Changing Politics and Economies

Consider the pace of change among governments, national identities, and economic prosperity. Across several regions, since the 1960s, life has been dominated by shifting political realms and founding new countries. Spanning the governmental reorganizations of the USSR, Germany, and Yugoslavia, there have been a multitude of major political changes. The establishment of new borders, countries, constitutions, and alliances dominated this period of recent Eastern European history. Significant adult learning can be recognized before, during, and after such national transformations.

These periods of extensive political restructuring meant that many individuals as well as their cultural and religious communities may have been separated or joined in different configurations. As a result, new community identities need to be determined, developed, and sustained. How do we support such work with people of all ages? What are the best ways to help adults learn new languages and policies? How do educators recognize differences in learning needs and preferences across cultures and contexts, and in the midst of crisis? These are issues that benefit from the knowledge base of adult learning.

Recently, we have also learned that technology may support or even drive political conflict, negotiations, and peace. The next section, which addresses technology applications and devices, provides examples of such situations. The Arab Spring of 2011, when people in the Middle East expressed their dissatisfaction with government control through protests and armed rebellions, illustrated the impact that individual and collective reporting via social media can achieve during a crisis (Howard et al., 2011). In this situation, private and group live video streaming, as well as posted video, audio, and blog reports, rapidly communicated the event worldwide. Not only were updates in some cases live (in real time) but also they were beyond the control of the government or not able to be censored. The protestors were able to communicate their message directly to the world without any external filters.

When the general public recognized the power of social media in this highly charged political event, it became a turning point in public opinion about social media. People around the world, began to understand how social media and other communication technologies connects our world in new dimensions and in turn may significantly contribute to, or even drive, political change. These are examples of powerful advances in new knowledge and weave individual and collective learning into our daily lives.

Our society has also been recently reminded of the explicit effects of technology on economic conditions. Although temporary technical issues may stop trading on Wall Street and the NASDAQ or make information inaccessible for a few hours (Egan, 2013), greater economic implications of technology have been experienced in recent decades.

Since the industrial age, innovations often result in new production, employment, and increased gross national product (GNP). However, in every sector, modern life's extensive dependence on technology positions its role as ruling, rather than serving. For instance, when countries fall behind or stride ahead in the technology race, their economic and political power respond similarly. When the trend is upward, life is good. However, these high stakes can be compromised easily through technology as well.

Technology-based threats to public and personal welfare abound. Recent high-profile cases such as Target, JP Morgan Chase, Westinghouse, and Alcoa are examples of security breaches with international consequences (Hulme, 2014; US Department of Justice, 2014). However, if uninformed, we also may be victims when routinely using portable devices. For instance, we may use smartphones to access international economic indices, read e-books, and check Facebook. And, we could use those same devices to conduct stock trades, process credit cards, access corporate e-mail, and navigate virtual private networks (VPNs). In the process, we threaten the security of corporate intellectual property and financial resources as we mix personal and private data. In these cases, learning is the key to promotion. Employees must continually learn about new issues related to intellectual property, privacy, limitations, and corporate technology-use policies because all of them have become part of work in the digital age.

However, an even more ubiquitous risk is that each time we use a simple password or an unsecured wireless connection we make (1) ourselves vulnerable to identify theft and (2) open corporate or government gateways to hackers. Particularly in our work lives, learning and using effective cybersecurity measures is urgent at macro and micro levels. Yet, for the general public, cybersecurity has only emerged as a new issue and domain of knowledge since late in the last century.

Globalization

Another marker, although not a new phenomenon, is globalization, which began emerging as a major buzzword circa 2000. This change is in part because of changing technologies, national identities, and borders. The emergence of e-commerce has made the international marketplace a reality for most home businesses with broadband access. Globalization is defined as the international connection of people through commerce. The term globalization is often used incorrectly to represent many other concepts and trends; however, related to higher education in its true definition, Altbach has discussed it in depth on several occasions (Altbach 2004; Altbach & Knight, 2007). When defining the term, Altbach and Knight stated that globalization is “the economic, political, and societal forces pushing 21st century higher education toward greater international involvement. Global capital has, for the first time, heavily invested in knowledge industries worldwide, including higher education and advanced training” (p. 290).

Given this definition of globalization, one can see how this trend of worldwide interactions dominates our daily experiences. For example, from cell phone accessories to dog sweaters, scissors, and beyond, when we order items through many online retailers, such as Amazon, we might be ordering from China or other countries. Because of widespread globalization today, many times individuals shop across international borders without being aware of it (e.g., Amazon, Barnes and Noble, Etsy, eBay, and more). Globalization spurs changes in online shopping interfaces and platforms in order to serve varied constituents and to customize the shopping experience for them. Such online shopping sites have several means to transparently switch users to appropriate platforms by asking:

• Which continent are you in?
• What is your zip code?
• Which currency will you use for your purchase?

What is more, these sites also have many options for the user to customize the shopping experience: display only sale items, mobile or full site, show images or not, list options or grid format, include reviews, and so on. Therefore, as online consumers, we must constantly learn to navigate these many options or be lost in the confusion.

Perhaps at first you do not think learning is required to make Amazon purchases. The issue is that at this point, many online shoppers have adapted to global e-commerce and many of the procedures have become tacit (embedded) learning. Let's read what might be experienced by someone who has never done it before.

This short scenario reveals that we have gradually learned many concepts, terms, strategies, and practices in order to complete simple online shopping tasks. By imagining guiding your fictitious 1985 participant through the steps of online shopping, you should quickly realize how much embedded learning you use every time you complete this task.

In fact, an extraordinary amount of learning has occurred and much of the learning has resulted in major shifts in worldview, perception, and expectations. For several decades, we have transitioned through the direct and indirect effects that e-commerce, portable devices, and globalization have had on our personal and professional lives. Not only has the world we lived in changed but also we have had to constantly be engaged in learning and increase our understanding and perspective to transform as well.

Following are a few other examples of globalization that are common in our world today:

• Outsourcing work to an organization in another country
• Using your Japanese-made cell phone on your US mobile network
• Purchasing a skirt made in Thailand by workers from China
• Finding sushi in South America and McDonald's in Beijing
• Relocating to another country for higher education study or a job opportunity

In order to consider the impact of globalization on your personal and professional life, please complete the Globalization Examples Activity in Table 2.2.

The impact of globalization reaches our daily lives and news headlines frequently when considering multinational corporations. Case in point is the number of major US-international mergers we have witnessed since 1990. A common strategy is not only merging once US-only corporations such as General Motors with foreign partners but also sustaining headquarters in multiple nations (e.g., Toyota Motors, Walmart, and Volkswagon) (Enriquez, 2001).

However, globalization not only includes company ownership but also market share. Newman (Newman, 2011, June, June) reminded us of the extensive reach that familiar US companies have worldwide. The following data demonstrate the global share of several major US corporations in their respective markets:

• General Electric: 54%
• IBM: 64%
• Bank of America: 20%
• Dow Pharmaceutical: 67%
• Intel: 85%
• McDonald's: 66% (Newman, 2011, June)

Clearly, these corporations draw a large portion of their revenue from international sources. These financial figures certainly explain the large impact that globalization has shaping local and international markets today. They also raise important questions about employment in a global marketplace.

With globalization immediately affecting our employment, purchasing, and online experiences, one can see why it is a critical digital age issue. With these demands changing daily, in order to stay current, learning needs to be in the forefront of our lives. Globalization has become an essential fiber of our national and personal economic lives. Predictions of future trends are that globalization will continue to increase (Altbach, 2015; Altbach & Knight, 2007; Rumbley, Altbach, & Reisberg, 2012).

Internationalization of Education

Compared to globalization's focus on economic involvement, internationalization of higher education refers to “the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions—and even individuals—to cope with the global academic environment” (Altbach & Knight, 2007, p. 290). Certainly, higher education institutions and students have pursued international educational efforts for centuries; however, substantial shifts in these efforts have occurred since the 2000s (Rumbley, Albach, & Reisberg, 2012). These changes have included not only the focus and format of these international efforts but also the scope.

Traditional forms of internationalization in higher education institutions (HEIs) included study-abroad programs, visiting scholar exchanges, international study areas of study, and so on (Altbach & Knight, 2007). Since the 1990s, there have been several varied trends of internationalization across HEI sectors including efforts by for-profit, North American, developing countries and European institutions. For example, depending on the relative needs of the host and visitor, funds, knowledge, and innovation have flowed in either direction.

In 2010, another event occurred that continues to have a great impact on internationalization: Agreements were reached among 47 international entities to complete the first phase of the Bologna Process (2007–2010–2010). The several agreed-on academic and curricular changes provide for greater international exchange, collaboration, and mobility of faculty and students among and between all entities. The scale of the effort and accomplishment represented in these agreements and commitments are astounding. These decisions will significantly transform higher education in Europe because they fundamentally change higher education to support international exchange.

The second phase of the Bologna Process, European Higher Education Area (EHEA), is underway and focuses on the implementation of the decisions agreed on during phase one (EHEA, 2014). Further fueling the international efforts, several grant awards were initiated to fund international innovative projects (EACEA, 2013) of collaboration and study.

Technology has also been a contributor to the internationalization of higher education in terms of online courses and programs. Recognizing the many obstacles in developing new degree programs in foreign countries, in recent years many US HEIs have developed a variety of approaches with online learning to offer degrees abroad (Deardorff, 2004). A partial list of strategies that leveraged online technologies can be described in terms of how a US institution might deliver credentials overseas:

• Virtually staffing for foreign degrees with US faculty
• Awarding US certificates through foreign universities
• Awarding US certificates through US HEIs
• Awarding foreign degrees while incorporating US subspecialties or minors
• US HEIs partnering with foreign universities to offer joint degrees
• US HEIs partnering with foreign universities to host satellite campuses and US degrees
• US HEIs establishing and awarding full accredited foreign degrees

In terms of nonacademic community, what is the impact of these internationalization efforts of higher education? A great deal of economic, cultural, and social exchange occurs through each of these actions. Certainly when HEIs' students and faculty members visit foreign nations in person rather than virtually, greater impact is experienced on all accounts. However, even when the connections are primarily online, critical areas reap contributions:

• Economically: tuition is paid, technology equipment and bandwidth need to be purchased
• Culturally and socially: well-designed online classes include facilitation of participant dialogue, peer learning, and extensive feedback

Indirectly, each of these exchanges reaches beyond the online class community to the equipment and communication vendors, community and family members, and the professional workplace. Internationalization of higher education does not result in self-contained transformation; whether directly or indirectly, HEIs are composed of people who interact with every sector of the community. In these several ways, we might say, internationalization in the higher education sector results in community transformation.

e-Commerce

The previous section presented an e-commerce example of shopping on Amazon. However, there are many other ways in which we use our technology skills daily through e-commerce.

Do you use online banking to pay your bills or reconcile your banking accounts? The 2012 Pew Internet Research Project of how American use online technologies revealed that “fifty-one percent of U.S. adults, or 61% of Internet users, bank online. Thirty-two percent of U.S. adults, or 35% of cell phone owners, bank using their mobile phones” (Fox, 2013, para. 1).

For US consumers, online services are standard expectations among banking choices. Financial transfers require extensive safeguards to secure not only individual and bank financial resources but also client identities. The technologies to safeguard and conduct a host of banking services have become widely available in the last few years. With the increased power, integrity, and breadth of the financial exchange platforms have also come greater access to services for users. Our computers and cell phones enable us to wire monies to international banks, transfer monies between accounts, and scan our paper checks for deposit. The US public's savviness in and demands for online banking services continue to increase.

This e-commerce example of banking can be multiplied across many other sectors of our personal and professional lives. For example, it is now customary for most people to use online services for many activities, such as those in Table 2.3.

Beyond actual purchase transactions, another dimension of e-commerce emerged in the 2015 data from the Pew Research Internet. These data had been gathered from US consumers within 30 days of the previous holiday shopping season. The results revealed that 79% of all Americans made online purchases, and relied heavily on technology resources to support e-commerce and in store shopping. Further details regarding the use of technology and buying practices among Americans, revealed that when purchasing a new product:

• 40% consult online reviews,
• 74% believe it is important to read online reviews prior,
• 65% compare prices online and in stores, and then purchase the least expensive. (Smith & Anderson, 2016)

These examples demonstrate not only our use of technology devices but also our expectation that information is immediately available and interconnected. This digital age paradigm has become our norm to such an extent that it continues to be embedded in our lives and thinking and habits more each day. Yet, few of us step back and reflect on these tacit expectations, the related needs, and implications. Such questions and issues will continue to be addressed in this book while highlighting adult learning and transformation in our lives and society. The activity at the end of this chapter provides an opportunity for you to collect information about your personal use of technology and reflect on its assimilation in your life.

e-Learning

Another widely used technology today is e-learning. However, usually when people hear the term e-learning, they think of online classes. In fact, online learning is only one of many examples of e-learning we use in the digital age. As adults, our learning activities include more informal formats than traditional, formal ones, such as teacher-led classes. Instead, it is very likely that we are engaged in learning throughout the day in our work and private lives.

For most adults, formal e-learning formats may include workplace learning, professional development, and courses hosted by higher education institutions. Since the 1990s, these formats have evolved across major areas including available technology, design principles, strategies of facilitation, and delivery modes. Simultaneously, continued social adoption of technology has enabled distance learning options to become more sophisticated. Furthermore, additional learning resources support our e-learning efforts through scores of websites including online public libraries. For adults who have been enrolled in formal learning or are parents of young children recently enrolled in school, access to advanced online libraries, tutorials, and course materials are standard expectations.

However, relatively unknown informal learning contributes greatly to daily pursuits of e-learning. A popular description of informal learning attributed to Johnstone and Rivera in 1965 is independent learning activities that are self-taught. Marsick and Watkins (1990, 2001) provided a broader definition, which stated that informal learning will “take place wherever people have the need, motivation, and opportunity for learning” (2001, p. 28). They clarified a further detail that is very important. Informal learning is neither usually intentional nor greatly structured. This point is illustrated in a few of the several examples of informal learning they referenced: self-directed learning, networking, coaching, and mentoring (2001, p. 26). More recently, Tjepkema (2002) specifically stated that informal learning not only happens spontaneously and unconsciously but also without any a priori stated objectives in terms of learning outcomes. In this final statement, one can see the stark contrast to formal learning within educational institutions and organizations that organize learning around objectives, outcomes, and assessment. Informal learning is woven into the fabric of our daily lives.

Tough's famous study of 1971 estimated that 90% of adults were engaged in independent (informal) learning of a wide variety. In 1979, Penland sought to corroborate Tough's work and determined that number to be 80%. Work to conceptualize informal learning has continued since that time.

For example, Schugurensky (2000) proposed three forms of informal learning: self-directed learning, incidental learning, and socialization, or tacit, learning. And Bennett (2012, June) advanced this model to four modes: (1) self-directed, which is conscious and intentional; (2) incidental, which is conscious and unintentional; (3) tacit, which replaces socialization and is nonconscious and unintentional; and (4) integrative, which is nonconscious and intentional. The broad scope and many formats of informal learning demonstrate that many times this adult learning is unnoticed or unseen.

As Watkins and Marsick (1992) explain simply but clearly, Incidental learning “is largely unintentional, unexamined and embedded in people's closely held belief systems” (p. 288). Specifically, incidental learning occurs in the midst of other events or daily living activities. Very important, incidental learning is also unplanned, not consciously considered to be learning, and it happens while one's focus is on something else.

Many examples of incidental learning research are drawn from language learning research. Specifically, much of the focus is on vocabulary building in young children or adults learning a new language by traveling or studying in a foreign country or being otherwise immersed in a community (or classroom) of speakers of that language (Denhovska, Serratrice, & Payne, 2015).

A very different but significant example is provided by English (1999), who researched informal and incidental learning among Roman Catholic Church members in a Canadian rural diocese. These churches had faced a shortage of male priests to oversee congregations and mass, the sacrament of the Eucharist; the diocese decided to approve female lay leaders to fulfill these responsibilities. When interviewed about the change in routine, the parishioners were very matter of fact about their new understanding of the sacraments, even though it was contrary to traditional church doctrine. Moreover, no participants pointed to a critical decision or teaching moment when these changes occurred. Instead, the context, need, and suitability of the substitute (a female lay church leader, often a nun) were effective for changes in beliefs and action (that is, learning) to transpire. Given the deeply seated religious beliefs associated with the Roman Catholic mass, this research is a powerful demonstration of transparent, incidental learning.

Social Media

In the digital age, social media is an example of technology that adults need to continue to learn in order to remain competitive in the workplace as well as communicate with family, friends, and colleagues. Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn are examples of social media platforms that have had extraordinary longevity. However, for each of these examples, there have been at least 100 that have debuted with brilliant fanfare, only to be extinguished within 6 to 12 months. This frequent introduction of new social media platforms provides a constant stream of new learning opportunities.

Social media is synonymous with communication, networking, sharing, and community. Many people might naively think the major focus of these platforms is communicating with their community of family and friends; however, businesses of all sizes and sectors invest large sums of money to be noticed and “followed” in these virtual networks. Increasingly organizations seek employees who have learned to be social media savvy regarding their professional work and personal lives.

Social media is one of the ways that our social and work lives have begun to merge. For instance, our profile and postings within these major social media networks and on other web-based platforms together comprise our cyber identity or cyber reputation (Bell & Kennedy, 2007; Cheung, 2007; LeNoue, Hall, & Eighmy, 2011).

Consider how often we learn information about people we are about to meet or just met. Whether it is a new friend or potential hire, it does not matter: most often one of the first ways we seek to acquire more background about them is to review their cyber identity (or digital identity). That is, we Google, Bing, or otherwise search for their name and location online. The results of these searches provide historical records of our new acquaintances' publicly available online postings, profiles, and activity. Moreover, as is widely advertised, in just a few minutes and “for a small fee,” we can easily learn all vital statistics, prior addresses, property holdings, liens, police record (if any), and much more.

Together this mass of online data is our cyber identity. And although we know we should research the cyber identity of other people, the unfortunate truth is that few of us pay close attention to those aspects of our cyber identity that we can control (such as the availability and nature of social media postings). The consequences of this neglect are high, because people lose potential job interviews or professional invitations through a careless regard of their cyber identity (Broderick & Grinberg, 2013).

Virtual reality is another area of technology that has been incorporated widely in this era.

Virtual Reality

Virtual reality is a vivid example of how technology learning extends not only across our direct use of an innovation but also entertainment, sports, health and fitness, research, and formal instruction. Virtual reality is a technology-facilitated simulation that enables participants to engage in an artificial world (Aldrich, 2009b). Some members of the general public think they do not encounter virtual reality frequently. In fact, it has been transparently embedded in, and the essential platform for, movies, games, P–12 learning, and workplace training for decades.

As far back as 1982, the movie Tron (Kushner & Lisberger) introduced virtual reality. You might also remember the 1999 movie Disclosure (Crichton & Levinson, 1999). In one scene of that film, Michael Douglas used a file system that was depicted as virtual reality. In this scene, he entered a file storage area and began moving the images of file drawers and boxes around in mid-air. When he found the item he had been searching for, he was able to retrieve it and read it in that alternate space.

In 1999, the blockbuster movie The Matrix (Silver & the Wachowski Brothers, 1999) brought virtual reality to a new level of mainstream awareness and comprehension. In this story plot, people exist in a simulated world. The Matrix became a dominant influence on US culture in many ways; however, its impact on people's perception of virtual reality is unmatched. All the sequels of the movie demonstrate society's fascination with constructed worlds and characters moving back and forth between them.

In the digital age, aside from movies, we use virtual reality in many applications. The gaming industry was one of the other early adopters of virtual reality. The early simulation educational games of the 1980s and 1990s, such as SimCity, SimWorld, and Oregon Trail, paved the way for social adoption of full-body virtual reality experiences because they linked gaming with reality.

The first generation of home-use virtual reality devices included Flight Simulator was released in 1979. This program was used for entertaining experiences of flying a plane over many different landscapes and sites as well as navigating its landing.

The next generation of widely adopted virtual reality technology included Wii and PlayStations, which enabled operating games through handheld remote controls and physical action (Aldrich, 2009b). Familiar physical sports such as bowling, baseball, and tennis could be played in everyone's living room. The stunning achievement of these technologies was tying innovation to habit: one operated the program through the same physical motions used in the real-life activities. Very likely, Wii did more to begin to bring virtual reality into the lives of non-techies than any other single innovation, until Pokémon Go. In summer 2016, Pokémon Go players burst onto the streets, sidewalks, and parking lots of our communities staring at their smartphones (evidently) in hot pursuit of little virtual creatures. Headlines were filled with discussions of virtual reality.

At the same time that Wii and PlayStations were becoming popular there was also a surge in virtual reality golf (Aldrich, 2009a). One of the innovations that pushed this adoption forward was that it could now be played on home gaming platforms when connected to large-screen televisions. Although these systems were popular for entertaining, many full-featured golf pro shops and specialized golf clinics developed additional variants to offer highly technology-supported training experiences and diagnostic services.

However, about 2010 another level of innovation pushed virtual golf even further ahead. Walk-in virtual golf centers began to be built around the country (Sports Entertainment Specialists [SES], n.d.). Two of the greatest benefits of this invention were the ability to play golf at night and in controlled climate conditions. The golf centers provided not only the wall-sized screens in which golfers hit real golf balls with real golf clubs but also food, alcoholic beverages, and party arrangements. By 2017, larger cities might have three or more of these centers featuring golf, shooting (virtual ranges), and other sports. A new form of group entertainment had emerged combining virtual reality, sports, and socializing.

Nursing homes and older adults were another surprising sector that adopted virtual reality sports. Early in the history of social adoption of Wii, media accounts frequently highlighted nursing homes and rehabilitation therapy centers leveraging the physical activity and socialization benefits of the system (Clark & Kraemer, 2009). Again, building on the fact that Wii games function with nearly the same physical movements that had been previously learned and very well practiced in the traditional sport (i.e., bowling) meant there was minimal new learning required to enjoy the devices. The benefits in engaging older adults in more physical and community activity were widely heralded. In 2013, the trend continued as other health-related virtual reality applications extended across physical therapy, brain injury rehabilitation (Glegg, Holsti, Velikonja, Ansley, Brum, & Sartor, 2013; Levac & Miller, 2013), and fitness.

Adult learning, whether it is physical, emotional, or cognitive, continues across the life span (Bee, 2000; Bee & Bjorkland, 2008; Bjorkland, 2014). Recent years have demonstrated that technology innovation can provide many new opportunities to engage in more learning activities throughout adulthood. Given the widespread social adoption and availability of these resources, educators can integrate more technology-based simulations and activities into formal instruction as well. Rather than technology gaming being exclusively used by youth, the 2000s have introduced a new generation of adults to gaming as entertainment, socialization, and learning.