Chapter 13
PSYCHOLOGY OF TECHNOLOGY USE AND ADOPTION

Much of this book has described and explained the innovations of technology, which have spanned personal, professional, and education life in the digital age. A great deal of space has been dedicated to cultivating the necessary skills among adult learners in order for them to be more successful within this context as well. Yet, one need only glance around at the grocery store, library, or shopping mall and it is obvious that not everyone adopts technology at the same rate, nor to the same extent. Gigi and Rosie illustrate both variations and the fact that people use technology for specific purposes. The psychology of technology examines these patterns because it is the fascinating study of the adoption, use, and impact of technology on human beings.

This chapter presents and discusses examples of technology that have and have not been widely adopted by society. Readers will discover how to thoughtfully consider the impact of the trends in the selection of technology tools and the design of learning experiences. The chapter also introduces several accepted models that define characteristics and patterns of technology adoption and use as well as opportunities for researching these behaviors among adult learners.

Psychology of Technology

From within the broad field of study named cyber studies, the specific area of psychology of technology has caught the attention of the general public. Several best-selling books (for example, Turkle [1995, 2005, 2012] and Pink [2006]) have experienced great success because they eloquently focus on describing the challenges, quandaries, perplexities, and opportunities people face in the 21st-century love-hate relationship with technology. From frantically seeking the brightest, newest gadget to loathing the uphill battle of learning another smartphone interface, surviving in the 21st century means successfully navigating our relationships with the rapidly changing world of technology. This section defines and illustrates psychology of technology as a means to peel back the layers of complexity and reveal foundational ways to understand our own journey and in turn better assist adult learners.

A Debate About All of Us

An entire field of study has emerged that has each of us as the focus. It is more specific than psychology or sociology, because it examines the interactions, dynamics, and expectations that are facilitated in computer-based environments. Cyberculture is the fascinating study of how people interact with one another through and because of mobile and online technologies. Cyberculture is also part of a larger constellation of efforts, named cyber studies, which encapsulate interdisciplinary research to explore the many dimensions of innovation and impact of mobile and online technologies (Bell, 2006).

The big picture of cyberculture includes human social interactions through media. As of 2016, it seemed that we experienced seismic metamorphoses, challenges, and developments within, across, and beyond cultures at least monthly. There are large and small cultural nudges and leaps we see every day on the web, Facebook, YouTube, CNN, and on-demand news or entertainment.

The way people discuss political campaigns, terrorist acts, and racism via social media results in much more cross-cultural interchange than previously possible. Such exchanges also blur the lines of distinctions between public and private, work and family.

Depending on whether instructors' philosophy of education is anchored in humanism or radical pedagogy, they might focus on personal change or social change. In this discussion, consider the focus is the realm of individual change. Questions that emerge may include what is the impact of cyber interactions on the mind, behavior, expectations, and emotions? Do online interactions change our ways of thinking? Can repeated use of our mobile devices change our brains? These are excellent questions, as are the scores of others that stand in the wings.

In part, the importance of this inquiry is that so much of our time, focus, work, interactions, and entertainment are tied to online technologies. Cyberspace is rather like the giant portal or rabbit hole adults in the digital age need to jump down every day in order to function.

A Working Definition

Currently, when researching a definition of the psychology of technology the closest results include (1) a few courses on the topic being offered at forward-thinking colleges or universities, (2) discussions of psychology and technology (as separate entities and their interaction), and (3) psychology technology (technology innovation related to psychology such as neurosensory devices, etc.). However, throughout such research one scholar repeatedly surfaces in the literature: Sherry Turkle.

Since 1995, Turkle has shared insights regarding the effects of technology on culture, social behaviors, relationships, and, now, the user's brain. Turkle (1995, 2005, 2006, 2012) consistently has provided a visionary retrospect and perspective of the current and potential impact of the ubiquitous presence and use of technology. Without such discussions, all of these dimensions would otherwise remain unexamined in our individual lives and society at large.

In effect, Turkle makes adults in the digital age think, pausing to contemplate the current and future consequences of our changing behaviors and practices, even while we are swamped with technology interaction and juggling devices. On extended reading, reflection, and dialogue, the study of the impact of technology on human thinking is the definition of the psychology of technology.

Since the 2000s, there have been several other voices who have drawn our attention to the radical changes occurring in our society because of technology innovation and adoption. As mentioned earlier, a few of the major books and authors that come to mind include Tapscott and William's Wikinomics (2006); Pink's Whole New Mind (2006); Christensen, Horn, and Johnson's Disrupting Class (2008); and Tancer's Click (2008).

Virtual worlds were brought to the forefront of mainstream experience through the popular adoption of Second Life (a three-dimensional, immersive simulation environment). Second Life, and similar platforms, raised many critical questions about virtual identities (avatars), impersonations, disabilities, and alternate realities (Aldrich, 2009a, 2009b). With the psychology of technology, Turkle addresses these issues also because she directs our attention toward the study of the impact of technology innovation and adoption not just on individual and collective behavior but also human thoughts, expectations, relationships, and neuroscience.

Illustrations

The following illustrations of interactions with technology and adoption at different levels of technology will provide greater clarity of the importance of the psychology technology.

Framed by Facebook

Many of the popular technologies include social media. Scrolling through the time line of Facebook friends and family members, one might recognize unique patterns that would not occur in face-to-face communication. For instance, haven't we all giggled at Facebook users who seem compelled to announce everywhere they visit with the check-in feature? Sure others are interested if you are visiting a notable location, but the grocery store or mall? In social media, the boundaries of sharing are easily blurred.

And how do people make choices about which photos to post for their global network? For some, it appears a viable choice is to post all your photos. In this way, some users may be using social media as a diary or journal, cataloging every and all activities?

However, there is a fundamental flaw with that approach: the medium broadcasts and archives user's postings. In addition, unless settings are modified, someone connected to a user, can repost (share) your photo or post it to a group of people you do not even know, or maybe you do but had not intended on them seeing that information!

Social media is broadcast communication; however, there are still people in our society who seem to remain consistently unaware of the global dimension of their postings. Evidence of this phenomena is easily found in news articles announcing employees from all walks of life being fired from work because of what they posted on social media (Broderick & Grinberg, 2013).

In terms of the psychology of technology, these individuals may be aware of the immediate audience of their posts, but they ignore, deny, or refuse to care about the extended audience. Their actions may also be indicative of their beliefs that they are invincible, and although other people (such as those in the news headlines) might be caught for such acts of defiance against employers, they will not be caught. Another dynamic that occurs is that individuals can develop competitive posting behaviors with other social media users. In order to have more information to share, such users cross the lines from the mundane to inappropriate. These circumstances offer risks and prime opportunities to cultivate reflective thinking, critical thinking, and new frameworks for recognizing and developing culturally and professionally appropriate communication.

In conclusion, here are a few questions to think about:

  • Based on this reading, what do you need to consider regarding your social media use?
  • How can you introduce these issues to other adult learners?

Tethered by Text Messages

Expectations of relationships with other people can also shift with an overabundance and reliance on constant communication. Turkle (2006) specifically mentions at least two examples and consequences of overdependence on text messaging. In the first case, in order for parents to know where their teenager is at any given time, many teens have cell phones in the digital age. Cell phones then provide increased mobility for the teens, but they have a substantial hidden cost. With mom, dad, or someone else just speed dial away, are these teens ever able to engage in identify, development, and differentiation? With the security of a wireless cell phone tether, when will they develop the independence and self-reliance needed in Western society?

The second case is related as an example of dependence on text messaging. Turkle (2006) mentions that some users (texters) become overly dependent on the cycle of texting others in order to validate their feelings. Familiar to many as a phenomenon among teens, this pitfall is not restricted to any one age group.

In these situations, texters become so accustomed to sending messages whenever they have feelings or new thoughts that they develop a dependent cycle of “feeling > text” or “thought > text.” Such patterns could be a form of electronic journaling except it is not private; there is an audience. Coupled with the behavior is the implied social code of text etiquette that when one receives a text, out of need, interest, or courtesy, one replies. Therefore, the compulsive texting receives positive reinforcement and attention from the recipient.

Not only does this pattern breed dependence on an audience to validate thoughts and emotions but also it reinforces the need for instant gratification with personal responses. The vital connection to instructional and workplace settings may be apparent already, because there are several. These situations provide real-life opportunities to guide adult learners in areas such as (1) reflecting on and developing new understandings of appropriate cultural and professional use of text messaging, (2) exploring potential culturally appropriate and effective ways to respond to people who have unrealistic text messaging expectations, and (3) setting realistic boundaries of responding to and expecting responses from other people.

This last area includes setting parameters for windows of response time learners should expect from instructors and supervisors. Given the dynamics of text messaging, in the digital age many adults expect instantaneous responses to questions. Stating that one will respond within 24 to 48 hours sets a professional expectation for other adults to adjust to and as an example.

Theories and Models

Roger's (1962) Diffusion of Innovation began a new era of thinking about how new developments were introduced and spread across society. He had popularized and detailed the work begun by Ryan and Gross in 1943 when they identified the process of innovation adoption. Rather than exclusively focusing on discovery, science, and business Rogers became acutely aware that it was of paramount importance to understand how people and end users would receive their products and their choices to continue to use them.

Whether it was using an electric typewriter or a word processor, a keyboard or voice-recognition software, a calculator or electronic spreadsheet, innovation required users to change the way they usually performed activities. By their very nature, most adults favor sameness and change is viewed as disrupting and confusing (Rogers, 1962). Understanding the process and phases by which users persist and choose to integrate and adopt new technology became critical for innovation design, distribution, and marketing.

Rogers (1962) developed the model based on a synthesis of more than 500 studies about diffusion from diverse fields such as urban sociology, sociology, anthropology, education, and medical science. He proposed five phases through which innovations were adopted: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. In later publications, Rogers (2003) refined the model and renamed the stages. Table 13.1 displays a representation of Rogers's five stages of adoption.

Table 13.1 Rogers's Adoption Process

Stage Definition: In this stage individuals are …
Knowledge First exposed to an innovation and lack information about it
Persuasion Interested in the innovation and actively seeking related information and details
Decision Weighing the pros and cons of using the innovation and deciding to adopt or reject it
Implementation Using the innovation to varying degrees per the situation; they may also determine its usefulness and may search for further information about it
Confirmation Finalizing decisions to continue using the innovation; this stage is intrapersonal and interpersonal and it may cause cognitive dissonance

Source: Adapted from Rogers (1962).

From an educational perspective, Rogers's innovation adoption model provided a paradigm for comprehending choices and strategies for learning to use innovations. This model has been fundamental to a host of essential educational fields of study, including informal and formal learning contexts: instructional design (e.g., Berge, 1998; Dooley & Murphrey, 2000); professional development (e.g., Gallant, 2000); and faculty development (e.g., Bennett & Bennett, 2003; Tabata & Johnsrud, 2008). These areas demonstrate how vitally important such information has been for educators in comprehending and facilitating essential 21st-century learning skills among adults.

Rogers's work went even further than identifying and redefining the phases of adoption. He also discovered evidence of different categories of adopters (see Table 13.2). These adopter categories differ based on several parameters, including how early in the innovation process users are, different levels of risk tolerance and risk-taking actions, resistance to change, and influence of social opinion.

Table 13.2 Rogers's Adopter Categories

Adopter Category Definition
Innovators (I) Members of this group have risk-taking behavior, high social status, financial liquidity, social networks. They are closely connected to technical and scientific sources. Their risk tolerance and financial resources allow them to adopt technologies that may fail.
Early adopters (EA) This group represents the highest level of social opinion development (opinion leadership) among the categories. Compared to late adopters, they have higher social status, financial liquidity, advanced education, and social presence. They are quieter about adoption choices than innovators and balance adoption decisions to retain influence.
Early majority (EM) This group will adopt an innovation much later than first two groups. EMs have above-average social status, contact with EAs, and seldom influence public opinion.
Late majority (LM) This group will adopt after the majority of society. They are highly skeptical of innovation and generally have below-average social status, little financial liquidity, and less contact with EAs and EMs.
Laggards (LG) This is the last group to adopt an innovation. They have no opinion leadership and are averse to change agents. LGs focus on traditions and have the lowest social status, lowest financial liquidity, are the oldest among adopters, and are in contact with only family members and close friends.

Source: Adapted from Rogers (2003).

Guiding adult technology users through reflection on their innovation adoption responses and potential category can provide them with valuable insight. They will develop greater clarity regarding learning strategies that would best meet their needs for such situations. In addition, critical reflection can provide insight into improving interactions within the individuals' organization during the adoption process.

The vast popularity of Rogers's work has resulted in it being widely referenced and studied. Nonetheless, it remains difficult to advance it further because of the complex research required and the voluminous number of related publications (Damanpour, 1996). This complexity is based on the fact that there are a large number of confounding and interacting variables that affect innovation adoption. The highly specialized conditions of the studies make it very difficult to generalize the findings to different settings.

Two important principles for educators of adult learners to remember regarding the model of adoption is that (1) people adopt technologies at different rates because of their personal propensities and (2) there are many other factors (cultural, organizational, etc.) that can directly affect the adoption process. By understanding that technology adoption is simultaneously individualistic, subject to many variables, complex, dynamic, and requires unpredictable amount of time, the following practices become powerful instructor attributes:

  • Facilitative guidance
  • Patience
  • Encouragement
  • Support

Organizational Adoption Models

Mainframe computing was developed and integrated into business and academy many decades prior to the introduction of desktop computers and later handhelds. However, it appears that technology adoption and assessment models for organizations (Robinson & Faris, 1967; Webster & Wind, 1972) followed those models for personal adoption.

Organizational roles and dynamics are often pivotal in order for change to occur. Not only did these new models recognize the process whereby organizations systematically assessed, selected, and adopted technology but also they provided a clear view of the roles that different people or departments needed to fill in the process. Table 13.3 illustrates the roles in organizational adoption as identified by Huff and Munro (1985).

Table 13.3 Roles of Technology Adoption in Organizations

Role Description
Users Direct users of the technology being explored
Influencers Individuals able to influence the adoption or purchase process and decision
Deciders Individuals with final decision-making authority regarding the adoption or purchase
Gatekeepers Individuals positioned to offer special information regarding either the technology or its application
Planners Individuals who plan implementations and assess the technology
Sponsors Senior-level support for the new technology adoption

Source: Adapted from Huff and Munro (1985).

With this information, people have two different levels of information and insight to guide them through personal and organizational innovation decisions and processes. So equipped, not only will they better comprehend their own innovation adoption tendencies but also the dynamics and roles that others in the organization play in the same process. Although usually navigating the innovation adoption process can be uneasy, distressing, and exhilarating all at the same time, critical thinking and problem-solving can be leveraged with this invaluable information to provide a more informed pathway for success.

Use Theories and Models

Understanding how adult learners travel the journey of technology adoption provides many more applications of the psychology of technology.

Interactions

Examples of how multiple factors interact and complicate technology adoption abound in our society. When adult learners have difficulty learning to use new technology devices or applications, it might not be a matter of malfunction but rather multiple functions.

Consider the vast difference in functions and form between a flip phone and smartphone. When individuals who have hesitancies about technology changes must begin using a smartphone, the road to competency will be more difficult than usual.

Providing hands-on modeling, introducing features gradually, and using guided practice are effective strategies for adults learning new devices. On-demand video tutorials are a tremendous assistance to building skills and continuing independent learning.

Short Message Service (SMS) access to help files is a valuable resource that integrally supports learning. When such help files are available a simple code usually delivers a menu to the user's cell phone. The technical support telephone line is another valuable support.

Another example of informal learning and technology adoption may be seen in most large home improvement and discount stores today. Self-checkout tellers provide a confounding experience for many adults. The stores have wisely stationed retail staff members near the stations in order to watch the progress of the patrons as the use the devices. Overall, these self-checkout systems also are a mastery of graphic interface design. They have been developed with much field testing in order to reach the level of clarity and sophistication they have today.

Culture

In order to describe a culture, one should include many intangible characteristics of social behavior that are explicitly or implicitly agreed on by a group of people (Marsick & Watkins, 2003). From religious to national, ethnic, social groups, neighborhoods, families, geographic, online communities, and more, cultures and subcultures can be large or small in scope and impact.

News accounts, in addition to formal study of sociology, display the fact that cultures differ in their openness to change and innovation. Although some traditional cultures, such as China's, have adopted many mobile and innovative technologies relatively rapidly, other aspects of their culture remain resistant to change because of long-standing values, traditions, and beliefs (King, 2014; Starr, 2010).

In comparison, the Amish have specific beliefs and values that contradict innovation adoption. Their belief system generally opposes the use of modern conveniences and technology (Kraybill, 2001). Therefore, strict observance of these beliefs would be nonnegotiable factors regarding innovation adoption for them.

Perhaps, the most important points about culture and innovation adoption are that culture can be invisible and yet cannot be ignored. Working with learners to develop cultural awareness provides a strong foundation for implementing change and innovation personally, professionally, individually, and organizationally.

Motivation

There are copious numbers of publications about faculty development research in the area of instructional technology, and many of these publications demonstrate that motivation is one of the pivotal points in determining whether faculty members will learn to use new technology and digital resources. As mentioned in previous chapters, unlike mandatory (P–12) education, faculty development is neither available at all US postsecondary institutions nor are faculty members required to attend sessions. By the most recent estimate in 2010, among all 2- and 4-year US institutions, about 30% to 40% have active faculty development programs (Fink, 2014). Furthermore, revealing another critical issue, it is an unusual US campus in which more than 35% of full-time faculty members attend professional development events (Fink, 2013). Instead, “at most campuses, with a few important exceptions, about 20–35% of all faculty members participate each year at a substantive level, i.e., at a level that could lead to changes in the way they practice their teaching” (Fink, 2013, p. 2).

Based on many US studies, there is a trend for this rate of participation to be higher, if only pre-tenured faculty are counted. This phenomena occurs because there are usually messages, stated or unstated, that in order to earn tenure, pre-tenured faculty members should actively demonstrate their commitment to teaching and the institution. Therefore, pre-tenured faculty members are highly and extrinsically motivated to attend the professional development sessions (Lowenthal, Wray, Bates, Switzer, & Stevens, 2012). However, when exclusively counting tenured faculty members participating in professional development the numbers shrink substantially. At this time, the reason is that there is insufficient intrinsic and no extrinsic motivation to participate (Fink, 2013; Lowenthal et al., 2012).

Given this information, educators and faculty developers recognize the need to develop and communicate meaningful incentives for faculty members. Such incentives for participation may be attained through departmental or college funds, grants, internal foundation money, or external funding such as grants or gifts to the institution. The incentives might include, but not be limited to, instructional materials funds, travel money, extra assistance in designing or redesigning online courses, and hands-on training or working sessions (Fink, 2013). Research also demonstrates that varying forms and schedules of faculty development greatly affect participation rates (Lowenthal et al., 2012).

International trends demonstrate additional interesting possibilities. Professional development is required among new college faculty members across the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands). In addition, Japan is building national capacity through legislation for this issue: in 2008 the government mandated all postsecondary institutions to develop faculty development programs (Fink, 2013). Such approaches might not always be successfully applied cross-culturally.

Strategic Applications

The opportunity to leverage knowledge of the psychology of technology in adult learning provides new possibilities. This section introduces a few examples to stimulate the design of creative instructional efforts.

Using real-life contexts can be a powerful platform for building effective higher-order learning among learners of all ages (Fink, 2014). In the realm of 21st-century skills, social media provide a host of opportunities to construct reflective and critical thinking exercises.

When collaborative groups conduct the research and decision making, additional meaningful insights regarding the logistics, strategies, and benefits of peer learning and teamwork emerge naturally. Although some learners may resist group assignments, at least two approaches can mitigate these concerns: (1) provide opportunities for the group and individuals to document the process and any issues they encountered and (2) discuss the educational benefits of the experience (easy and difficult), which can help reduce such concerns substantially.


Activity 13.4 Applying Psychology of Technology

Based on a review of this chapter, consider how the psychology of technology intersects with your discipline. Use your answers to the following questions to guide the development of relevant and meaningful learning opportunities that incorporate the psychology of technology:

  • Where do people interact with technology in your field of expertise or study?
  • Are there particular trends in innovation that affect your field of study or practice?
  • In what ways do they (or have they) act(ed) or cope(d) differently because of innovation?
  • Which specific innovation(s) have had exceptional impact on your field of study or practice?
  • Within your field, in which strategies for coping, adopting, and internalizing innovation do people need to demonstrate competency?

After you draft your responses to these questions, reexamine them to see if there are any recurring patterns or trends. A mind map would be very helpful to chart how you understand the ideas interconnecting and spreading out to other trends, innovations, and needs.

Your insights may be used for your individual growth and practice or for your department's or unit's approaches to professional learning. For instance, consider how these findings might relate to or influence your professional growth focus and needs. Finally, consider the meaning for the preparation and facilitation of learning experiences in your field.

Conclusion

Understanding the existence and importance of exploring the psychology of technology provides a new vantage point for examining and designing learning opportunities that are relevant to the digital age. This chapter described the evolution of the area from and relationship to the field of cyberculture. In addition, many examples of different ways in which the psychology of technology informs and explains learners' cognitive processes and related actions provide essential insight and learning opportunities for success in the digital age.

..................Content has been hidden....................

You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.
Reset
3.138.116.228