15

Social System

1. INTRODUCTION

Society is a web of social organizations, and social organization is a system of social relationships. Social relationships are complex. They are composed of numerous small groups. In these groups are individuals. Social system refers to individual actors interacting with each other in accordance with standard cultural norms. The individual who participates in interactive relationships influences the other individuals and groups. Interactions and inter-relationships between different individuals and social groups create a system called social system. The distinct characteristics of a social system are described in Table 15.1.

 

TABLE 15.1 Characteristics of Social System

Characteristic	Description
Interrelated acts	Social system is composed of interrelated acts, because it produces social relationship
Gives rise to higher order	Participation of actors in their positional aspect and processual aspect gives rise to a higher order unit, namely statuses and roles
Based on regulative norms	Statuses and roles are determined by norms, such as beliefs, traditions, customs, mores, laws, institutions, and so on
Has a structure	Social system has a structure. It includes various types of subgroups and roles
Related to cultural values	The cultural values motivate the actors to maintain equilibrium between different parts
Inter-connected	The parts or elements of a social system are interconnected and assigned certain functions
Dynamic	Social system changes from time to time. In spite of changes, it continues to exist by solving the social needs. The social needs of a social system are adaptation, goal attainment, integration, pattern maintenance, and tension management
Efficiency	Social relationships give respect to appropriate ways of behaviour. The norm of efficiency is of great importance in the social system

2. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL SYSTEM

R. Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system, such as a child or a parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely linked notion of role refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status.

Status is also used as a synonym for honour or prestige, when social status denotes the relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale or hierarchy of social worth.

3. MEANING OF SOCIAL SYSTEM

The meaning of social system usually consists of more than two people communicating directly to a particular bounded situation. Usually, there will be physical and territorial boundaries; however, fundamental point of view as per sociology indicates that all the people are oriented in whole sense. All have a common interest. Social systems include small groups, political parties, and whole societies that are appropriate with regard to diverse set of relationships. Modern idea of the concept of social system was framed by famous social analyst Auguste Comte. Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim had given elaborated vision on social systems, but those ideas do not express much about social systems. However, Marx’s theory explained about the components of capitalists’ societies that describe about the socioeconomic classes, which deal with the relationship of economic and political power. The important concept Talcott Parsons explained was social order. According to him, it is a force that gives a stable form of social interaction, which is organized and promoted for an orderly change in the society. Parsons shared the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes Leviathan that fundamental aim of any man in the society is to attain power and position and have conflicts with each other, and a strong government is required to maintain the social order. Durkheim’s concept has major impact on the functions of normative factors in social life, such as ideals and values. This forms the outlined idea of the Parsons’ concept on social system, which he explained in his work The Social System in the year 1951. He defines that the social system consist of plurality concept that has the support of many on a particular concept or a situation, where the physical or the environmental aspect of the individual is motivated in terms of the highest gratification in order to maintain the highest satisfaction in maintaining the social relations that frame the culturally structured and shared symbols.

4. UNITS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM

The important units of the social system are always collective with multiple roles with major patterns having good relationship with all the units and valuing their norms and rules of the social system. The next point of interest as per Parsons is to make sociology more scientific and systematic, and to produce general ideas on the concept of social system. However, Weber stressed on producing particular rules and regulations to guide the actions in the social system and gave no elaborative version, which was given theoretically, about the integrated social system. Therefore, an attempt is made to combine the entire framework about the conception of the social factors involved in the social system, which forms an important concern. Many areas where Parsons’ views were criticized and especially where objections were made are about creating particular rules and regulations in the social system. Parsons has not added the thought on social conflict, which is a social perspective. It means that he had preoccupied the ideas only on analytical pleasantness but not on realistic integrative phenomena of real life. Therefore, the sociologists are required to provide clear definition on the concept of social system and what makes up the social system.

Many sociologists believe that it requires not only a normative regulation but also a common focus, orientation, and better interpersonal relationships among the individuals in the society for effective functioning of the social system.

5. ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM

The social system is made up of the actions of the individuals. In these actions, the actors participate in interactive relationships. Table 15.2 highlights the elements of social system.

 

TABLE 15.2 Elements of Social System

Element	Description
The act	Social act or action is a process in the social system that motivates the individual or individuals in the case of a group. The action is not an unexpected response to a particular situation or stimuli. It indicates that the actor has a system of expectations relative to his or her own need-arrangements
The actor	The actor is also a significant unit of social system. It is he or she who holds a status and performs a role. A social system must have a sufficient proportion of its actors. These actors must be sufficiently motivated to act according to the requirements of its role system. The social system must also be adapted to the minimum needs of the individual actor
Role and status	The social system involves the participation of the actor in a process of interactive relationships. The participation has two aspects: the role aspect and the status aspect. Role denotes the functional significance of the actor for the social system. Status denotes the place of the actor in the social system

6. STATUS

Status is a term used to designate the comparative amounts of prestige, difference, or respect accorded to persons who have been assigned different roles in a group or a community. The status of a person is high if the role he or she is playing is considered important by the group. If the role is regarded less, its performer may be accorded a lower status. Thus, the status of a person is based on social evaluations.

6.1. Nature of Status

According to Johnson, the word status is used to refer to an individual’s total standing in society. In that sense, it embraces all his particular statuses and roles, especially insofar as they bear upon his general social standing. As we know, each person occupies several different roles. He may be a father, a doctor, the president of rotary club, or a tennis player. Suppose, as a father, he is neglectful of his children and does not carry out the requirements of his position, but as a doctor he gives most of his time to his profession and does well. Suppose he is a good player but a poor president. In such a case, we will have to qualify our statement when we evaluate his status.

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF STATUS

• Determination of status: Different bases have been adopted from time to time for determining the status of people. The status may be based ‘upon difference of birth, wealth, occupation, political power, race, or intellectual attainment’. Sometimes one or more factors combine to determine the status. Here we shall examine the basis of birth and wealth that occupy the most important place in present-day class distinction.
• Criteria of wealth: Birth as a determinant of status remained that controlling factor of a social position until new social and economic developments undermined the feudal system. It was the middle class which was historically responsible for revolutionizing the feudal class system and secured a new definition of social status in terms of wealth. Under the feudal system the principal form of wealth was the land. In fact, the whole system of feudal relationship was based on land ownership, which is the elemental fact in feudal structure.
• Status of occupation: Thus, in modern communities wealth is the primary determinant of social stratification. It is the possession of wealth for the most part which determines the sort of education an individual is likely to receive and consequently the range of occupations open to him. There is an intimate relation between the social class and the occupation it follows. Occupation while not an altogether accurate indication of status is a fair index of a social class, its mode of life, and general social standing.
• Social class: Social class is a combination of several persons, who have equal statuses. A person’s total standing in society, that is, the combination of his or her known statuses, personal status, qualifications, behaviour, wealth, power, professional skill, and so on. Social class is hierarchical. Similarly, statuses are hierarchical. Upper class possesses a high standard status in their living style. Middle-class people possess middle standard status in their living. Status is one of the most important elements of the social class. It is the base of the social class.
• Ordinary statuses: House wife, husband, girl, boy, widow, retired employee, and so on are ordinary statuses.

8. CLASSIFICATIONS OF STATUS

Status is the importance and respect that someone has among the public or particular group. A particular status is an official description that says what category a person, organization, or a place belongs to give them particular rights. Status forms the important study of social stratification.

Figure 15.1 Characteristics of Status

Status explains the position that a person holds in a group, it may be the position occupied by the person who may be a son, daughter, playmate, or pupil; eventually, one may possess the status of a husband, mother, breadwinner, cricket fan, politician, and so on.

Statuses are divided into two basic types:

1. Ascribed status: This is the status that a person gets right from his or her birth and gets in the later part of the life. This type of status is definitely not because of the ability or achievement of the individual, but due to specific inheritance in the society, sex, age, race, ethnic group. Family background forms the universally accepted ascribed status. Power, prestige, and privileges are distributed in the societies as per the age of the participants in the society. It forms an important youth culture in United States of America because more power and status is valued in the young age, whereas in China more status is given to old-aged people and then to children. Concept of ascribed status varies from one society to other, therefore, in certain societies the status are very much rigid and unchangeable. Those are called caste societies. Occupation, birth, and marriage partners are rigidly chosen based on the ascribed status as opposite to achieved status (Table 15.3).
2. Achieved status: It is a kind of social status obtained by the individual through his or her own effort and ability with a competitive spirit in order to obtain higher status in the society through possessing special abilities, skills, and knowledge, for example, becoming a famous doctor, professor, advocate, and author forms an achieved status. Occupational status can be ascribed or achieved which differentiates from the caste and the modern societies. Both ascribed and achieved statuses exist in all the societies, therefore, better understanding about each society is required (Table 15.4).

 

TABLE 15.3 Ascribed Status

Characteristic	Description
Sex	Sex difference is one of the bases of the ascription of lifetime statuses. It is a visible biological fact that appears at birth
Age	Age is another criterion which is a visible physiological fact in determining the status. It is steadily changing and the ascription of status will be determined on the basis of age relationship, for example, between parent and child, elder brother and younger brother
Kinship	Kinship is another factor that determines the status of a person. An infant’s status is identified in relation to its parents and siblings
Wealth	Wealth is another criterion of social status. The source of wealth is socially significant. Wealth may be inherited. The inherited wealth or property enhances the prestige of persons
Race and caste	In multi-race societies like America, it is the racial group which determines social status. The white race has a superior status as compared to other races like Negro or Mongoloid

 

TABLE 15.4 Achieved Status

Characteristic	Description
Occupation	Occupation is also a significant determinant of social status. Certain occupations like national or provincial services, doctors, and engineers are more reputed in the society as compared to several others
Education	The level of education is also important in the determination of social status. A highly educated or technically qualified and trained person has greater respect and honour in the society
Political authority	In the modern world, persons well placed in political life, especially those who hold positions in the government, have very high status
Marriage	Marriage automatically gives the status of a husband or wife and further that of a daughter-in-law, son-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, and several other related statuses
Individual achievements	In contemporary society, individual achievements are significant in determining social status. This may be in the field of education, occupation, sports, literature, art, science, or any other field.

According to Linton, status is based on the biological constitutional characteristics, for example, age, sex, birth, and genealogy. Status as per Linton is based on the existing truth or phenomenon. It is not about the intrinsic characteristics of man but about the social organization that determines the status. Status is what you actually are and what the belief of the people about you in the society is. Status and role are different; status explains what the person is, whereas role means what the person is supposed or expected to do.

Master status: It is a kind of special status achieved by an individual in the society. An individual climbs higher in his or her career ladder with hard work, gets higher levels of positions in his or her occupation and gets good respect in the society. Therefore, for certain groups, occupation becomes the master status because it conveys great deal of meaning about the social background, education, and income of the individual in the society.

9. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL STATUS

• Social status is of great importance both for the individual and society. An individual wins respect in society by virtue of his status.
• Status system is found everywhere in human society.
• There are symbols of respect assigned to every social status. These symbols change along with changes in social status. The change in status may have been brought about by marriage, education, or occupation. In each case, the individual’s enhanced social status brings to him greater respect.
• When the social status of an individual changes, his or her role also changes. In a way, the role of an individual is a function of his or her social status.

Figure 15.2 Importance of Social Status

• In fact, the differences in social status are a method of having division of work among people as per their ability. This helps the smooth functioning of group life. Status system is important to recognize the efforts one puts in and promote the sense of responsibility, dependability, and stability so necessary for co-operative living.

• Marriages in almost every society are contracted on the basis of social status. We have seen many hearts broken because of social mismatch. It is an unwritten rule of society that there should be parity between the financial and social statuses of the bride’s family and those of the groom’s. When this rule is not adhered to, there are often cases of problems erupting in the married couple’s lives.

10. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM

Scholars have different opinions regarding classification of social system. Table 15.5 depicts the opinions of some of the sociologists in relation with this issue.

 

TABLE 15.5 Classification of Social System

Classification	Description
Lewis H. Morgan and other evolutionists	Classification based on evolution Savagery social system Barbarian social system Civilized social system Classification based on livelihood Hunting social system Pastoral social system Agricultural social system Industrial social system
Emile Durkheim’s classification	Two kinds of social system Mechanical social system Organic social system
P.A. Sorokin’s classification	Classifications based on cultural system Sensate Ideational Idealistic

11. STATUS AND OFFICE

There is a close interdependence between the office and the status. Occupational position is often a status and office both. Office designates the position occupied by a person in a social organization governed by specific and definite rules, more generally achieved than ascribed. The examples are the office of the principal, the editor, the manager, the director, the professional organizational counsellor, and so on.

It is clear that holding an office may give one status. The kind of status it gives depends upon the importance, scope, and function of the office. There are two ways of attaching status to an office. First, we attach an invidious value to an office as such, independently of who occupies it or how its requirements are carried out. Second, we attach value to the individual according to how good or bad he carries out the obligations of that office. The first kind of invidious value or evaluation is called prestige. The second one is called esteem. People attach high value to particular jobs, irrespective of the individuals who hold them.

12. STATUS COMPARISON

People generally compare themselves and others with respect to status. People with whom an individual compares himself or herself and the degree to which he or she makes the comparisons are determined by the principles of distributive justice, the person’s perception of his or her power, and the conditions allowing ease of comparison. The following are the conditions under which status comparisons are made:

• Each person must be able to observe the rewards, costs, and investments of others so that he can compare them with his or her own.
• Each person must have approximately the same power to obtain rewards or avoid costs.
• A person will compare himself or herself only with those whose rewards and costs are not too different from his or her own.
• Comparisons are likely to be made with persons having similar investments because they should experience similar rewards and costs.

13. ROLE

The word role meant the roll on which an actor’s part was written. The social system is based on a division of labour in which every person is assigned a specific task. The task performed by an individual makes up the role he or she is expected to play in the life of his or her community. Since the role is a set of expectations, it implies that one role cannot be defined without referring to another. There cannot be a parent without a child, or an employer without an employee. In this sense, roles are but a series of rights and duties. That is, they represent reciprocal relations among individuals. Holding the status of student, for example, means one will attend classes, complete assignments and, more broadly, devote a lot of time to personal enrichment through academic study.

13.1. Role Set

Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status. For example, given below are four statuses of an individual, each status linked to a different role set:

1. As a professor, this person interacts with students (teacher role) and with academics (the colleague role).
2. As a researcher, he gathers and analyses data (the laboratory role).
3. The man occupies the status of husband with conjugal role (such as confidante and sexual partner) towards his wife, with whom he shares a domestic role towards the household.
4. He holds the status of father, with routine responsibilities of his children (protective role) as well as towards their school and other organizations in his community (the civic role).

13.2. Role Conflict and Role Strain

A social group, as already observed, carries on its life smoothly and harmoniously to the extent that roles are clearly assigned and to the extent that each member accepts and fulfils the assigned role according to expectations. Each person participates in a number of groups or sub-groups in different capacities. So, one individual is required to play a number of different roles. An individual, in his total personality structure, has to play many roles according to social expectations.

This results in adjustment difficulty and creates confusion. Incompatibility between two roles is called role conflict. Such role conflicts result in departure from conformity to some of the expectations or may result in deviation.

Figure 15.3 Causes of Role Conflict

The causes of role conflict are as follows:

1. Culture heterogeneity and complexity of the social system
2. Different roles of an individual in different groups
3. The possibility of confusion over the appropriateness of a case
4. When two or more persons are authorized to perform some functions
5. When the functions are below the status of the individual
6. Differences in the expected behaviour from the person assigned a role
7. Differences in the perception of one’s duties and responsibilities

Roles in modern society are numerous, complex, highly diversified, and sometimes in conflict. In periods of rapid social change, the nervous strain of conflicting roles is greater because the requirements of each role and the expectations of the community regarding them are uncertain. To the extent the different roles are clearly allocated, to the extent the rights and duties inherent in each role are clearly understood, and to the extent everyone behaves in his role as expected, the social system will run smoothly and with a minimum of strain on the individual personality.

14. INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL STATUS ON HEALTH

People who live with poor socioeconomic status cannot climb up the social ladder and they further decline as they are at the risk of getting serious diseases because they cannot afford access to health services that are available to maintain their health. Middle-ranked officers suffer a lot due to the economic constraints in order to afford to maintain their health as compared with their higher-ranked officers. Stressful situations trap an individual’s health badly because of insecurity in job, low self-esteem, social isolation, and lack of control over the work situations. This leads to long-term stress and complicates the life of the individual due to their poor mental health, lack of supportive friendships, and premature death. Psychological ill health leads to disturbance in the physiological health of the individual such as raised blood and cortical pressure. Less immunity results in higher risk for the individual to acquire illness, and finally, there is loss of wealth from the family due to the expenses for maintaining the health. There are certain social factors that affect the health of the individual. They are cultural practices, traditions taboos, and social environment. Health of an individual is perceived in terms of physical fitness, which is required to maintain a healthy life. Obesity leads to unhealthy life. Certain cultural groups encourage, respect, and follow higher-order level birth. People with poor socioeconomic background does not follow high order level birth in their families as finance play a vital role in opting the good health services.

• Status and role are important elements of any society. In fact, Talcott Parsons, a prominent sociologist, has held that sociology itself is a collection of status and roles of people.
• Social organization and disorganization are based on status and role. Social change also occurs on the basis of change of status and role.
• Social system is an orderly and systematic arrangement of social interactions. It is a network of interactive relationships. It may be defined as a plurality of individuals interacting with each other according to shared cultural norms and meaning.
• The constituent parts of a social system are the individuals. Each individual has a role to play.

I. LONG ESSAY

• Define social system. Explain the meaning and elements of social system in detail.
• Define status. Explain the influences of social status on health.

II. SHORT ESSAY

• Describe the units of social system.
• Explain the characteristics of status.
• Discuss the classifications of status.
• Enumerate the importance of social status.
• Describe the classifications of social system.
• Discuss the role conflict and role strain.

III. SHORT ANSWERS

• Explain nature of status.
• Explain ascribed status.
• Explain achieved status.
• Explain master status.
• Explain status and office.
• Explain status compassion.
• Explain role set.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Status groups are not stratified according to the
   1. type of dwelling
   2. food habits
   3. acquisition of wealth
   4. recreational facilities
2. Which of the following is not an essential characteristic of status in modern group?
   1. The extent to which and individual distributes rewards.
   2. Influence enjoyed in administration.
   3. The hereditary position of high placed ancestors.
   4. The wealth accumulates by entrepreneurship.
3. What does achieved status signify?
   1. Status achieved through cultural diffusion.
   2. Status achieved through personality developments.
   3. Status acquired through competitive talent.
   4. All of the above.
4. An achieved status is that is
   1. shared by caste-minded people
   2. inherited from parents
   3. derived from abilities and skills
   4. depends upon biological condition
5. Sex, age, and caste all are examples of
   1. achieved status
   2. ascribed status
   3. pre-set status
   4. status image
6. Social need of status system is justified in certain societies as
   1. individuals compare respect by virtue of status
   2. an increase in individual status entitles him or her to more respect than before
   3. marriage are contracted on the basis of status
   4. the importance of the role of an individual trends to determinate his or her status
7. Role conflict in society emerges out of the fact that:
   1. performers do not know the nature of role expectations
   2. there is lack of balance in the system of the role performed
   3. they do not observe the desired standards
   4. they do not get adequate award for the role performed
8. Status and rank characterize the members of
   1. a tribe
   2. a caste
   3. a society
   4. a clan
9. Among the following, what does not indicate status?
   1. Bharat Ratna
   2. labourer
   3. the title of kinghood
   4. use of prefix pandit
10. Which is not the social role in the following?
    1. a priest performing a ceremony
    2. a politician preparing the cult of violence
    3. a lawyer preparing his witness
    4. an actor involved in an act of violence on the screen
11. Status is a term used to designate
    1. the worth of a person as estimated by a group
    2. the standard of living of a person
    3. the office of the person holds in an organization
    4. the total standing of an individual in society
12. Status depends upon
    1. the performance of his or her role by the individual
    2. the social value of the role of an individual
    3. the standard of living of an individual
    4. the ethnic background of an individual
13. Status may be
    1. ascribed
    2. achieved
    3. ascribed and achieved both
    4. none
14. Role conflict is a major phenomenon of
    1. primitive society
    2. agrarian society
    3. tribal society
    4. industrial society
15. Role conflict is heightened by
    1. the complexity to technological age
    2. the mutual rivalries among the people
    3. the people differ in their view of what is good
    4. the total standing of an individual in society.

ANSWERS

1. c 2. c 3. d 4. c 5. b 6. d 7. b 8. b 9. b 10. b 11. d 12. b 13. c 14. d 15. a

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