A discussion on how best to protect data at rest and in transit inevitably leads to the subject of encryption. There certainly is more to protecting data than just encrypting it. There’s an array of factors that must be considered, such as authentication, authorization, logging, and monitoring. However, the one topic that gets much attention is encryption. That’s due in part to the emergence of state privacy laws. The majority of states today have privacy laws that fall under two types of encryption requirements:

• Laws that require private data to be encrypted
• Laws that require notification of breaches when private data is not encrypted

Both requirements are driving businesses to adopt encryption. There are differences among state laws as to the level of encryption that’s required. For example, the California privacy law requires notification when private information that has not been encrypted is breached. The Massachusetts privacy law requires encryption of data, at rest or in transit, when it leaves the confines of a company’s network. Nevada privacy law mandates the use of PCI DSS, which requires cardholder data to be encrypted both inside and outside the company’s network.

Regardless of your opinion about whether encryption is a good idea, encryption is a mandate for many organizations. You need to ensure that IT security policies addressing where and how encryption will be used are well defined within those policies.

Security policies need to be clear about when you should use encryption. The policies should also state the level of encryption that is acceptable. Sometimes when people discuss encrypting data within the network, they raise passionate arguments about the value of the protection obtained by encrypting data. Some argue there’s little value because absent stealing the physical hard drive, the data is automatically decrypted. Others argue that it’s another layer of control preventing access because the decryption process is controlled. Both are right. Sometimes the data is automatically decrypted, and other times it is not.

FIGURE 11-1 illustrates both points of view. There are two scenarios presented. In both scenarios, a hacker breaches the environment. In scenario #1, a breach of the application leads to unencrypted data being exposed. In this case, encryption was of no value in protecting the information. In scenario #2, a breach of the operating system leads to a database file being stolen. In this case, the data remained encrypted, which significantly helped prevent the data from being exposed. Encryption of data within the network can offer valuable protection depending on the type of breach. The key factor is whether the encryption key becomes exposed in the process.

Now take a look at how this works in more detail. In scenario #1, a breach of the application allows the hacker to retrieve unencrypted data. The critical point here is that the application and/or database server has access to the encryption key. In this example, the database is decrypting the data. Alternatively, it could be the application that is decrypting the data. Either way, you are in essence asking the application to get the information and decrypt it for you. However, in scenario #2, the hacker has breached the operating system (OS), bypassing the application and database server. In this scenario, the hacker only has access to the file system. In other words, the hacker can retrieve the database files, but they remain encrypted. Thus, no data has been breached.

Encrypting data within the network does protect against many attacks but does not protect against a breach of the application. What makes scenario #2 a viable solution is that the key management layer is outside the application and database layer. Without the encryption key, the data is unreadable. It would not make sense to encrypt the data on the server and leave the encryption key on the same server. That’s like leaving your car key in the ignition of your car. For encryption to be effective, security policies must establish core requirements and standards, such as:

• Encryption keys must be separated from encrypted data.
• Encryption keys must be retrieved through a secure process.
• Administrator rights at the OS layer do not give access to the database.

What’s generally accepted as best practice is that whenever sensitive data leaves the confines of the organization’s private network, the information should be encrypted. This is not consistently applied within many organizations. For example, suppose an organization encrypts all laptop hard drives; however, the organization may fail to encrypt email, USB drives, or CD/DVD drives. In this case, it’s common to deploy a patchwork of encryption solutions. Many organizations fail to comply completely with encryption requirements. The use of the term best practice in this context recognizes that the level of success among organizations varies. This lack of full compliance to implement encryption is due to:

• Confusion over the laws
• Cost to comply
• Lack of a standardized approach among vendor products

The IT industry is quickly adapting. New vendor products offer encryption solutions. Today the encryption of mobile hard drives and encryption over the Internet are commonplace. For example, it’s common in many organizations to encrypt the hard drive of mobile devices, such as laptops and smartphones. This protects the sensitive information contained inside the device. If the device is lost or stolen, the information cannot be read. Also, encryption over the Internet is commonplace. For example, employees routinely connect to an office through virtual private network (VPN) solutions that encrypt all the traffic between the employees and the private network. Organizations with consumers who buy online routinely encrypt the consumers’ website sessions so they can enter their credit card information safely.

Beyond mobile devices and traversing the Internet, sensitive information leaves the confines of a private network in other forms. These include backup tapes, CDs, thumb drives, and any other storage media. Encrypting backup tapes protects the data both at rest and as it’s being transported. If a tape is lost or stolen, the information is not breached. This is because the data cannot be decrypted without the key. Encrypting backup tapes is commonplace in industries such as financial services. Also, keep in mind that not all backups are well managed through elaborate data center processes. Many small offices make backups on very portable media such as mini tapes or portable hard drives. These backups also need to be protected. There’s a lack of consensus on best solutions to protect CD/DVD drives, thumb drives, and email.

The IT security policies must state clearly how data is to be protected and handled. An organization can choose to lock out CD/DVDs or USB ports from writing data. An organization can also attempt to encrypt any information written to the drives. Both solutions have complexity, benefits, and drawbacks. It’s the chief information security officer’s (CISO’s) role to bring the organization to a consensus. Some organizations choose to accept the risk. That is becoming harder to do as privacy laws become more stringent.

Data has a life cycle like any IT asset. It’s created, accessed, and eventually destroyed. Between these states, it changes form. It is transmitted, stored, and physically moved. Security policies, standards, and procedures establish different requirements on the data depending on the life-cycle state. The main objective is to ensure that data is protected in all its forms. It should be protected on all media and during all phases of its life cycle. The protection needs to extend to all processing environments. These environments collectively refer to all applications, systems, and networks.

Policies state that users of information are personally responsible for complying with policies, standards, and procedures. All users are held accountable for the accuracy, integrity, and confidentiality of the information they access. Policies must be clear as to the use and handling of data. For discussion purposes, this section outlines some of the policy considerations for data handling at different points:

• Creation—During creation, data must be classified. That could be simply placing the data within a common storage area. For example, a human resources (HR) system creates information in the HR database. All information in that database can be assigned a common data classification. Security policies then govern data owner, custodians, and accountabilities. Security procedures govern how access is granted to that data.
• Access—Access to data is governed by security policies. These policies provide special guidance on separation of duties (SOD). It’s important that procedures check SOD requirements before granting access. For example, the ability to create and approve a wire transfer of large sums out of a bank typically requires two or more people. The SOD would have one person create the wire and one person approve it. In this case, the procedure to grant authority to approve wires must also include a check to verify that the same person does not have the authority to create a wire. If the person had both authorities, that person could create and approve a large sum of money to him- or herself.
• Use—Use of data includes protecting and labeling information properly after its access. The data must be properly labeled and safeguarded according to its classification. For example, if highly sensitive data is used in a printed report, the report must be labeled “highly sensitive.” Typically, labeling a report “highly sensitive” means there will be data handling issues related to storage.
• Transmission—Data must be transmitted in accordance with policies and standards. The organization may have procedures and processes for transmitting data. All users must follow these procedures. This ensures that the data is adequately protected using approved technology, such as encryption.
• Storage—Storage devices of data must be approved. This means that access to a device must be secured and properly controlled. For example, let’s say mobile devices are encrypted. Once a device is approved and configured, access can be granted through normal procedures. Storage handling also relates to physical documents. “Highly sensitive” documents, for example, need to be locked up when not in use. They should be shared only with those individuals authorized to view such material.
• Physical transport—Transport of data must be approved. This ensures that what leaves the confines of the private network is protected and tracked. The organization has an obligation to know where its data is. Also, it needs to know that data is properly protected. When possible, the data should be encrypted during transport. In the event of data media being lost or stolen, the data will then be protected. Many organizations use preapproved transport companies for handling data. These services provide the tracking and notification of arrival needed to meet the companies’ obligations.
• Destruction—Destruction of data is sometimes called disposal. When an asset reaches its end of life, it must be destroyed in a controlled procedure. The standards that govern its destruction make sure that the data cannot be reconstructed. This may require physical media to be placed in a disposal bin. These bins are specially designed to allow items to be deposited but not removed. The items are collected and the contents shredded. All users are required to follow procedures that have been approved for the destruction of physical media and electronic data.

IT security policies, standards, and procedures must outline the clear requirements at each stage of the data’s life cycle. The policies must be clear on the responsibilities of the user to follow them. They also need to outline the consequences of noncompliance or purposely bypassing these controls.