will you take?
QUESTION
What additional questions?








In the first stage of the KWHLAQ process, individually or as a group, learners brainstorm what they already Know (K) about a subject or issue in order to clarify their prior thinking. KWL learners engage in an active process of prereading (scanning) information, exploring and extending their body of knowledge on the subject. Instructors facilitate and circulate and check in and hear brief status reports to extend questions and recommend resources.

Learners organize their plan of action for learning in the KWHLAQ Want (W) stage. They identify what information they will seek, specific gaps from the K stage, and the division of tasks among group members. Again, instructors offer different questions or negotiate dialogue as teams potentially encounter different opinions or preferences. During the How (H) stage, learners explore and determine what means of gathering information are available and which they will use. It is an essential stage to introduce new sources and types of publications, data, and information as well how they will access the information.

During the Learn (L) stage, participants complete their information acquisition and also document what they have learned. The Action (A) stage identifies whether additional data and information are needed or implementation of action is on the horizon. This separate stage guards against research and information overload. It is an explicit call to action. The final stage, Question (Q), has participants determine what additional questions are raised and the issues that need to be studied. This documentation will ultimately provide the beginning point of another KWHLAQ cycle.

In the original KWL model, the LAQ stages were in the final L stage. With the 21st-century model, these discrete stages are effective in focusing greater attention on the need and role of each element. The separation of the stages enables more thorough investigation and use of the entire inquiry process, a benefit much needed in our rapidly changing world.

Strategy 7.1: 21st-Century KWHLAQ Model Applied

There are many ways that the KWHLAQ method may be integrated in teaching adults in different contexts and with delivery methods. This section illustrates strategies to incorporate it with technology and is designed for large- or small-group instruction. Table 7.3 provides details for both examples: a traditional face-to-face and a hybrid or fully online learning experience.

Table 7.3 KWHLAQ in Higher Education Contexts

Delivery Mode KNOW
What do I know?
WANT
What do I want to know?
HOW
How do I find it?
LEARN What have I learned? ACTION
What action will you take?
QUESTION
What further questions?
Face-to-Face Polling software, cell phones, computers to query learners Small-group activities to brainstorm Whole-group or individual list of resources and venues for information All three steps are recorded separately and then presented at once.
Poster session
or
Round table discussions
or
Panel discussions
Poster session
or
Round table discussions
or
Panel discussions
Poster session
or
Round table discussions
or
Panel discussions
Online or Mixed Mode (Blended) Polling software or computers
to query learners
Discussion board question to brainstorm Collaborative FAQ of information sources Discussion board threads
or
Short media (video, audio, graphic) post
PSA (public service announcement) style declaration posted to class Polling
or
Inquiry congress
Simultaneous session (synchronous): Present key findings and share emergent future direction

In planning to use the KWHLAQ model, faculty members are encouraged to consider their learners' prior experience, interests, and current and future needs. However, as instructors gain more experience, ideally they will invite participants to collaborate in the instructional planning of the activities. Instructors and learners alike will learn more about (1) advanced content areas, (2) their own about learning, (3) interpersonal communication dynamics and strategies, and (4) the social construction of knowledge.

As illustrated in Table 7.3, the face-to-face class employs KWHLAQ as a frame for a single lesson or unit of study. By contrast, the technology-based environments often afford more possibilities to incorporate, distribute, and repeat KWHLAQ steps. This table also lists multiple ways to use online platforms to implement the KWHLAQ model.

In traditional or online classes, polling software or cell phones can be used to enable participants to immediately share their initial “what do I know” insights. These questions would be posed prior to beginning the formal project, and again polling could be used in the final Question stage. Poll Everywhere and Kahoot are examples of polling platforms that are freely available and require no proprietary devices. In 100% online or blended (partially online) learning experiences, the KWHLAQ method can be an effective strategy to guide learner inquiry of content.

Regardless of delivery mode, when instructors and learners implement the KWHLAQ method in several different units of study, users begin to adopt the KWHLAQ as another learning paradigm. At this point, the model becomes an effective guide for their continued self-directed learning (SDL), a cornerstone of 21st-century and lifelong learning.

Strategy 7.2: Peer Learning

One of the most powerful techniques I have implemented in my instructional plans on a regular basis is peer learning. This approach is defined as learners working together to assist one another in the learning process; the focus is on interdependent rather than independent learning (Boud, 2014). There are many different forms peer learning may take. Consider the following variations as a sampling:

  • All the participants might be at the same skill level for the task at hand, or they might be paired by different skill levels in order to learn and teach to one another.
  • Peer learning might be formally arranged as course activities or informally pursued by students to resolve issues.
  • Technology-facilitated peer learning online, via smartphones or e-mail, can be used, whereas in-person peer learning might be more effective in helping students solve difficult problems.

At one point, when I was beginning my graduate education studies, I remember thinking peer learning was not effective in some subject areas. I heartedly disagree with my previous opinion! Now, even in graduate and doctoral classes, I find that learners discover the power of peer learning when incorporated meaningfully into the instructional plan. Furthermore, such as in the following activity, I design peer learning activities because I know, and Boud, Cohen, and Sampson (2014) confirm, that professionals and students need to be adept at using peer learning in formal and informal settings.

Strategy 7.3: Virtual Think Tanks

An online learning management system (LMS) discussion board can be used as a space to share preliminary topics and abstracts for research projects, literature reviews, presentations, interviews, or instrument development. In such projects, participants develop a time line for the participants to submit their work and for their colleagues to provide formative feedback and recommended resources. In this manner, everyone gains many enriching ideas and several effective transferable 21st-century skills.

  1. The learners post their ideas and materials and receive feedback that can be incorporated in the next stage of development and direction for follow-up research or an investigation.
  2. The activity involves learning about multiple specialized topics rather than only their research topic area.
  3. All learners gain experience in providing and receiving feedback in a professional context.
  4. The learners discover and gain confidence in the benefits of peer feedback and collaborative development.

Overall, virtual think tanks are easy to set up and learning stretches beyond a sole assignment.

Strategy 7.4: Collaborative Learning

Online learning environments also provide powerful and unique opportunities for building, honing, and applying collaborative learning skills. Collaborative learning uses participants' communication skills to complete an activity, assignment, task, project, and so on (Barkley, Major, & Cross, 2014; Okada, Connolly, & Scott, 2012). In contrast to peer learning, collaborative learning is a collective effort for a unified goal. Peer learning usually applies to participants seeking assistance from one another as they work on their individual projects.

Many faculty members seem to struggle to develop collaborative learning activities in online environments. However, it is worth the effort to design and facilitate group projects for online spaces because they provide valuable and authentic contexts for developing and practicing 21st-century skills.

Similar to face-to-face group projects, clear goals and time lines provide essential direction for such learning activities. Although onsite groups sometimes informally discuss and list necessary standards, responsibilities, accountability, values, and time lines, the process has to be more purposeful in online environments. The following suggestions provide valuable techniques that help develop these essential components for group work and individual learning contracts:

  • Provide a list of responsibilities and time lines that are prepopulated with examples and then completed by the groups.
  • Recommend the group audio record their discussion and then review it for emergent goals.
  • Request each team to write and submit short descriptions of individual roles and responsibilities and post them for discussion.

A critical player in collaborative groups is the facilitator. Again, online facilitation of teams requires some changes in the process. Although facilitators often see their role as being a resource to teamwork, they also need to be notified of team decisions in order to help support reaching those goals. A live, virtual consultation with the facilitator at least once during the process can be invaluable to answer questions, keep the team on track, and mediate to resolve any possible conflicts. Given group dynamics, teams sometimes have communication issues that can lead to conflict. The extent to which facilitators provide support for working through competing demands, agendas, and work styles may be dependent on the nature of the content area, learning setting, and level of instruction.

Strategy 7.5: Case Problems

When designed and facilitated well, case problems can provide compelling, dynamic applications of real-life PBL. There are many compilation volumes of case studies in different disciplines to draw on for instructional and professional development use. Solving case problems and case studies provide explicit opportunities to apply knowledge and critical thinking.

The “Analyzing the Logic of Problems” online model is one, appropriate Internet-based tool that serves as a structure guide for problem analysis (Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2007). It provides a series of questions related to eight elements of thought: (1) point of view, (2) purpose, (3) question at issue, (4) information, (5) interpretation and inference, (6) concepts, (7) assumptions, and (8) implications and consequences.

To use the tool, users or a team of users input their responses in the fields or dialogue boxes for each of the elements of thought questions. The inputs are analyzed and the system presents a complete analysis report. The responses and reports can be saved in the online database and reused or revised. Using such a vehicle to aid in case analysis makes the process more explicit, documents it, and provides a basis for additional insights into assumptions, values and benefits, and limitations.

Strategy 7.6: Simulations

How would you like to leverage one of the most enduring online pastimes into your instructional methods? Would it be worth it if the students became hungry to learn and you couldn't pull them away? It is happening already. In the world of education we call them simulations; however, among the general public, they are referred to as role-playing games (RPGs)! Yes, World of Warcraft, RPGs, and multiplayer RPGs—this class of computer games with huge followings and diehard aficionados can be captured and harnessed for educational purposes!

Educators have been working intensely to study the benefits of RPGs in learning and discovered that simulation, immersion, critical thinking, problem-solving, and gaming are a powerful combination (Aldrich, 2009a, 2009b; King & Cox, 2011). Therefore, short of learning programming and designing your own interface, how can we incorporate online simulations for group learning efforts? Existing educational simulations and simulation platforms are available for us to apply or customize for our instructional needs. The following lists share a few simulations with reviews regarding their roles and effectiveness as learning platforms:

  • TLE TeachLivE (http://teachlive.org): This innovation is an extraordinary advancement in instructional technology's dedicated use of mixed-reality simulation. Developed by a team of professors at University of Central Florida in Orlando, TLE TeachLivE enables educators in training to teach a subject content to a classroom of virtual students (avatars) (Dieker, Hynes, Ludlow, & Whitten, 2012). Not only does the user have a safe environment but also, as the description mentions, no students are harmed by errors. Visit their website to learn more about this exceptional learning experience.
  • Karma Tycoon (http://ecogamer.org/environmental-games/karma-tycoon-activism-game ): An online role-playing game in which the user experiences choices regarding personal wealth, profit, and philanthropy.
  • 3rd World Farmer (http://3rdworldfarmer.com/): A business strategy simulation in which users manage agriculturally challenged desert area of sub-Saharan Africa. It incorporates survival role-playing with severe poverty, hardships, and moral dilemmas.
  • Code Monkey Tycoon (http://www.learn4good.com/games/tycoon/gamedeveloper.htm): A very realistic simulation of the multitasking skills, pressures, technology, and human resource decisions facing the CEO of (in this case) a startup video game company.
  • Romadoria (http://www.romadoria.us): One of many historical themed multiplayer RPGs that are online. Based in ancient Rome, it incorporates competition among other players while testing users' tactical abilities. Many twists and turns, discoveries, and decisions are included in the experience.
  • Virtual Leader (VLeader) (http://www.simulearn.net): An intriguing simulation in which the user controls solving the day-to-day issues of leadership while transparently building more leadership, organizational, and interpersonal skills!

For descriptions and reviews of more online simulations and RPGs, Aldrich's book Learning Online with Games, Simulations, and Virtual Worlds (2009a) is an exceptional guide. The best online resource right now may be http://www.learn4good.com/games/index.htm. In the meantime, do not forget to explore how you can leverage the LMS, wikis, blogs, or e-mail to provide discussion, dialogue, problem-solving, reflection, and journaling as learners participate in these simulation experiences.

Strategy 7.7: e-Portfolios

In considering selections for technology-aided critical thinking strategies, e-portfolios made the final cut because they serve so many essential purposes and goals. Such projects can take many forms, but focusing them on authentic applications for the content area or career goals highlight motivating and relevant choices. Most US teacher education colleges now have an electronic system in which teacher candidates store their portfolio-related materials. By the end of their degree or certification programs, they have a presentable package that not only demonstrates their competencies by essential and marketable areas and standards but also serves as a valuable interview aid. However, designing and assembling e-portfolios is not the entire instructional experience. Instead, instructors need to incorporate reflective practice (Schön, 1983) and couple the experience with research into the objective(s) and reflection on students' achievement, goals, time lines, and continuing professional development.

Other examples I use with professionals are hard-copy or electronic portfolios. Such portfolios may be more familiar in some fields such as fine art, graphic art, engineering, photography, and so on. However, there are powerful opportunities for adults to create portfolios that demonstrate their learning competencies and readiness to work, serve, and study in their particular area. Professionals find it immensely helpful to create career, leadership, teaching, and administration portfolios for research depending on their interests and goals.

Conclusion

This chapter has been designed to inspire and equip learners and educators to leverage their understanding and desire to cultivate critical thinking and problem-solving. To that end, many models, definitions, strategies, and resources about these skills were presented and discussed. One of the greatest motivations for learners to envision and create such instructional innovations is the specific needs for this type of knowledge, experience, and skill sets. Incorporating such learning activities better prepares adults for the extraordinary challenges that the digital age presents today and in the future.

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