absorptive capacity
Accenture
age of imitation. See also imitation
codification of knowledge as an enabler of imitation
decline of brand luster
efficiency gains from codification
emerging market firms’ knowledge acquisition strategies
erosion of legal protection
globalization and (see globalization and imitation)
high cost of innovation
imitation channels
imitation’s enabling of undercapitalized new entrants
leveraging of outsourcing
shortening of time lines for new technology creation
takeaways
threatening of established players by rise in market participants
value chain modularization and
weakening of imitation defenses
Air Asia
Airbus
Air Deccan
airline industry
absence of implementation capabilities
attempts to imitate Southwest’s success (see Southwest Airlines)
success of pioneer importers
AirTran. See ValuJet
Alaska Airlines
Albertsons
Allen, Bill
Ambra
American Express
America West
Amoy
analogical imitation
Anderson, Walter
Andreessen, Marc
antitrust legislation
Apple
efforts to reduce imitation of its products
IBM’s imitation of
master of assembly imitation
own use of imitation
status as an imitator and innovator
successful recombination strategies
architectural knowledge
Asustek
Atari
auto industry
copying from other industries
GM’s attempt to imitate Japanese companies with Saturn
Japanese carmakers’ imitation strategy
bandwagon effect
Battelle
Beddoe, Clive
behavior parsing
Best Buy
Bethune, Gordon
Bismark
Boeing
BoltBus
Bombardier
brand and concept imitation
brand as a key barrier to market penetration
decline of brand luster
examples of
rate of brand imitation
Bray
Burr, Donald C.
business method patents
business model imitation
attempts to copy Southwest’s success (see Southwest Airlines)
attempts to copy Wal-Mart’s success (see Wal-Mart)
business models that are good targets
challenge of imitating
a nontransparent business
model
imperative to identify causality
need to create a structure to support the process
CALite
Campbell Soup Company
Cardinal Health
causal ambiguity
Chery Auto
Child, Arthur
China
imitators of Wal-Mart
incorporation of European designs
leveraging of U.S. graduate education
rise in generic pharmaceutical manufacturers
Chrysler
Chul, Lee Byung
Chung, Yong-Jin
Circuit City
Citigroup
Clark, R. Kerry
Cloyd, G. Gilbert
CNBC
Coca-Cola
codification of knowledge as an enabler of imitation
coercive isomorphism
come from behind imitators
benefits of time spent watching
capabilities that support this strategy
need to back the entry with resources
requirements of the strategy
Commodore
Compaq
complementary assets
Conner Peripherals
Connor, Chris
contagion
contextualizing
defined
development of contextualizing capabilities
failing to consider context as a reason for failure
Continental Airlines
correspondence problem
amplification when systems compete
challenge of solving
definition
failure to resolve as a reason for failure
imperative to identify causality
obstacle for the importer
overcoming
successful imitator’s solving of
successful recombination
Costco
Cunningham, Harry
Daichi Sankyo
Daley, Clayton C., Jr.
DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation)
decomposition
deep diving
deciphering a complex model
failure to consider all aspects of a system
Dell
Delta
Delta Express
Delta Song
deterrents to imitation, overcoming
causal ambiguity
complementary assets
establishing imitation deterrents
marketing deterrence
relationship networks
signaling and switching deterrents
Diamond, Jared
Diffenderffer, Bill
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
Diners Club
Disney
doctrine of equivalents
Dollar General
Drucker, Peter
Dunfield, Steve
Dunnhumby
Dyer, Henry
early followers
EasyJet
Eli Lilly
E-Mart
Embraer
EMI
emulation
Engelbart, Doug
expressive imitation
Extreme (supermarket)
Fairchild
Faris, Ellsworth
fast second imitators
benefits of speed
capabilities needed to move fast
cost of
race against other would-be imitators
Fernandes, Tony
fifth-level imitation
Firedog (Circuit City)
Fischer, Alex
Fleischer
Ford Motors
forward engineering
frequency-based imitation
Frito-Lay
Gap
Gateway
General Electric (GE)
General Motors
getting ready to imitate
arrogance as an obstacle to imitation
barriers preventing imitation
caution against dismissing
a competitor as “just
a copy,”
obstacle of a negative connotation to imitation
problem with focusing on only high performers
stigma against imitation
strategy of rewarding all contributions
Gittell, J. H.
globalization and imitation
emerging market firms’ knowledge acquisition strategies
imitation’s enabling of undercapitalized new entrants
shortening of time lines for new technology creation
threatening of established players by rise in market participants
Goldman Sachs
Goyal, Naresh
Guns, Germs, and Steel (Diamond)
Harari, Eli
Hasbro
Hertz
Hewlett-Packard (HP)
H.J. Heinz
Home Depot
Honda
IBM
imitation. See also age of imitation
acceleration in the pace of
advantages to
brand and concept imitation examples
capabilities and processes of (see imitation capabilities and processes)
challenges of
complacency avoidance by imitators
cost savings realized by imitators
establishing a balance with innovation
fusion of innovation and imitation (see imovation)
“imitation” defined
mental barriers to (see getting ready to imitate)
rate of brand imitation
science and (see science and imitation)
strategies (see imitation strategies)
success of fast movers and late comers
takeaways
ties to innovation
value captured by imitators
well-known imitator companies
imitation capabilities and processes
complementary nature of required capabilities
contextualizing (see contextualizing)
deep diving
getting ready to imitate (see getting ready to imitate)
imitation capabilities overview
implementing (see implementing imitated elements)
referencing (see referencing and imitation)
searching, spotting, and sorting (see searching, spotting, and sorting)
similarities between innovation and imitation
takeaways
imitation channels
imitation clusters
knowledge transfer due to employee turnover
leakages from alliances
imitation clusters
imitation strategies
applicability to commodities
applying the a “unique set of values”
assessing the value of complementarities
benefits of imitation
business models that are good targets
come from behind
correspondence problem and
costs calculation
deciding whom to imitate
determining the projected value
example of choosing to imitate rather than innovate
factors to consider when deciding what to imitate
factors to consider when deciding where to imitate
fast second
how to imitate
importance of determining the target in advance
industries conducive to imitation
lack of in most companies
pioneer importer
risk consideration
takeaways
imitators, the
Apple (see Apple)
challenge of imitating a nontransparent business model
correspondence problem and
imitating imitators
importers’ success
mistakes made
Southwest Airlines (see Southwest Airlines)
takeaways
using “copy exact” to replicate a poorly understood system
Wal-Mart (see Wal-Mart)
imovation
advantages of imitation over innovation
characteristics of imovators
defined
immediacy of businesses’ need to adopt imitation
innovate, imitate, imovate
key strategic junctions of a business and
need to accept imitation on equal terms with innovation
overcoming deterrents (see deterrents to imitation, overcoming)
requirement for a strategic thrust
requirement to solve the correspondence problem
rules of (see imovation rules)
similarities between innovation and imitation
well-known imitator/ innovator companies
imovation rules
adding value through imitation
answering where, what, whom, how, and when
approaching imitation in a strategic manner
avoiding reinventing the wheel
being mindful of the complexities involved
copying the competition
expanding your search
playing offense and defense
putting things in context
implementing imitated elements
execution and success in imitation
interdisciplinary teams and
requirement for an implementation plan
importation
imprinting
India
imitators of Southwest Airlines
leveraging of U.S. graduate education
rise in generic pharmaceutical manufacturers
information cascade
In Search of Excellence innovation
advantages of imitation over
Americans’ view that innovation is a competitive advantage
establishing a balance with imitation
fusion of innovation and imitation (see imovation)
high cost of
imitation and innovation viewed as fused activities
managers’ mistaken belief in
need to accept imitation on equal terms with
similarities to imitation
ties to imitation
well-known imitator/ innovator companies
Intel
intellectual property rights (IPR) decline in legal protections
violations by imitators
internal imitation
International Air Transport Association
Japan
auto industry and
history of imitation
success at imitation
JetBlue
Jobs, Steve
J.P. Morgan
Kasper
Kelleher, Herb
Kim, J.
Kmart
Kodak
Kohrt, Carl
Kroger
Krok, Ray
L.C. Smith
legal protection erosion
Levin study
Levitt, Theodore
liability of newness
Under the Lid
likeness as a form of imitation
Limited, The
Lipitor
Liz Claiborne
Ludlam, Tom, Jr.
Lugz
Mansfield, E.
Mapes, Tim
marketing deterrents to imitation
brand as a key barrier
declining status of pioneer products
false protection from premium status
fleeting nature of distribution barriers
limits of protection from superior execution
Mary Kay Cosmetics
MasterCard
Mattel
McCarthy, Conor
McDonald’s
McDonnell Douglas
Merck
Merrill Lynch
Microsoft
mimesis
mimetic isomorphism
mimicry
Miner, A.
mirror neurons
Neeleman, David
Netscape
Ningbo Bird
Nintendo
Nordstrom
normative isomorphism
Novartis
Nowell, Lionel L.
O’Brien, James J.
Ohio Art
O’Leary, Michael
opaque imitation
orphan works
outcome-based imitation
outsourcing and imitation
Palm Computing
Palo Alto Research Center (PARC)
patent and trademark protection
PC industry
challenges of imitation
IBM’s attempt to copy clones
master imitators
People’s Express
Pepsi
Pfizer
pharmaceutical industry
imitation
rise in generic manufacturers
pioneer importer,
pioneer losers
Pizza Hut
Porter, Michael
Prairietek
Price, Sol
Procter & Gamble
looking at other industries for ideas
status as an imitator and innovator
strategies to mitigate imitation
strategy of rewarding all contributions
Rally’s
Ranbaxy
rational herding
RC Cola
RealNetworks
referencing and imitation
failures as a learning opportunity
failure to systematically look at competitors
imitation tendencies
importance of referencing innovator firms
lessons from small firms
looking to other industries for ideas
tendency to conduct local rather than global searches
types of isomorphism
relationship networks as a deterrent
Remington Rand
Research In Motion (RIM)
response facilitation
response priming
Rollins, Kevin
Rosling, Alan
Rothenberg, Randall
Ryan, Tony
Ryanair
Sam’s Club
Samsung
SanDisk
Sandoz
Sansa View
Sargent, William
Saturn
Schulze, Dick
Schumpeter, Joseph
science and imitation
American’s view that innovation is a competitive advantage
copiers’ fate in economic life
“copying” behaviors among animals
correspondence problem
early views that art was merely imitation
economists’ view of imitation
forms of imitation
four value-creation ideas in business
historian’s view of imitation
history of imitation by countries
imitation and innovation
viewed as fused activities
imitation by human babies
imitation described
imitation in a biological context
imitation’s typical start as import substitution
imitators’ performance compared to innovators’
limits to animals’ ability to imitate
managers’ mistaken belief in innovation
mimicry in nature
mutual flow of imitation between West and East
prevalence of imitation throughout history
primacy of imitation in Western civilization
takeaways
transformation in scientists’ views of imitation
SC Johnson
Sculley, John
searching, spotting, and sorting
conducting a systematic search
constant research requirement
defined
forward engineering
Sears
Shackelford, Don
Sherwin-Williams
Shih, Jonney
signaling deterrents
Silk Air
Simmons, David
Skybus
Smith, Adam
Song by Delta
Sony
South Korea
auto industry and
leveraging of U.S. graduate education
Wal-Mart imitators
Southwest Airlines
adoption of selected elements of the model
Asian importers
attractiveness to imitators
business limits of emulation and imprinting
business model
CALite’s failure
constraints on legacy carriers that inhibited true imitation
correspondence problem
Delta Express and Song
failure of imitation while maintaining a conflicting model
failure of relationship networks to stop imitators
imitators’ attempts to
compartmentalize their
imitation efforts
imitators’ carrier-within-a-carrier concept
imitators’ simplistic analysis of the model
imitators’ use of emulation
JetBlue’s differentiation
lessons ignored by imitators
model importation in Canada and South America
model success
success at going unnoticed for decades
success at imitating other airlines
successful importation in Europe by EasyJet
successful importation in Europe by Ryanair
United’s Shuttle and Ted
US Airways’ Metrojet
Spirit Airlines
Spreadtrum
Spry
Staples
Steinhafel, Greg
Stiglitz, Joseph
supermarket chains
switching costs
switching deterrents
symbolic imitation
Taco Bell
Target
Teece, David
Tesco
Teva
time compression tactics
toy industry
Toyota
Toys ’R Us
trademark and patent protection
trait-based imitation
Tupperware
Ulrich, Robert
Underwood
United’s Shuttle
US Airways
US Airways’ Metrojet
value-chain modularization
value proposition for imitation
determining what the projected value is
imitation benefits
imitation costs
imitation risk
need to assess the value of complementarities
ValuJet
Visa
Vizio
Volkswagen
Vriends, Stan,
Wal-Mart
adoption of other companies’ innovations
Asian imitators
Best Buy’s imitation of the supply chain and transaction rates
borrowing of ideas
business model
Circuit City’s failure to compete
competitor’s differentiation strategy
Dollar General’s goal of outsaving and outsimplifying Wal-Mart
early success at going unnoticed
frequently imitated elements
Kmart’s failure at imitating
leveraging of borrowed technology
nonsector imitators
status as an imitator and innovator
Target’s differentiation strategy
Toys ’R Us’s response to the competition
Walton’s research before launching
Walton, Sam
WestJet
Wexner, Leslie
what to imitate
example of choosing to imitate rather than innovate
factors to consider
importance of determining the target in advance
when to imitate
the come from behind
the fast second
the pioneer importer
where to imitate
applicability to commodities
business models that are good targets
factors to consider
industries conducive to imitation
White Castle
whom to imitate
Wise, Brownie
World Health
Organization
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Wu-Mart
Yahoo!
Yum Brands
Zara
Zing Systems
Zipcar
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