A
Acquaviva, A., 7
ADC; See Analog-to-digital converter
Aerodynamic theory, piezoelectric WEH, 65–68
fluid qualities, 67
horizontal wind flow, 68
static pressure, 68
Ahson, S., 181
Al-Hashimi, B.M., 7
Alippi, C., 140
Amatucci, G.G., 25, 26, 27, 89
Amirtharajah, R., 137, 159, 161
Amirtharajan, A.P., 28
Ammer, M.J., 11
Ampere’s law, 194
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC), 56
Anastasi, G., 140
Antaki, J.F., 111
Anton, S.R., 109
B
Baker, J., 109
Bass, R.M., 97
Batra, A., 122
Beaufort scale, 40
Beeby, S.P., 28, 109, 111, 137
Bernoulli’s equation, piezoelectric WEH, 65, 67
Bertocci, G.E., 111
Bhargava, V.K., 19
Bimorph piezoelectric generator, 75
Biot-Savart’s law, 199
Blomgren, G.E., 17
Bogliolo, A., 7
Boost converter
composite solar and thermal energy sources, 176
DC-DC, 52
WEH, 52
Boys, J.T., 183
Braunwald, E., 29
Brown, W., 181
Brunelli, D., 25, 56, 141, 146
Bryant, R.G., 125
Buffard, K.R., 29
C
Cantilever beam theory, piezoelectric WEH, 68–74
aerodynamic force, tip deflection and, 71
bending analysis, 69
Bernoulli’s aerodynamic theory, 73
geometric moment of inertia, 70, 74
measurement ruler, 72
objective, 68
Young’s modulus of beam, 70
Carleton, E., 109
Casanova, J., 182
CCM; See Continuous conduction mode
Central processing unit (CPU), 18
Chandrakasan, A., 7
Chandrakasan, R., 28
Chang, L., 39
Chapman, P.L., 89, 140, 141, 146
Cheng, H., 182
Cher, J.T., 132
Chinga, R., 182
Chinga, R.A., 182
Chou, P.H., 24, 25, 29, 37, 54, 102, 137, 138, 142, 159, 170, 174
Chow, W.J., 200
Clock cycle waveform, 134
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), 101, 174
Conti, A., 11
Continuous conduction mode (CCM), 50
Cook, D.J., 1
Copper winding, 185
Covic, G.A., 183
CPU; See Central processing unit
Culberson, A., 196
Culler, D.E., 9, 11, 13, 23, 24
D
Dalola, S., 93
Danak, A.D., 126
Dardari, D., 11
Das, S.K., 1
da Silva, J.L., Jr., 11
Dausch, D., 124
DCM; See Discontinuous conduction mode
Dewan, S.B., 116
Di Francesco, M., 140
Digital RFID, 82
Direct-coupling method, 49
Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), 96
Divan, D., 183
Dudek, D., 142
E
Eddies, 67
Edmison, J., 28
Electrical power transfer with “no wires,” 181–211
inductively coupled power transfer from power lines, 182–194
Ampere’s law, 194
characterization process, 185
copper winding, 185
digital-encoded data, 193
Faraday’s law of induction, 183, 194
far-field WPT, drawback, 181
ferrite core windings, 184
Lenz’s law, 185
magnetic energy harvester, 183–187
magnetic field lines, 184
MOSFETs, 189
performance of magnetic energy harvester, 186–187
power management circuit, 187–190
Singapore context, operating frequency in, 188
stray magnetic energy harvester, 192
summary, 194
wireless power transfer via strongly coupled magnetic resonances, 194–211
Biot-Savart’s law, 199
characteristics of WPT system, 203–205
counter-emf effect, 205
experimental efficiency versus distance, 204–205
experimental efficiency versus frequency, 204
experimental efficiency versus load, 205
resonant frequency, 204
source coil, 207
concept principles with magnetic resonance, 196–200
coupling-to-loss ratio, 199
energy conversion process, 197
evanescent waves, 196
multiple devices, powering, 207
network of WPT resonator coils, 209–211
WPT system powering electrical load(s), 206–209
midrange power transfer, 196
resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) circuit, 197
self-resonant coils, 211
optimum efficiency band, 203
simulation of efficiency versus coil radius, 201–202
simulation of efficiency versus distance, 202–203
simulation of efficiency versus frequency, 200
simulation of efficiency versus number of turns, 202
strongly coupled regime of operation, 196
summary, 211
wireless and batteryless electronic products, 194
Elliott, G.A.J., 183
Emery, K., 23
EnOcean, 111
Equivalent series resistance (ESR), 16
Erickson, R.W., 39, 48, 89, 95, 96, 97
ESR; See Equivalent series resistance
F
Face, B.R., 123
Faraday’s law of induction, 183, 194
Far-field WPT, 181; See also Electrical power transfer with “no wires”
Farrar, C., 137
Ferrari, M., 93
Ferrari, V., 93
Ferrite core windings, 184
FFD; See Full-function device
Filho, E.R., 139
Fiorini, P., 26, 27, 110, 111, 123
Fischer, S., 142
Fisher, P., 183, 195, 196, 198, 199
Flipsen, S.F.J., 16
Flynn, E., 137
Friedman, J., 23
Full-function device (FFD), 8
Fulton Innovation’s eCoupled, 194
G
Ganeriwal, S., 19
Gazoli, J.R., 139
Geometric moment of inertia, 70, 74
Glynne-Jones, P., 28, 109, 137
Golubovic, L.R., 137
Gonzalez, J.L., 110, 112, 114, 140
Green, C., 125
Green, E.C., 111
Green, M.A., 23
Greuel, M.F., 97
Griffith, B.P., 111
Guizzetti, M., 93
Gungor, V.C., 140
H
Haas, C., 142
Habetler, T.G., 183
Hamalainen, T.D., 7
Hancke, G.P., 140
Hannikainen, M., 7
Hardware prototype, 33, 132, 214
Harley, R.G., 183
Harris, N.R., 7
He, Y.T., 137
HEH system; See Hybrid energy harvesting system
Hehn, T., 38
Heiden, M., 111
Hill, J.L., 11
Hisikawa, Y., 23
Hoe, K.Y., 117
Hofmann, H.F., 122
Hong, G., 29
Hoshino, T., 141
Hossain, E., 19
Hughes, E., 125
Hussein, K.H., 141
Hybrid energy harvesting (HEH) system, 32, 137–180, 214
composite solar and thermal energy sources, 158–180
air conditioners, 160
ambient energy sources, 158
applications, 158
artificial energy sources, 159
boost converter efficiency, 176
characteristics of a solar panel and thermal energy harvester connected in parallel, 166
CMOS, 174
design and implementation of ultralow-power management circuit, 172–175
duty cycle, 160
functional block diagram of HEH system, 173
HEH from solar and thermal energy sources, 166–175
load resistance, 179
lux illuminations, solar panel P-V and P-R curves, 161, 162
micropower sources, 177
micropower supply solution, 159
near MPPT technique, 159
overview of indoor energy sources, 159–161
performance of designed HEH system for indoor wireless sensor node, 178–179
performance of energy harvesters under indoor conditions, 160
performance of parallel HEH configuration, 175–176
power conversion efficiency of HEH system, 176–178
power curve, 165
Schottky diodes, 167
Seebeck’s effect, 164
solar irradiance, 167
standard testing condition, 160
summary, 180
switched-mode voltage regulator, 174
thermal energy harvesting subsystem, 163–165
thermoelectric generator, 163
ultralow-power control circuit, 171
composite solar and wind energy sources, 142–158
boost converter with constant-voltage-based maximum power point tracking, 146–149
Canada, 143
characterization of solar panel, 144–146
closed-loop MPP tracker, 147
constant voltage approach, 147
DC-DC boost converter, 146
DC-DC buck converter, 157
hybrid solar and wind energy harvesting system, 150–152
IncCond method, 146
lithium ion battery, 142
optimal duty cycle of boost converter, 147
performance of HEH system, 152–156
performance of SEH subsystem, 149–150
P&O method, 146
power conversion efficiency of HEH system, 156–157
proportional integral controller, 147
pulse width modulation, 147
resistor emulation technique, 150
Schottky diode, 151
simultaneous charging, 150
solar irradiance, 146
summary, 158
supercapacitor, 142
total power consumed, 151
wind energy harvesting subsystem, 143–144
wireless sensor network, 157
solar energy harvesting system, 139–141
Hyeoungwoo, K., 30
I
IC; See Integrated circuit
ICPT; See Inductively coupled power transfer
IEEE New Standards Committee, 7
Ilyas, M., 181
Impedance matching, 48
Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT), 182–194
Ampere’s law, 194
characterization process, 185
copper winding, 185
digital-encoded data, 193
Faraday’s law of induction, 183,
far-field WPT, drawback, 181
ferrite core windings, 184
Lenz’s law, 185
magnetic energy harvester, 183–187
magnetic field lines, 184
MOSFETs, 189
performance of magnetic energy harvester, 186–187
power management circuit, 187–190
Singapore context, operating frequency in, 188
stray magnetic energy harvester, 192
summary, 194
Integrated circuit (IC), 64
Internet of Things (IOT), 1, 2, 4
Islam, R.A., 29
J
Jiang, B., 182
JK flip-flop, 133
Joannopoulos, J.D., 183, 195, 196, 198, 199
Jones, M., 28
Jorgensen, L., 196
K
Kaiser, W.J., 6
Kalaitzakis, K., 39
Kanesaka, T., 27
Kapton foils, 91
Karalis, A., 183, 195, 196, 198, 199
Kellogg, J.C., 20
Kendir, G.A., 183
Kim, H.W., 122
Kormos, R.L., 111
Kosanovic, M.R., 137
Koutroulis, E., 39
Krger, D., 142
Kuntz, A., 142
Kuorilehto, M., 7
Kurata, N., 10
Kurs, A., 183, 195, 196, 198, 199
L
Lai, E., 109
Lattanzi, E., 7
Lawrence, E.E., 27
Leland, E.S., 109
Lenz’s law, 185
Li, Y.Q., 137
LightningSwitch design, 124, 127
Lin, J.S., 182
Lin, Tsung-Hsien, 6
Lithium ion battery, 142
Liu, K., 182
Liu, L.H., 137
Liu, W.T., 183
Logical link control (LLC), 8
Low, Z.N., 182
Low Rate-Wireless Personal Network Area, 7
M
Ma, R., 182
MAC; See Media access control
Magnetic energy harvesting, 183, 215
experimental setup, 189
hardware prototypes, 214
harvested power from, 215
schematic drawing of prototype, 190
Magnetic resonances, wireless power transfer via strongly coupled, 194–211
Biot-Savart’s law, 199
characteristics of WPT system, 203–205
counter-emf effect, 205
experimental efficiency versus distance, 204–205
experimental efficiency versus frequency, 204
experimental efficiency versus load, 205
resonant frequency, 204
source coil, 207
concept principles with magnetic resonance, 196–200
coupling-to-loss ratio, 199
energy conversion process, 197
evanescent waves, 196
multiple devices, powering, 207
network of WPT resonator coils, 209–211
WPT system powering electrical load(s), 206–209
magnetic resonance concept, 196–197
midrange power transfer, 196
resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) circuit, 197
self-resonant coils, 211
optimum efficiency band, 203
simulation of efficiency versus coil radius, 201–202
simulation of efficiency versus distance, 202–203
simulation of efficiency versus frequency, 200
simulation of efficiency versus number of turns, 202
strongly coupled regime of operation, 196
summary, 211
wireless and batteryless electronic products, 194
Maksimovic, D., 39, 48, 89, 95, 96, 97
Mankins, J., 181
Manoli, Y., 38
Marincic, A.S., 181
Marioli, D., 93
Markley, D., 122
Martin, T., 28
Mascarenas, D., 137
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 4, 82, 111
Maurath, D., 38
Maximum power point (MPP), 24, 25, 39
TEH, 90
tracking (MPPT), 39, 47, 146–149
WEH, 50
Mazzini, G., 11
McSpadden, J., 181
Media access control (MAC), 8
Meninger, S., 28
Merrett, G.V., 7
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), 31, 38
TEH, 99
VEH, 131
WPT, 189
Meyer, T., 182
Miao, P, 109
Microsoft Excel, 128
Miller, N., 137
MIT; See Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Mitchell, D.M., 97
Moffatt, R., 183, 195, 196, 198, 199
Morikawa, H., 10
Moro, E., 137
MOSFETs; See Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
Mossi, K., 125
MPP; See Maximum power point
MPPT; See Maximum power point tracking
Murphy, D., 195
Muta, I., 141
Myers, R., 30
N
Nadeem, A., 111
Nakad, Z., 28
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 29
Newnham, R.E., 122
Niyato, D., 19
”No wires”; See Electrical power transfer with “no wires”
NREL; See National Renewable Energy Laboratory
O
Oakley, S., 125
Ohm’s law, 96
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, 8
Ortmanns, M., 38
Osakada, M., 141
OSRAM 300W Ultra Vitalux lightbulb, 144
Otis, B., 109
Ounaies, Z., 125
P
Paing, T.S., 30, 37, 39, 48, 49, 54, 56, 64, 89, 95, 96, 101
Panda, S.K., 188
Paradiso, J.A., 20, 27, 29, 82, 111, 125, 140
Park, C., 24, 25, 29, 37, 137, 138, 142, 159, 170
Park, G., 137
Patel, D., 11
Personal operating space (POS), 8
Pervasive computing, 1
Peters, C., 38
Pfisterer, D., 142
Philipose, M., 182
Photovoltaic (PV) cell, 22
PI controller; See Proportional integral controller
Piezoelectric material (PZT), 33
Piezoelectric theory, WEH, 74–76
expression of electrical charge, 74
open circuit electric voltage, 75
series-connected bimorph bender, 74
Young’s modulus, 75
Piezoelectric windmill, 64
Plissonnier, M., 137, 159, 161
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 111
Popovic, Z., 39, 48, 49, 54, 56, 89, 95, 96, 101
POS; See Personal operating space
Powercast, 194
Power coefficient, 41
Powermat, 194
Power processing unit (PPU), 80, 112, 116–118
Powledge, P., 181
Priya, S., 29, 30, 64, 122, 137, 159, 161
Proportional integral (PI) controller, 147
Pullen, K.R., 29
Pulse width modulation (PWM), 47, 147
PV cell; See Photovoltaic cell
PVDF; See Polyvinylidene fluoride
PWM; See Pulse width modulation
PZT; See Piezoelectric material
Q
Qidwai, M.A., 20
Quality-of-service (QoS) provisions, 7
R
Rabaey, J.M., 11, 27, 39, 43, 109
Radio-frequency identification (RFID), 27, 82, 181
Rashid, M.M., 19
Reduced-function device (RFD), 8
Regini, E., 7
Reilly, E., 109
Resistor emulation (RE), 48, 150
Resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) circuit, 197
RFD; See Reduced-function device
RFID; See Radio-frequency identification
Rida, A., 112
Rintoul, T., 111
RLC circuit; See Resistor-inductor-capacitor circuit
Rodriguez, P., 139
Rothenpieler, P., 142
Roveri, M., 140
S
Sample, P., 182
Saruwatari, S., 10
Schmidt, F., 111
SECE; See Synchronized electric charge extraction
Seebeck’s effect
composite solar and thermal energy sources, 164
SEH system; See Solar energy harvesting system
Self-resonant coils, 211
Sera, D., 139
Service-specific convergence sublayer (SSCS), 8
Shenck, N.S., 27, 109, 125, 129
Shin, J., 39, 48, 49, 54, 56, 89, 95, 96, 101
Sifuentes, W., 137
Simjee, F.I., 24, 54, 102, 174
Sinha, A., 7
Sivaprakasam, M., 183
Slemon, G.R., 116
Smith, J.R., 182
Smith, R., 182
Snyder, G.J., 27
Solar energy harvesting (SEH) system, 23–25, 139–141
prototypes, 23
technique drawback, 24
Solar and thermal (S+T) energy sources, composite, 158–180
air conditioners, 160
ambient energy sources, 158
applications, 158
artificial energy sources, 159
boost converter efficiency, 176
characteristics of a solar panel and thermal energy harvester connected in parallel, 166
CMOS, 174
design and implementation of ultralow-power management circuit, 172–175
duty cycle, 160
functional block diagram of HEH system, 173
HEH from solar and thermal energy sources, 166–175
load resistance, 179
lux illuminations, solar panel P-V and P-R curves, 161, 162
micropower sources, 177
micropower supply solution, 159
near MPPT technique, 159
overview of indoor energy sources, 159–161
performance of designed HEH system for indoor wireless sensor node, 178–179
performance of energy harvesters under indoor conditions, 160
performance of parallel HEH configuration, 175–176
power conversion efficiency of HEH system, 176–178
power curve, 165
Schottky diodes, 167
Seebeck’s effect, 164
solar irradiance, 167
standard testing condition, 160
summary, 180
switched-mode voltage regulator, 174
thermal energy harvesting subsystem, 163–165
thermoelectric generator, 163
ultralow-power control circuit, 171
Solar and wind (S+W) energy sources, composite, 142–158
boost converter with constant-voltage-based maximum power point tracking, 146–149
Canada, 143
characterization of solar panel, 144–146
closed-loop MPP tracker, 147
constant voltage approach, 147
DC-DC boost converter, 146
DC-DC buck converter, 157
hybrid solar and wind energy harvesting system, 150–152
resistor emulation technique, 150
Schottky diode, 151
simultaneous charging, 150
total power consumed, 151
IncCond method, 146
lithium ion battery, 142
optimal duty cycle of boost converter, 147
performance of HEH system, 152–156
performance of SEH subsystem, 149–150
P&O method, 146
power conversion efficiency of HEH system, 156–157
proportional integral controller, 147
pulse width modulation, 147
solar irradiance, 146
summary, 158
supercapacitor, 142
wind energy harvesting subsystem, 143–144
wireless sensor network, 157
Soljacic, M., 183, 195, 196, 198, 199
Somasundaram, P., 199
Spooner, E., 39
Srivastava, M.B., 9, 13, 18, 19, 23,
SSCS; See Service-specific convergence sublayer
SSH; See Switch harvesting on inductor
Standard testing condition (STC), 160
Stark, B.H., 109
Stark, I., 91
STC; See Standard testing condition
Stevens, J.W., 27
Stojcev, M.K., 137
Straughen, A., 116
Sun, J., 97
Sundara-Rajan, K., 182
Sundararajan, V., 109
Supercapacitor
TEH, 104
Switch harvesting on inductor (SSHI), 215
Synchronized electric charge extraction (SECE), 215
T
Tan, Y.K., 188
Taroni, A., 93
Taylor, S., 137
TEG; See Thermoelectric generator
TEH system; See Thermal energy harvesting system
Tentzeris, M., 112
Teodorescu, R., 139
Tester, J.W., 17
Texas Instruments, 56
Thermal energy harvesting (TEH) system, 25–27, 89–107
efficiency, 25
buck converter efficiencies, 105
supercapacitor voltage, 104
heat exchangers, 25
implementation of optimal thermal energy harvesting wireless sensor node, 101–104
buck converter with resistor emulation-based maximum power point tracking, 101–102
CMOS, 101
collected data, 104
duty cycle, 101
operation of wireless sensor node, 103
regulation of buck converter and wireless sensor node, 103–104
wireless target board, 103
research, 27
resistor emulation-based maximum power point tracker, 95–100
buck converter, 97
direct-coupling approach, 95
discontinuous conduction mode, 96
duty cycles, 99
low-power radiative radio-frequency sources, 95
MOSFET, 99
Ohm’s law, 96
open-loop resistance emulator, 95
schematic diagram, 100
Seebeck’s effect, 98
Seebeck effect, 25
summary, 107
thermal energy harvester, 90–95
description of thermoelectric generator, 91
electrical analysis, 93
emulating load impedance to match source impedance, 94
impedance matching, 94
Kapton foils, 91
maximum power point, 90
open-circuit voltage, 93
power curve, 94
Thermoelectric generator (TEG), 22, 89, 91, 163
Thiele, L., 141
Thomas, J.P., 20
THUNDER lead-zirconate-titanate unimorph, 126–130
Todd, M., 137
Torah, R., 137
Tseng, R., 182
Tudor, M.J., 28, 109, 111, 137
Twidell, J., 40
U
Ubiquitous computing, 1
Uchino, K., 122
V
Van Hoof, C., 26, 27, 110, 111, 123
Van Schaijk, R., 110
VEH system; See Vibration energy harvesting system
Verdone, R., 11
Very-low-power, low-frequency oscillator (VLO), 56
Vibration-based piezoelectric wind energy harvester, 64–76
advantages, 65
bimorph piezoelectric generator, 75
difference in wind speeds, 65
geometric moment of inertia, 70, 74
horizontal wind flow, 68
net pressure, 65
power conversion process, 65
Young’s modulus of beam, 70
Vibration energy harvesting (VEH) system, 27–29, 109–135, 214
behaviour of piezoelectricity, 109
blood pressure, 29
devices converting mechanical motion into electricity, 27
earliest example, 111
impact-based VEH using piezoelectric push-button igniter, 111–122
AC voltage, 117
capacitor, 120
DC voltage, 117
design constraints, 116
diode bridge rectifier, 118
energy storage and power processing unit, 116–118
piezoelectric push button, 112–115
power conversion efficiency, 117
power processing unit, 112
RF unit, energy consumption, 121
summary, 122
ultrasonic waves, 111
wireless remote controllers, 115
Zenith televisions, Space Commander for, 111
impact-based VEH using prestressed piezoelectric diaphragm material, 122–135
ASCII file, 128
characteristics and performance of THUNDER lead-zirconate-titanate unimorph, 126–130
clock cycle waveform, 134
controller maintenance, 122
description of prestressed piezoelectric diaphragm material, 124–126
hardware prototype, 132
internal hammer, 122
JK flip-flop, 133
LightningSwitch design, 124, 127
mechanical nonresonance, 123
MOSFET, 131
oscilloscope readings, 28
power management circuit, 130–132
prestressed piezoelectric diaphragm material, 124
self-powered wireless control switch, 123
source capacitor, 129
summary, 135
Zener diode, 132
parallel compression mode of igniter, 110
piezoelectric element, 29
RFID, 27
two-part design, 109
Vickers, M., 30
Villalva, M.G., 139
VLO; See Very-low-power, low-frequency oscillator
Vorperian, V., 97
W
Wang, G.X., 183
Wang, L., 137
Wang, Q., 39
Warta, W., 23
Washington, G.N., 126
WEH system; See Wind energy harvesting system
Weir, A., 40
WildCharge, 194
Wind energy harvesting (WEH) system, 29–31, 37–87, 214
direct WEH approach using wind turbine generator, 38–63
analog-to-digital converter, 56
Beaufort scale, 40
boost converter with resistor emulation-based maximum power point tracking, 47–54
continuous conduction mode, 50
DC-DC boost converter, 52
design of efficient power management circuit, 41–57
diode-based full-bridge rectifier, 62
direct-coupling method, 49
emulated resistance of wind turbine, 49
generator efficiency, 41
impedance matching, 48
load impedance, 49
maximum power points, 50
maximum power point tracking, 39
metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, 38, 44
passive rectifier, 44
performance of WEH system with MPPT scheme, 57–61
power coefficient, 41
power conversion efficiency of WEH system, 62–63
power distribution, 63
pulse width modulation, 47
resistor emulation, 48
self-powered WEH wireless sensor node, 57
sensor node, 60
summary, 63
very-low-power, low-frequency oscillator, 56
wind turbine generators, 39–41
wireless target board, 56
zero-crossing comparators, 43
zoomed waveforms, 43
indirect WEH approach using piezoelectric material, 64–87
applications, 87
bimorph piezoelectric generator, 75
capacitor voltage, 85
characteristics and performances of piezoelectric wind energy harvester, 76–87
DC output voltage, 79
decoded data sequence, 86
difference in wind speeds, 65
digital RFID, 82
eddies, 67
encoded digital information, 83
energy stored in capacitor, 84
flight dynamics, 76
geometric moment of inertia, 70, 74
horizontal wind flow, 68
magnetic permeability, 79
net pressure, 65
off voltage threshold, 83
phenomenon, 77
piezoelectric windmill, 64
power conversion process, 65
pressure differences, 78
RF transmitter load, 81
vibration-based piezoelectric wind energy harvester, 64–76
voltage regulator, power loss in, 85
wind turbine generators, physical size of, 64
Young’s modulus of beam, 70
physical size, 31
wind turbine generators, 29
Wind turbine generators (WTGs), 29, 39–41, 64, 214
Wireless personal network (WPAN), 8
Wireless power transfer (WPT), 32, 181, 215; See also Electrical power transfer with “no wires”
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), 1–12
comparison of IOT and, 4
composite solar and wind energy sources, 157
data acquisition circuit, 11
data link layer, 6
energy harvesting systems, 213
full-function device, 8
logical link control, 8
media access control, 8
Open System Interconnection model, 8
personal operating space, 8
PHY layer, 6
quality-of-service provisions, 7
radio communication block, 11
reduced-function device, 8
service-specific convergence sublayer, 8
wireless personal network, 8
wireless sensor nodes, 1, 10–12
Wireless sensor nodes, energy harvesting solution for, 18–31
deploy-and-forget nature, 18
energy harvesting opportunities and capabilities, 21
energy harvesting system, 22–23
overview of energy harvesting, 19–22
paradigm shift from conventional battery-operated WSN, 19
photovoltaic cell, 22
review of past works on energy harvesting systems, 23–31
solar energy harvesting system, 23–25
thermal energy harvesting system, 25–27
vibration energy harvesting system, 27–29
wind energy harvesting system, 29–31
self-powered wireless sensor nodes, 20
thermoelectric generator, 22
Wireless sensor nodes, problems in powering, 13–18
battery life estimation, 14
central processing unit, 18
energy storage density, 17, 18
equivalent series resistance, 16
high power consumption of sensor nodes, 13–15
limitation of energy sources for sensor nodes, 15–18
primary batteries, 16
secondary batteries, 16
sleep mode, 13
supercapacitor, 16
Wise, S., 124
WPAN; See Wireless personal network
WPT; See Wireless power transfer
WSNs; See Wireless sensor networks
WTGs; See Wind turbine generators
X
Xie, S.C., 190
Y
Yang, L., 12
Yang, Y., 183
Yankelevich, D.R., 137, 159, 161
Yeager, D., 181
Yoon, H.S., 126
Young’s modulus, piezoelectric theory, 70, 75
Yu, C., 182
Z
Zahedi, S., 18
Zane, R., 39, 48, 49, 54, 56, 89, 95, 96, 101
Zener diode, 132
Zenith televisions, Space Commander for, 111
Zero-crossing comparators, 43
Zhu, C., 182
Zitterbart, M., 142