18

Social Problems

1. INTRODUCTION

Sociology is primarily concerned with the study of social disorganization and social problems. Social problems show abnormal or pathological signs in social relationships. These are the conditions that threaten the wellbeing of the society. Every social problem implies three things. First, something should be done to change the situation that constitutes a problem. Second, the existing social order should be changed to solve the problem. Third, the situation regarded as a problem is undesirable but not inevitable. The people deplore the situation because they think that it can be reformed or eliminated. It may also be noted that a situation becomes a problem only when the people become aware that certain cherished values are threatened by conditions that have become acute. Without such awareness, no situation can be identified as a problem.

1.1. Features of Social Problems

Figure 18.1 Features of Social Problems

• Social problems are deviations from the general norms (rules) of the society by a large number of members. This is called anomie, which means normlessness.
• Social problems are common to all societies, but they vary from society to society.
• All social problems are interconnected.
• Social problems are harmful to the society. They threaten the wellbeing of the society and disrupt the social equilibrium.
• Social problems require collective effort for their solution.
• Social problems arise due to social maladjustments. They are the pathological conditions of the society.

1.2. Classifications of Social Problems

Some sociologists have made some attempts to classify social problems. Harold A. Phelps classified them under four categories: economic (poverty, unemployment, dependency, and so on), biological (physical diseases and defects), biopsychological (neurosis, psychosis, epilepsy, feeblemindedness, suicide, and alcoholism), and cultural (problems of old age, homeless and widowed, illegitimacy, crime, and juvenile delinquency).

In America, the Report of the President’s Committee on Recent Social Trends attributed social problems to inadequacies in physical, biological, and social heritages (Table 18.1).

1.3. Causes of Social Problems

Robert K. Merton analysed that social problems generally occur due to social or individual disorganization and deviant behaviour. These two concepts are closely related to social problems. Social disorganization creates social problems and vice versa. These are interrelated and interdependent.

 

TABLE 18.1 Classification of Social Problems according to the President’s Committee Report

Type	Description
Physical heritage	It includes problems like depletion and conservation of natural resources.
Biological heritage	It includes problems of population—number, quality, growth, decline, and flexibility—as well as problems of eugenics and birth control.
Social heritage	It includes problems involving technological changes, unemployment, business cycles and depression, education, politics, religion, public health, law enforcement, and minority groups.

Generally, the following causes lead to social problems:

• Maladjustments among the individuals due to different social, cultural, and economic settings
• Ineffective means of social control
• Conflict of values and their degeneration
• Malfunctioning of social, economic, political, and religious systems
• Incompatible rates of social change

1.4. Elements of Social Problems

The following three elements must be identified in social problems:

1. A large number of people are involved in the problem or affected by it.
2. The problem is considered as undesirable by the society.
3. Something should be done to rectify the problem.

1.5. Conclusion

The origin of social problems lies not in a single cause but in many causes and that cannot be put under a single category. A problem may be due to a combination of physical, biological, mental, and cultural factors or any one of them. No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down about the causes of social problems.

2. POVERTY

Poverty is a socioeconomic problem of the underdeveloped and developing countries. It means the inability to secure the minimum consumption requirements for life, health, and efficiency. It is a condition of an acute lack of basic needs for a livelihood. A poor man is one who is unable to get two square meals a day. Economists and planners are of the opinion that the lack of financial resources required by a person to subsist and the life below a minimum subsistence level are called poverty.

2.1. Influences of Poverty on Health

The health consequences of poverty are severe. The poor suffer more from illnesses and take longer to recover as they do not have access to healthcare. A major reason for this is that they lack nutrition.

Besides, when a family’s breadwinner becomes ill, the other members of the household may at first cope by working harder and then by reducing consumption, which even includes food. The poor also experience unhealthy conditions at home and at work. This exposes them to greater risks. They have usually a shorter life span and are more vulnerable to disabilities.

According to the 1995 World Health Report, poverty wields its destructive influence at every stage of human life from the moment of conception to the grave. It is the main reason why babies are not vaccinated, clean water and sanitation are not provided, and curative drugs and other treatments are unavailable. It is the main cause of short life expectancy, low birthweight babies, higher maternal mortality, handicap and disability, mental illness, stress, suicide, family disintegration, and substance abuse.

2.2. Factors Responsible for Poverty

The various factors responsible for poverty are physical conditions not being conducive (e.g., unhealthy climate, scarce natural resources, and epidemics), economic disparity and the malfunctioning of our economic institutions, and the incapacity of the individual due to heredity or the environment.

2.3. Causes of Poverty

Irregular, insufficient, and poorly paid employment is, perhaps, the greatest cause of poverty. No provision for old aged people, death or disability benefits of bread winner in the family, widowhood without suitable provisions, and orphanhood also frequently result in poverty. Poverty can also be caused by environmental factors. Insufficient natural resources are one such factor. Poverty can also occur due to lack of education and important legislations such as inadequate punitive system. The subjective causes of poverty include individual circumstances and inequalities. Character defects and moral handicaps risk high among personal causes of poverty. Idleness, laziness, poor health, extravagance, wastage, poor judgement, ignorance, vanity, incompetence, unemployment, and so on are the frequent causes of poverty. Bad habits, immorality, dishonesty, betting, gambling, alcoholism, and drug addiction can lead to poverty.

M.L. Jhingan has listed the following as the principal causes of poverty:

• Underdeveloped country
• Inequality of income and wealth
• Low per capita income
• Inadequate growth rate
• High growth of population
• Unemployment
• Low consumption
• Regional disparities
• Low availability of essentials
• Inflation
• Outdated technologies
• Capital deficiency
• Social factors

2.4. Poverty in India

In India, poverty is the most important problem. Each year, more than five million people are added to the growing multitude of the poor. According to a 2003 estimate, about 28.6% (308.59 million) population of the country is living below the poverty line. The main cause of poverty is the personal ownership and monopoly of the individuals on the land. In cities, where land is valuable, we find extreme poverty and richness. Some of the causes of poverty are personal, whereas others are geographical, economic, and social.

In India, the poor are caught in the vicious circle of poverty due to the prevalent sociocultural institutions. In order to fulfil social obligations and observe religious ceremonies, people spend extravagantly. With already low income levels and negligible savings, the chances of borrowing are great. The level of indebtedness is both the cause and the effect of poverty.

2.5. Effects of Poverty

Poverty and its vicious circle always undermine both the physical and mental abilities. The moral effects of poverty are also being noted. Bad housing and living conditions, overcrowded rooms, squalor, worriedness, and malnutrition all lead to ill health, and the moral effects of poverty are sometimes so grave such that they result in lack of self-confidence and initiativeness, which are nothing but the qualities that are essential to lead a prosperous life.

2.6. Remedial Measures

As poverty and inequality are inseparable in the case of India, the policy measures for reducing inequalities in income and wealth are equally applicable for the removal of poverty. They may be listed as the following:

• Spread of education: Education must be made compulsory at least up to high school standard. This will broaden the complete outlook of the people and help them adopt better ways of life.
• Development of supporting occupations: There must be massive employment generation that will sustain and be sustained by great availability of wages and goods. There should be facilities for supplementary employment. Handicrafts, weaving, and pottery may be helpful in this regard.
• Family welfare programmes: These should be intensified at the village level so that all unwanted births can be avoided and the burden of overpopulation can be reduced.
• Fixing minimum wages: Minimum wages should be fixed for labours also and should be implemented.

Figure 18.2 Remedial Measures

• Reforms: The institutional reforms and the fiscal policy must be oriented towards reducing inequality along with increasing productivity.
• Prioritizing the backward: The backward regions and classes have a high incidence of poverty. Their development must receive high priority.

2.7. Poverty and Government Schemes

The planning commission in an affidavit filed in the Supreme Court on 20 September 2011 said that anyone spending more than 965 per month in urban India and 781 in rural India will be deemed to be not poor. The Commission said that those spending in excess of 32 a day in urban areas or 26 a day in villages would no longer be eligible to draw benefits of central and state government welfare schemes for those below poverty line. These provisional figures are based on the Tendulkar Committee Report updated for current prices by taking account of the Consumer Price Index for industrial and agricultural workers. Poverty numbers are identified on basis of monthly expenditure. Planning Commission based on the National Sample Survey Organization’s (NSSO) survey on monthly expenditure had tabulated the poverty line. Survey about poverty line is defined once in five years and next survey will be done in 2012 based on NSSO’s surveillance by the year 2011–2012.

There are widespread divergent views within the Planning Commission regarding this debate. Some members say that the affidavit filed in the Supreme Court related to determining the number of poor in India was never discussed in the panel’s internal meeting. Leading economists have severely criticized the national poverty lines set by the Planning Commission at 32 and 26 per capita per day for urban and rural areas, respectively. It is counterproductive to link the official poverty estimates to basic entitlements of the people.

National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector chaired by Arjun Sengupta used an income-based criterion of 20 per day per capita. The N.C. Saxena Committee used consumption-based criteria in 2009 to say that 50 per cent of Indians lived below the poverty line.

2.8. Conclusion

The Government of India launched a twenty-point programme to eradicate poverty from the country through various measures. We can hope that a day will come when all the people will be assured of at least the basic necessities of life.

3. ILLITERACY

Illiteracy is a great curse both to the life of the individual and to that of the nation. Education and self-reliant people are the assets to a nation. The strength of a nation is the sum total of the strengths of the people inhabiting its territories. The illiterate, the poor, and the backward are liabilities rather than assets to the nation. In 1948, the declaration of human rights stated that everyone has the right to education. Yet, even today, this right is being denied to millions of children. Education is a crucial element; only then, development can be either broad-based or sustained. The benefits that accrue to a country by having a literate population are multidimensional. Spread of literacy is generally associated with modernization, urbanization, industrialization, communication, and commerce.

3.1. Meaning of Illiteracy

Illiteracy is one of the biggest problems that India is facing in the contemporary world. Illiteracy is the root cause for various other social issues like poverty, population explosion, unemployment, child labour, and female foeticide. When the masses are illiterate, they are unaware about these social issues, and consequently, they end up being a part of it. Illiteracy is a major stumbling block in the growth and development of the country. The majority of the population in India is still illiterate, which hampers the progress of the country.

In India, illiteracy is basically categorized as a wide gap between rural and urban populations. The majority of the people are illiterate especially in rural areas, where people are unaware about the ill effects of being illiterate, and moreover, facilities are also not ample. The enrolment level of students in primary and secondary grades is very low in rural areas. In spite of various schemes and initiatives by the Government to promote literacy, the results are not satisfactory, and also, there is a wide variation in the literacy ratio of males and females. India is a male-dominated society, and thus, it seems that the right of education is owned by them only.

Literacy is a strong weapon that can root out the social issues like casteism, dowry, corruption, and child labour. Literate population can contribute manifolds in the economic and social development of a nation. If India wants to be a developed and powerful nation, then literacy is the key. The government should introduce new schemes and policies and should allocate special funds to promote literacy. Although child labour is banned, but still, it is being practiced, which is again a factor responsible for illiteracy among young children. Government alone cannot do anything; the people should also be aware about the benefits of literacy and thus contribute and make efforts to kill the demon of illiteracy.

3.2. Importance of Literacy in India

Education plays an important role in the overall development of individuals, enabling them to comprehend and respond to their social, political, and cultural environments better and appropriately. If the levels of higher education and literacy improve, people will become more aware and enjoy better economic conditions. Raising these levels is also necessary for acquiring various skills and better use of healthcare facilities.

3.3. Statistics of Illiteracy in India

India has the largest number of illiterates in the world. However, the good news is that the total number of illiterates has come down from 328.1 million in 1991 to 296.2 million in the 2001 Census. In fact, this decline in the number of illiterates has happened for the first time since Independence.

Literacy campaigns are being carried out at various levels. Prominent among these are the National Literacy Movement (NLM) and the Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs). The NLM provides technical support and leadership in targeting the age group of 15–35 years. It is estimated that there are about 121 million illiterates in this age group. The TLCs, which follow the Kerala model, have now spread to 212 districts in the country.

3.4. Remedial Measures

Government of India has made education compulsory up to the age of 14 years. Although considerable progress has been made in expanding primary education, a major concern is the high dropout rates in the first few years of schooling. In India, the National Adult Education Programme was inaugurated on 2 October 1978, but its actual implementation on all aspects began from 1 January 1980 when adult education projects were started all over the country. Although it is a national programme and is financed by the Central government, it is implemented by the State governments.

3.5. Problems of Illiteracy

India is one of the poorest countries of the world due to the glaring fact of stark illiteracy in the country. It is the only country that has suffered servitude for more than seven centuries. Ignorance and poverty go hand in hand with illiteracy. Illiterates live in dirty conditions, do not follow the basic principles of health and hygiene, and are more likely to fall ill. Scientific developments elude them, leaving agriculture and cottage industries in rather primitive conditions. Thus, the illiterates remain deprived of the dimensions of civilization and culture that the literates have.

3.6. Literacy Development Programmes

The right to education is a fundamental right, and UNESCO aims at education for all by 2015. International Literacy Day is celebrated each year on 8th September with the aim to highlight the importance of literacy to individuals, communities, and societies.

3.6.1. National Literacy Mission

The National Literacy Mission, launched in 1988, aimed at attaining a literacy rate of 75 per cent by 2007. It imparts functional literacy to illiterates in the age group of 15–35 years. The Total Literacy Campaign is the principal strategy of the NLM for eradication of illiteracy. The Continuing Education Scheme provides a learning continuum to the efforts of the Total Literacy and post literacy programmes.

3.6.2. Sarva Siksha Abhiyan

The Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, meaning Total Literacy Campaign, was launched in 2001 to ensure that all children in the age group 6–14 years attend school and complete eight years of schooling by 2010. The important components of the scheme are the Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative and Innovative Education (AIE), which are meant primarily for children in areas with no formal school within a one-kilometre radius. The centrally sponsored District Primary Education Programme, launched in 1994, had opened more than 1,60,000 new schools by 2005, including almost 84,000 alternative schools.

3.6.3. Non-governmental Efforts

The bulk of Indian illiterates live in the country’s rural areas, where social and economic barriers play an important role in keeping the lowest strata of society illiterates. Government programmes alone, however well intentioned, may not be able to dismantle barriers built over centuries. Major social reformation efforts are sometimes required to bring about a change in the rural scenario. Several non-governmental organizations such as ITC, rotary clubs, and lions club have worked to improve the literacy rate in India.

3.7. Conclusion

A literate and educated man can get some benefits from the experience of others, but an illiterate person can’t. For an illiterate person, the whole world looks dark. Man is not simply body but also spirit, mind, and intellect. While his physical development takes place by taking good food, his mental and intellectual development takes place through education. Literacy is not education but is certainly the gate through which education enters the castle of humankind.

4. FOOD SUPPLY

Rajammal P. Devadas defines food as anything solid, liquid, or semi-solid that when ingested, digested, and assimilated, nourishes the body. She defines nutrition as the condition that permits the development and maintenance of the highest state of fitness. Food is the prime necessity of life. The discoveries of the last 50 years have proved that nutritious food is necessary for good health and body movements of man. Apart from national agencies, international agencies like FAQ, WHO, and UNICEF have spent money to evoke interest in people about their food and health. Efforts have been made to employ various human resources in the direction. Regular surveys are conducted all over the world to calculate the amount of food needed for different working conditions. The surveys conducted by different agencies show that the different diets of vulnerable groups like infants, pregnant women, and lactating women are deficient in protein, calcium, and vitamins A and B-complex.

4.1. Problems of Food Supply in India

India has been facing a serious shortage of food supply since Independence. We had to depend on food imports even for our survival. However, now the situation has considerably improved. The nation has crossed many hurdles and is marching on the path of self-reliance. Now, we do not have to depend on other nations for food, but still, our farmers are in poor condition. Sometimes, the farmer is forced to borrow funds from moneylenders at a very high rate of interest, and so generally, he is forced to sell his produce to pay off his debts. He is sometimes not able to purchase fertilizers, good seeds, and so on due to inadequacy of funds. The technical reasons for low food productivity are given below:

• Defective soil and soil erosion
• Crop diseases and pests
• Irregular and uncertain rains and lack of irrigation
• Ignorance and weakness of the cultivator
• Old and outmoded agricultural implements
• Lack of good seeds
• Lack of manures
• Inferior breed of cattle
• Defective methods of cultivation and cropping

The Government of India has launched several nutritional programmes to tackle major problems of malnutrition prevailing in India. These are as follows:

• Applied Nutrition Programme
• Mid-day Meal Programme
• National Goitre Control Programme
• Supplementary Feeding Programme
• Prophylaxis against anaemia
• Vitamin A prophylaxis for the prevention of blindness

4.2. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was formed in 1945 with its headquarters in Rome. It was the first specialized agency of the United Nations Organization (UNO) created to look after several areas of world cooperation. The chief aims of FAO are as follows:

• To help nations raise living standards
• To improve the nutrition of the people of all countries
• To increase the efficiency of farming, forestry, and fisheries
• To better the condition of rural people
• To widen the opportunity of all people for productive work

The FAO’S primary concern is the increased production of food to keep pace with the ever-growing world population. The most important function of FAO is towards ensuring that the food is consumed by the people who need it, in sufficient quantities and in right proportions, to develop and maintain a better state of nutrition throughout the world. The FAO is also collaborating with other international agencies in the applied nutrition programme. The joint WHO–FAO expert committees have provided the basis for many cooperative activities such as nutritional surveys, training courses, seminars, and coordination of research programmes.

4.3. World Food Programme

The World Food Programme (WFP) is the world’s largest humanitarian agency fighting hunger worldwide. During emergencies, It gives food to where it is needed, thereby saving the lives of victims of wars, civil conflicts, and natural disasters. After emergencies, it uses food to help communities rebuild their shattered lives. It is a part of the United Nations system and is voluntarily funded.

Figure 18.3 Symbol of World Food Programme

WFP also works to help prevent hunger post-emergency. It achieves this through programmes that use food as a means to build assets, spread knowledge, and nurture stronger and more dynamic communities. This helps communities become more food secure. It has developed expertise in a range of areas including Food Security Analysis, Nutrition, Food Procurement, and Logistics to ensure the best solutions for the world’s hungry.

WFP pursues a vision of the world in which every man, woman, and child has access to the food needed at all times for an active and a healthy life. It works towards that vision with local governments, the UN, and other NGO partners. In 2010, it aimed to reach more than 90 million people with food assistance in more than 70 countries. Around 10,000 people work for this organization, most of them in remote areas, directly serving the hungry poor.

WFP’s strategic plan lays out five objectives, and all its work is geared towards achieving them. The objectives are as follows:

• Save lives and protect livelihoods during emergencies
• Prepare for emergencies
• Restore and rebuild lives after emergencies
• Reduce chronic hunger and under nutrition everywhere
• Strengthen the capacity of countries to reduce hunger

4.4. National Food for Work Programme

The National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) is an attempt to eradicate hunger. Substantial resources in the form of cash and food grains are being provided under the programme to generate additional supplementary wage employment and to create productive assets in 150 most backward districts. Through this programme, an attempt is made to coordinate among different on-going schemes that have wage employment potential, so that the focused approach provides a solid base for the districts to take off on their own. The success of the programme depends on the vision with which it is implemented.

The NFFWP is also a move towards wage employment guarantee. It is an experiment, and if successfully carried out, it will give the government the necessary confidence to take responsibility for providing wage employment guarantee initially in these 150 identified districts and later, gradually in the remaining districts of the country.

4.4.1. Objective

The main objective of this programme is to provide additional resources apart from the resources available under the Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) to the 150 most backward districts of the country, so that generation of supplementary wage employment and providing food-security through creation of need-based economic, social, and community assets in these districts are further intensified.

4.4.2. Target Group

The NFFWP will be open to all rural poor who are in need of wage employment and desire to do manual and unskilled work. The programme will be self-targeting in nature.

4.5. Conclusion

Agriculture is sometimes a gamble. The farmer may not get money when he needs it the most. Sometimes, there may be excessive rain, causing floods, and perhaps, the harvest may be a failure and that may reduce him to poverty. The factors responsible for creating food problems can be conveniently grouped under categories of factors affecting the demand and those affecting the supply of grain. However, the growing population has to be fed somehow.

5. HOUSING PROBLEMS

Earlier, the term ‘housing’ meant only the physical structure that provides shelter. Today, however, it also encompasses the immediate surroundings and the related community services and facilities that are needed or desired for the physical and mental health and the social wellbeing of the family and the individual. This broader meaning, as used by WHO, is better captured by the term ‘residential environment’.

5.1. Criteria for Healthful Housing

Similar to the basic principles of healthful housing published by the American Public Health Association, an expert committee of the WHO recommended the following criteria for healthful housing:

• It provides physical protection and shelter.
• It provides adequate space for cooking, eating, washing, and excretory functions.
• It is designed, constructed, maintained, and used in a manner such as to prevent the spread of communicable diseases.
• It provides protection from hazards of exposure to noise and pollution.
• It is free from unsafe physical arrangements due to construction or maintenance and free from toxic or harmful materials.
• It encourages personal and community developments, promotes social relationships, reflects a regard for ecological principles, and, by these means, promotes mental health.

5.2. Housing and Health

Housing is a part of the total environment of man. Being a part, it is to some extent responsible for the status of man’s health and wellbeing. It is difficult, however, to demonstrate the specific cause-and-effect relationship because housing embraces so many facets of environment. If the housing is not healthy, some of the problems may arise as listed in Table 18.2.

 

TABLE 18.2 Problems Due to Unhealthy Housing

Problems	Diseases
Respiratory infection	Common cold, tuberculosis, influenza, diphtheria, bronchitis, measles, and whooping cough
Skin infections	Scabies, ringworm, impetigo, and leprosy
Rat infestation	Plague
Arthropods	Diseases caused by houseflies, mosquitoes, fleas, and bugs
Morbidity and mortality	High morbidity and mortality rates are observed where housing conditions are substandard.

5.3. Housing and Amenities

Social houses and basic amenities, such as safe drinking water facilities, safe disposal of waste, and better sanitary facilities, are conducive to good health. A house with adequate space, good cross-ventilation, pleasant view from every window, adequate space for children to play at home, neighbourhoods with adequate privacy, and a separate room for sick persons provides a congenial environment for a happy life and better health for the inmates.

Rao (1982) stated that in Third World countries, 80 per cent of all sicknesses and diseases are attributable to inadequate water sanitation, which include the effects of drinking contaminated water, wherein water acts as breeding ground for vectors and diseases. He also identified a combination of factors such as scarcity of water supply, poor housing conditions, substandard drainage, overcrowding, and conditions conducive to insect breeding that increase the risk of infant mortality (Rao, 1983).

Ashraf (1990) observed a common trend of high infant mortality rate (IMR) in populations with poor housing and lack of basic amenities residing in rural and hilly regions of Uttar Pradesh. According to his study, IMR of families is shown in Table 18.3.

 

TABLE 18.3 IMR in Poor Housing Conditions

House Specification	Rural	Hilly
Residing in kutcha houses	220.8	302.9
With insufficient ventilation	232.0	191.0
With severe smoke inside their dwelling	285.7	220.1
Open latrine	220.5	141.8
With place of garbage disposal near their houses	228.4	147.1

Radhakamal Mukerjee pointed out in his famous study, The Indian Working Class, that infant mortality is high in one-room tenements. An overcrowded room, which lacks ventilation and which has its floor wet almost all the time, leads to the development of respiratory diseases and also increases the chances of the spread of infectious diseases.

5.4. Different Schemes for Housing Development

5.4.1. Urban Mapping Scheme

The Urban Mapping Scheme was taken up as a pilot project during the Eighth Five Year Plan for covering 50 towns from different states. The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), which is the executive agency for the project, has completed aerial photography of all the towns and furnished photographs and aerial maps for all the towns except three towns.

5.4.2. Low-cost Sanitation for Liberation of Scavengers

It is a centrally sponsored scheme, which is under the Ministry of Urban Development since 1989–1990. The scheme of Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) aims at the development of selected regional growth centres with infrastructure and service facilities. From the inception of the scheme till 31 March 1999, 945 towns in 25 States and 5 Union Territories have been covered and central assistance amounting to 345.30 crore has been released. The plan allocation for the scheme is 50 crore for 1999–2000.

5.4.3. Ninth Plan and Housing

The Ninth Five Year Plan specially focused on households at the lower end of the housing market. The priority groups identified for such support are people below poverty line, SC/ST, and disabled. Minimum housing adequacy norms will be entrusted to the states. It is under a decentralized structure, and tie responsibility will be passed on to the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

India has made a commitment to the approach of sustainability of rural and urban housing of poor, interdependency between shelter and income upgradation, and so on in the National Housing Policy (NHP) and the Habitat II National Plan of Action (NPA). To promote this strategy, the Ninth Plan will support the use of composite credit instrument, modify land use pattern and city master plans, and strengthen the linkages between the farm and the non-farm sectors in the rural and semi-urban areas. The physical targets under Special Action Plan were seven lakh additional dwelling units between 1997 and 2002.

6. PROSTITUTION

Prostitution is a social vice that has prevailed from time immemorial. Generally, it means illicit sexual gratification for mercenary inducement or something else the prostitute needs. It is the performance of sexual acts solely for the purposes of material gain. Persons prostitute themselves when they grant sexual favours to others in exchange for money, gifts, or other payments, and in doing so, they use their bodies as commodities. Prostitution is not to be confused with the illicit sexual union of lovers. In prostitution, there is no affection. Sexual favours are not granted on the basis of affection; rather, money acts as the motivator.

6.1. Various Terms Used in Prostitution

• Procurer: A procurer is a person who procures the girls and supplies them to the sex market. There is always demand for freshness in the sex market, so those who lose their charm or become diseased will be replaced by new victims.
• Pimp: A pimp is one who makes business contracts for the prostitute. He finds the customers and brings them to the brothel houses or lodges.
• Brothel keepers: A brothel keeper is one who provides accommodation for newcomers and encourages them in the profession. He/she takes a percentage of their earning. Generally, ex-prostitutes run brothels.

6.2. Causes of Prostitution

The main cause is biological in nature. The sex urge in human beings, though controlled by sex norms and the institution of marriage, is impossible to control in all cases. Among the males, the unmarried, the married, and the widowers, all the three categories indulge in the fulfilment of sexual urges. Table 18.4 provides a list of causes that lead to prostitution.

6.3. Factors Influencing Prostitution

• Poverty, inadequate housing conditions, and other economic factors
• Death of parents or husband and domestic causes like ill-treatment or neglect by parents, husband, or relations
• Kidnapping, bad influences, and illegitimate pregnancy

TABLE 18.4 Causes of Prostitution

Cause	Description
Poverty	The primary cause of prostitution is hunger. Prostitutes enter into this profession out of sheer economic necessity.
Child widows	Child marriage was widely practiced and child widows were abundant in number. Once widowed, they were neglected, ill-treated, or even abandoned. Most of these young widows often became prostitutes.
Broken home and neglection of girls	In many broken homes, children are abandoned by father or mother. Without proper care and guidance, many of them turn to evil ways like prostitution.
Growth of modern cities	Modern and urban centres facilitate prostitution in many ways. All the cities have large number of unmatched men. The anonymity existing in cities facilitates the prostitutes to operate in an unobtrusive way.
Unsatisfactory marital life	Dissatisfaction in sexual life may especially be one reason that pushes women into prostitution.
Desire for luxury	Many young women turn towards prostitution today just to lead a life of affluence. The meagre salary or income of their parents or husbands cannot buy the luxuries they desire, and they often take up prostitution as a part-time activity.

• Desire for easy life and low moral values
• Restriction on widow remarriage and devadasi system or the practice of socio-religious custom of dedicating the girls to the goddess. This system is prevalent in North Karnataka and Maharashtra.
• Urbanization and industrialization are also important factors in causing prostitution. In the city environment, the free movement of men and women, and unwholesome recreational centres like cinema, bars, clubs, dancing halls, cabarets, lodges, and brothel houses have led to trade in sex and exploitation of women.

6.4. Evil Effects of Prostitution

Prostitution affects an individual’s personal and family life. It has economic implications and takes toll on a person’s health. Table 18.5 describes in detail the consequences of prostitution.

6.5. Prevention and Control of Prostitution

6.5.1. Legislative Measures

During the British rule, various provisions were made in the Indian Penal Code (IPC) to control sexual offences. The code provided an imprisonment up to one year or fine or both for insulting the modesty of any woman. No one should compel her to marry nor may she be forced to illicit intercourse. Sexual intercourse with women under 16 years of age is considered as rape.

 

TABLE 18.5 Effects of Prostitution

Effect	Description
Prostitution and personal disorganization	The person who indulges in prostitution receives condemnation from the public. Due to double standards of values, the women suffer great personal deterioration. Sexual vices result in personal demoralization and loss of status. The prostitute loses all self-respect and acts merely as a machine. She lacks normal emotions and moral values. She often becomes vindictive and tries to bring more men to downfall. Even in males, it causes a lot of disorganization
Prostitution and family disorganization	Prostitution affects not only the individuals but also the family. Promiscuous sexual relationships cause sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhoea, syphilis, AIDS, and other diseases. Illegitimate sex relations develop family friction and ultimately result in family disorganization. The person who habitually visits a prostitute loses interest in his own family. Harmonious relationship within the family is affected. Husband–wife relationship is shattered. Even if a married woman goes into prostitution with the consent of her husband, frictions, tensions, and conflicts are unavoidable.
Prostitution and community disorganization	Prostitution leads to widespread community disorganization. It leads to commercial exploitation. It has created various brothels, call flats, and disorderly hotels to carry on the business secretly. Such places are the breeding centres of venereal diseases and other health hazards in the community. It has been reported that more than 30 per cent of female sex workers are infected with HIV.
Prostitution and economic problems	Any man who goes to prostitutes regularly loses a lot of money in this manner. His economic condition is adversely affected and his family also suffers due to his delinquency
Prostitution and health hazards	Prostitution affects both the prostitute and her customers. Both are in danger of serious health problems. Venereal diseases like gonorrhoea and syphilis are transmitted through sexual contacts. AIDS is transmitted mainly through sexual contact.
Prostitution and moral degeneration	Prostitution results in moral degradation of the entire society. When a large number of women are engaged in such a profession and when a large number of men indulge in illicit sex, moral standards of the society cannot be upheld.

In 1923, the Bombay Prevention of Prostitution Act was passed. According to this Act, making a living on the earnings of prostitution, soliciting in a public place, procuring, and keeping a brothel and prostitution in prohibited areas were considered offences.

In 1956, Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act was passed by the parliament. Generally called SITA, it gave wider power to the states to deal with the problem of prostitutes. This Act made provisions to punish the person who keeps or manages a brothel. Any person indulging in procuring women for the purpose of earning money was to be severely punished, that is, rigorous imprisonment for 1 to 3 years and a fine of 2000. Special police officers were supposed to deal with the offences.

6.5.2. Preventive Measures

• Facilities for vocational and moral training for women for lower economic stratum should be provided.
• Rescue homes, shelter homes, and other facilities should be provided for the poor and destitute women. Girls who are in mortal danger should be put in reformatories or institutions where they can be kept safe from the clutches of antisocial elements. In these institutions, facilities for vocational training should be provided so that girls will be economically independent.
• Men and women should be educated about the health practices to be followed with regard to sex. Thus, sex education is very essential. There should be sex education at school and college levels. Girls should be taught the danger of sex exploitation by males.
• Social education and propaganda are also important measures to fight prostitution. A healthy public opinion should be created against illicit sexual relations.
• Health worker and social worker should take the task of publicity and propaganda through educative literature, TV programmes, films, and so on.

6.5.3. Prohibitory Measures

• Medical examination of all prostitutes should be conducted frequently. Any woman who is found infected should be segregated immediately and should not be allowed to attend customers till she is cured.
• Licensing system of prostitutes will be helpful if it is permitted by law. This will facilitate having constant check over them.
• Medical personnel dealing with prostitutes should be specially trained. Sympathetic, efficient, and free care should be provided to prostitutes because many of them are very poor and helpless.

6.5.4. Prophylactic Measures

• The prophylactic measures include prevention of communicable diseases and improvement of hygienic conditions.
• The prostitutes and the customers should be instructed to use protective measures. Condoms may be used by males and females. The latter can also use chemical disinfectants after the exposure.
• Young men should be educated to practice continence and develop healthy habits of recreation.

6.6. Eradication of Child Prostitution

The public concern on the issue of child prostitution originated through a land mark judgement of the Supreme Court of India in 1990. In response to Public Interest Litigation (PIL) on the subject, the Court ruled out that the States and Central Government should initiate comprehensive measures for the rehabilitative care of such children and elimination of this social menace. The Court directed the Government to form a Central and State Advisory Committees. As per the directives of the Supreme Court, a Central Advisory Committee was constituted to eradicate child prostitution. Furthermore, a subcommittee has been set up to frame recommendations/plan of action for the rescue and rehabilitation of all child prostitutes.

The report of the Central Committee (1994) was deliberated upon in the national consultations held in 1994 at Mumbai. Predictably, it was felt that regional consultations were essential to document and understand the problem. Accordingly, a number of regional workshops were held at Calcutta, Goa, Hyderabad, Patna, Chandigarh, and Bangalore with assistance from UNICEF. A report has been prepared and submitted in August, 1996.

6.7. Impact of Child Prostitution

6.7.1. The Impact of Prostitution on Child Workers

Prostitution induces the teenagers to develop a premature sexual desire. It is responsible for contraction of sexually transmitted diseases and makes them drug addict. It creates mental and physical abuses and associates them with various forms of illegal behaviour.

6.7.2. Impact on the Society

Association with crime, 80.9 per cent of child prostitutes has been associated with incidents of robbery. About 59.3 per cent of child prostitutes have developed a drug addiction and 42.5 per cent have endured physical abuse.

Research indicates that if 98.9 per cent of child prostitution could be eradicated, then an equal reduction key will follow. The popular solution to the issue is the government’s policy to suppress prostitution, coupled with education and family support. Other suggestions include an increased penalty for serious offenders and enforced government registration of prostitutes.

6.7.3. Other Problems That Follow

The effects of child prostitution are enormous; child prostitution has become a cultural issue in Thailand with the region being recognized internationally for prostitution and trafficking.

6.8. Prevention of Child’s Prostitution

• Punishing individuals and organizations associated with human trafficking is an important step in the prevention of children becoming prostitutes.
• Creating a public document that details the information about the number of prostitutes and any relevant research on the possible methods of prevention.
• A budget for the management and prevention of child prostitution should be allocated.

6.9. Conclusion

Prostitution represents an extreme case of sexual gratification in which the commoditization of female sexuality contributes to women’s devaluation and objectification. Ownership and exchange of female sexuality serve as the core element of our entire gender system. Prostitution, today, is the result of only disappointment and unsatisfied longings of young men and young women, who find it convenient to enter into this relationship for the consideration of money. It results in serious diseases. The studies made on this matter in different parts of the country indicate a very high percentage of venereal diseases among prostitutes.

7. RIGHTS OF WOMEN

Women are the vital element of a society. The progress of a society largely depends on women, and, therefore, they need to be considered as an important pillar not only in domestic life but also in social life. In India, the status of women is based on religious and political factors. Sociological explanations about women are rooted in the ancient scriptures. During the Vedic period, women enjoyed high status in the society.

7.1. Women’s Position in India

As of March 2001, the female population stands at 495.4 million out of total 1028 million Indian populations. Thus, in the present population of 1.03 billion, there ought to be 528 million women. Instead, estimates show only 496 million women in the population today. This implies that about 32 million women are missing in India. Some are never born, and the rest die because they do not have the opportunity to survive. Sex ratio (number of female per 1000 male) is an important indicator of women’s status in the society. In 1901, there were 972 females per 1000 males, whereas by 1971, the ratio has come down to 930 females per 1000 males. In 1981, there has been only a nominal increase in the female sex ratio with 934 females per 1000 males. There were only 926 females per 1000 males in India according to 1991 census.

The 2001 census indicate that there has been a slight increase in the sex ratio with 933 females per 1000 males, and Kerala with 1058 females. The sex ratio of the 0–6 age group has declined sharply from 945 in 1991 to 927 in 2001. According to UNFPA State of World Population 2005, Punjab (793), Haryana (820), Delhi (865), Gujarat (878), and Himachal Pradesh (897) have worst child sex ratio. Scheduled tribes have fairly respectable CSR of 973, but for scheduled castes, it falls at 938. For non-SC/ST population, it stands at 917. Rural India has 934 females per 1000 males, and for urban India, it stands at 908. In most states, the least literate districts have superior CSR compared with their most literate counterparts.

One reason for the adverse juvenile sex ratio is the increasing reluctance to have female children. For women, the literacy rate stands at 54.16 per cent. Still, 245 million Indian women cannot read or write, comprising the world’s largest number of unlettered women. National averages in literacy conceal wide disparities. For instance, while 95 per cent of women in Mizoram are literate, only 34 per cent of women in Bihar can read and write. The average Indian female has only 1.2 years of schooling, whereas the Indian male spends 3.5 years in school. More than 50 per cent girls drop out by the time they are in middle school. Similarly, life expectancy has increased for both the sexes; it has increased to 64.9 years for women and 63 years for men according to UN Statistic Division (2000). The working women population has risen from 13% in 1987 to 25% in 2001.

However, the UNFPA State of World Population 2005 states that about 70% of graduate Indian women are unemployed. Women constitute 90 per cent of the total marginal workers of the country. Rural women engaged in agriculture form 78 per cent of all women in regular work. They are a third of all workers on the land. The traditional gender division of labour ensures that these women get on average 30 per cent lower wages than men. The total employment of women in organized sector is only 4 per cent. Although industrial production increased in the 1980s, jobs in factories and establishments—or non-household jobs—stagnated at 8 per cent of the workforce. Increasingly, companies tend to rely on outsourcing, using cheap labour. It is well known that women and children work in huge numbers in beedi rolling, agarbatti rolling, bangle making, weaving, brassware, leather, crafts, and other industries. Yet, only 3 per cent of these women are recorded as labourers. They are forced to work for pitiable wages and are denied all social security benefits. A study by SEWA of 14 trades found that 85 per cent of women earned only 50 per cent of the official poverty level income.

The sociological research on the status of women has generally suggested that the Indian women enjoy a low status in their households because family decisions relating to finances, kinship relations, selection of life partner, and so on are made by the male members and women are rarely consulted. Although there has been an expansion in health facilities, maternal mortality rate continue to be high at 407 per 1,00,000 live births (1998). WHO estimates show that out of the 529,000 maternal deaths globally each year, 136,000 (25.7%) maternal deaths are from India. A factor that contributes to India’s high maternal mortality rate is the reluctance to seek medical care for pregnancy—it is viewed as a temporary condition that will disappear. The nationwide estimates show that only 40–50 per cent of women receive antenatal care. Evidences from the states of Bihar, Rajasthan, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat show that registration for maternal and child health services to be as low as 5–22 per cent in rural areas and 21–51 per cent in urban areas. Even a woman who has had difficulties with previous pregnancies is usually treated with home remedies only for three reasons: the decision that pregnant women seek help rests with the mother-in-law and husband, financial considerations, and fear that the treatment may be more harmful than the malady.

7.2. Status of Women in India

The status of Indian women has changed with the passage of time (Table 18.6). While in the Vedic period, she had an exalted status, and in the medieval times, she was robbed of her individuality and was subjected to exploitation and cruelty. Since Independence, there has been improvement in her social standing.

 

TABLE 18.6 Status of Indian Women in Different Time Periods

Period	Status of Women
Vedic period	The woman enjoyed a high status in society. She was the central figure in family life. She could participate in religious and public functions. She had educational status and was free to take decisions. She was the guide and companion of man.
Post-Vedic period and later	The status of the woman gradually declined. She was treated as subordinate and inferior to man.
During medieval period	During Muslim rule, gender discrimination, exploitation, and cruelty towards women increased to such an extent that the woman lost her individuality and freedom. Strict controls were imposed on her. She was denied education and property rights. She lost her freedom and was subordinated to her husband; she had to follow the ideal of being pativrata. Inhuman practices like female infanticide, child marriage, harassment of widow, sati, dowry, purdah, and ill-treatment in general hindered her independent growth.
During british period	During the British rule, the Indians were very much influenced by the Western culture. The British established courts, introduced schools and colleges, and encouraged education of girls. The ideas of liberty and equality and rational thinking opened the gateways of Western culture. Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Mahatma Gandhi, and Bhimrao Ambedkar persuaded the British rulers to enact progressive legislations like abolition of sati, enhancement of age at marriage, widow remarriage, divorce act, dowry prohibition act, and so on, start separate schools and colleges for girls, and provide employment opportunities.
After independence	Various women welfare programmes have been implemented. The National Commission for Women and the NGOs have initiated several programmes for the empowerment of women. No doubt, such efforts have not only improved the socioeconomic status of women but also awakened the womenfolk to realize their rights.

7.3. Violence against Women

The alarming social reality about women is that violence against them is increasing. The following records of the parliament, as reported in a newspaper, are an illustration to show how women are not safe either in streets or at home. At the last session of the parliament at the end of 2005, the following facts and figures were reported:

• Every 26 minutes, a woman is molested.
• Every 34 minutes, a rape takes place.
• Every 42 minutes, a sexual harassment occurs.
• Every 93 minutes, a woman is burnt to death over dowry.

Further statistics (Vijaya Times, 15 January 2006) revealed that 5.45 per cent of the women are slapped, kicked, or beaten by their husbands, and 6.75 per cent of the battered women contemplate suicide. About 7.5 crore women in India suffer from violence in their homes, and only 1 per cent of them have the courage to report the abuse.

7.3.1. Classifications of Violence against Women

• Kidnapping, torture, rape, abduction, and murder
• Dowry deaths, burning, hanging, and poisoning
• Ill-treatment of widows and elderly women
• Molestation, eve-teasing, immoral traffic, sexual harassment, wife battering, kicking, slapping, verbal abuse, and harassment of women at workplace

7.3.2. Commonly Seen Violence in Indian Society

• Rape: In India, the number of rape cases is said to be 30 per day according to the statistics of 1990–94. The victims of rape are the highest in the age group of 16–30 years. Although rape is a criminal act, not all cases are reported and punished.
• Harassment of women at workplaces: Poor girls and employees belonging to middle class economic group are sexually humiliated by the employers, the maidservants by their masters, and the daily wage earners by contractors and middlemen.
• Dowry: Though the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 has banned the practice of dowry, in reality, it exists. The demands of dowry have increased. Dowry deaths are also increasing every year. In 1994, the number of cases of cruelty by husband and in-laws was reported to be 25,946. Thousands of girls have been burnt by their in-laws for the sake of dowry.
• Wife battering: It is also a serious offence against women that ranges from slaps and kicks to broken bones, torture, and even attempt to murder. The empirical studies made by Prof. Ram Ahuja have revealed that the causes of wife battering are sexual maladjustment, emotional disturbances, alcoholism, jealousy, and illiteracy of wives.

Figure 18.4 Commonly Seen Violence in Indian Society

7.3.3. UN Special Report on Violence against Women

• Unequal power relations between men and women.
• Denial of economic power and economic independence to women.
• Economically disadvantaged women are more vulnerable to sexual harassment, trafficking, and sexual slavery.
• Family, despite being a source of human values, is the hub of violence against women.
• Modern technology, especially reproductive technology that facilitates pre-selection of the sex of the child, has resulted in the killing of female foetuses and selective abortion.
• Sexual violence is often used as an instrument to control female sexual behaviour. Rape, sexual harassment, trafficking, and female genital mutilation are the forms of sexual violence against females.
• Ideologies that justify the subordinate position of women are another cause of violence against women. Custom, tradition, and religion are frequently invoked to justify the use of violence against women.
• Doctrines of privacy and the concept of the sanctity of the family are other causes of violence against women.
• Patterns of conflict resolution process in a given society, where violence is an important part, are also linked to violence against women, and the violence against women is likely to be more in these societies.
• Militarization leads to greater abuse with regard to women. Rapes as an instrument of war are perhaps the greatest manifestation of this phenomenon.
• The great cause of violence against women is government’s inaction with regard to crimes of violence against women.

7.4. Organizational Norms of Women’s Rights

• International norms: The committee established under the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in its general recommendation dealt entirely with the question of violence against women. It stated that gender-based violence is a form of discrimination that seriously inhibits women’s ability to enjoy rights and freedoms on the basis of equality with men.
• Women and human rights: As early as in 1946, the Commission on the Status of Women was established to deal with women’s issues. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights had affirmed the principle of the inadmissibility of discrimination and proclaimed that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom set for the therein, without distinction of any kind, including distinction based on sex.
• Fundamental rights: All the fundamental rights contained in Part III, Articles 12 to 35, of the Constitution are applicable to all citizens, irrespective of sex. Certain fundamental rights contain specific and positive provisions to protect the rights of women. Clause (3) of Article 15, which permits special provision for women and children, has been widely resorted to by the state, and the courts have always upheld the validity of special measures in legislation or executive orders favouring women.

Figure 18.5 Organizational Norms of Women’s Rights

• Beijing Conference (1995): The fourth World Conference of Women, held from 4 to 15 September 1995 in Beijing, commonly called Beijing Conference, stated that women’s rights are human rights. The Conference called for the integration of women’s human rights in the work of the different human rights bodies of the United Nations.
• Asian women’s movements: Women’s movements are now active in all Asian countries, extending into all classes, active in social and political agitation and aiming to make all women conscious of their subordination. These growing movements have taken up many issues, such as dowry, death, rape, abortion, and prostitution, that affect women and campaigned against economic exploitation and political marginalization.
• Rights of women to economic development: Recently, the Supreme Court has highlighted the rights of the women in India to eliminate gender-based discrimination, particularly in respect of property, so as to help them attain economic empowerment. The court, while referring to the Vienna Declaration on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), which was ratified by the UNO on 18 December 1979 and by the Government of India on 8 August 1993, elaborately discussed the principles of equality of rights and respect of women dignity.

7.5. Constitutional and Legal Provisions for Women in India

The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, plans, and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.

• National Commission for Women: In January 1992, the Government set up this statutory body with a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women and to review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever necessary.
• Reservation for women in local self-government: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the total seats for women in all elected offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas.
• National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991–2000): The plan of action is to ensure survival, protection, and development of the girl child with the ultimate objective of building up a better future for the girl child.
• National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001: The Department of Women and Child Development under the Ministry of Human Resource Development has prepared a ‘National Policy for the Empowerment of Women’ in the year 2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development, and empowerment of women.

7.5.1. National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001)

The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women.

Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, plans, and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974–78) onwards, there has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized as the central issue in determining the status of women. The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies of panchayats and municipalities for women, thereby laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.

India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments committee to secure equal rights of women. The Mexico Plan of Action (1975), the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies (1985) where the concept of empowerment was introduced, the Beijing Declaration as well as the Platform for Action (1995), and the Outcome Document adopted by the UNGA Session on Gender Equality and Development and Peace for the 21st century, titled ‘Further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action’, have been unreservedly endorsed by India for appropriate follow up. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.

Goal and Objectives

The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development, and empowerment of women. The policy will be widely disseminated so as to encourage active participation of all stakeholders for achieving its goals. Specifically, the objectives of this Policy include the following:

• Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full development of women to enable them to realize their full potential
• The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women on equal basis with men in all spheres such as political, economic, social, cultural, and civil
• Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political, and economic life of the nation
• Equal access to women to healthcare, quality education at all levels, career and vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and public office, and so on
• Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
• Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and involvement of both men and women.
• Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.
• Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and girl child
• Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly women’s organizations

7.5.2. National Policy on Education, 1986

National Policy on Education (NPE) emphasizes the need to use education as an agent of basic change in the status of women. The NPE proposes national education system to play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women, thereby fostering the development of new values through redesigning of curriculum, textbook, training and orientation of teachers, decision makers and administrators, and active involvement of educational institutions. These will be an act of faith and social engineering. Women studies will be promoted as the part of various courses, and educational institutions will be encouraged to take up active programmes for the further development of women.

Removal of women’s illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to, and retention in, elementary education will receive overriding priority, through provision of special support services, setting up of time targets, and effective monitoring. Major emphasis will be laid on women’s participation in vocational, technical, and professional education at different levels. The policy of non-discrimination will be pursued vigorously to eliminate sex stereotyping in vocational and professional courses and to promote women’s participation in non-traditional occupations as well as in existing and emergent technologies.

The National Policy of Empowerment of Women of 2001 has endorsed the provisions of NPE 1986, and the policy prescribes the following:

• Equal access to education for women and girls
• Special measures will be taken to eliminate discrimination.
• Universalize education
• Eradicate illiteracy
• Create a gender-sensitive educational system
• Increase enrolment and retention rates of girls
• Improve the quality of education
• Development of occupation, vocation, or technical skills by women
• Reducing the gender gap in secondary and higher education.

7.6. Problems of Women

7.6.1. Social Problems

Early marriage affects women’s health status adversely. A large number of girls get married at the teenage. It leads to teenage pregnancy and various physiological problems. In rural India, almost 60 per cent of the girls are married before they are 18 years, and nearly 60 per cent of the married girls bear children before they are 19 years. Almost one-third of all babies are born with low birthweight. Thus, young girls are introduced to the sexual life and to the reproduction process at the teenage itself.

Because of malnutrition, over burden of work, illiteracy, and ignorance of sexual behaviour, these pregnant girls take high risk of life. Around 10–15 per cent of the annual births are from these teenage mothers. However, most of their babies suffer from malnutrition, underweight, and risk of mortality. In India, women on an average have eight to nine months of pregnancy, and they spend around 80 per cent of their reproductive years in pregnancy and lactation. Study shows that in the low-income group, pregnant women have deficiency of 1100 calories and lactating women of 1000 calories.

Women of the lower socioeconomic groups gain only around 3–5 kg during pregnancy, which is far less than the required weight. Anaemia in pregnancy accounts directly 15–20 per cent of all maternal deaths in India. The maternal mortality, according to an official report, is 400–500 per 1,00,000 births. However, this figure is as high as 1000 to 1200 in some rural areas. More than 71% and 29% of the deliveries in the rural and urban areas, respectively, took place without trained personnel (NPPW, 1988). In most of the rural areas, medical termination of pregnancy services is not available, and moreover, women are not aware about the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971, which has made abortion legal. Hence, illegal abortions by incompetent persons continue, thereby resulting in abortion-related mortality and morbidity.

7.6.2. Dowry

Max Radin has defined dowry as the property that a man receives from his wife or from her family at the time of his marriage. Dowry may be broadly defined as gifts and valuables received in marriage by the bride, the bridegroom, and his relatives. The amount of dowry is regulated by factors such as boy’s service and salary, social and economic status of the girl’s father, social prestige of the boy’s family, educational qualifications of the girl and the boy, girl’s employment and her salary, girl’s and boy’s beauty and features, future prospects of economic security, size and the composition of the girl’s and boy’s family, and so on. The most significant is that girl’s parents give her money and gifts not only at the time of her wedding but also they continue to give gifts to her husband’s family throughout the life. McKim Marriott holds that the feeling behind this is that one’s daughter and sister at marriage become the helpless possession of an alien kinship group and to secure her good treatment, lavish hospitality must be offered to her in-laws from time to time.

One of the causes of dowry is the desire and aspiration of every parent to get marry his daughter in a higher and a rich family to keep up or to maintain his prestige and also to provide comforts and security to the daughter. The high marriage market values of the boys belonging to rich and high social status families have swelled the amount of dowry.

Other cause of the existence of dowry is that giving dowry is a social custom and it is very difficult to change customs all of a sudden. The feeling is that practicing customs generates and strengthens solidarity and cohesiveness among people. Many people give and take dowry only because their parents and ancestors had been practicing it. Custom has stereotyped the old dowry system, and until some rebellious youth muster courage to abolish it and girls resist social pressures to give it, people will stick to it.

7.6.3. Child Marriage

Many people get marry their daughters in childhood to escape from dowry, and pre-puberty marriage is an evil in itself. On maturity, the boys may or may not be able to adjust with their wives. This situation is by no means left behind after the child marriage is consummated on attaining maturity. If by chance a husband becomes educated or professionally trained and his wife remains uneducated, both partners face crises.

7.6.4. Neglect during Early Childhood

The neglect of the girl child starts very early in life. The extent of neglect varies from family to family depending on their economic position. However, in comparison to her male counterpart, a female child is relatively neglected in most of the socioeconomic strata. Throughout the country, it has been noticed that when the girl child depends on breastfeeding, the chances of her survival are relatively more. Data from various sources shows that from infancy till the age of 15, the death rate of female child far exceeds the mortality rate of male child. There are several causes underlying this. Firstly, the female children are breastfed only for a shorter period than their male counterparts. Secondly, during illness, parents show a lesser concern towards female children than male children. This neglect is quite often enforced by poor economic condition. Finally, in addition to the intake of insufficient and non-nutritious food, the female child is exposed to a greater workload very early in her life. Often in families of weaker economic status, the girl child is found attending the household chores as well as taking care of her younger brothers and sisters.

7.6.5. Death during Child Birth

Early marriage exposes women to longer childbearing period. This poses greater health hazards to both women and their children. Several studies show that teenaged mothers risk their health as well as their children’s health. This risk is further enhanced by poor nutrition. Various surveys indicate that women’s caloric content is about 100 calories (per woman per day) less than they spend, whereas men show an 800 caloric surplus intake. Women expend a great deal of energy working inside and outside the house, whereas they often have insufficient food. Customarily they often eat only after their husband and other members of the family have eaten. The lack of knowledge, improper care during postnatal period, and frequent pregnancies lead to larger foetal wastage, birth of larger number of low weight babies, and death of young women.

7.6.6. Female Infanticide and Foetal Killing

This refers to killing the infant soon after its birth or at the foetus stage. Foetal killing has been a crucial problem is some urban areas. A medical diagnostic process called amniocentesis is used in the USA to check possible deformities of the unborn child. However, this is fast being used by parents to select the sex of their child. Misuse of the sex determination test has been a crucial issue in some urban places in India. This has resulted in a new type of female infanticide, that is, abortion of female foetuses.

7.6.7. Atrocities against Women

Male violence against women is a worldwide phenomenon. Although not every woman has experienced it, and many expect not to, fear of violence is an important factor in the lives of most women. It determines what they do, when they do it, where they do it, and with whom. Fear of violence is a cause of women’s lack of participation in activities beyond the home, as well as inside home. Within the home, women and girls may be subjected to physical and sexual abuse as punishment or as culturally justified assaults. These acts shape their attitude towards life and their expectations of themselves.

There are various forms of crime against women. Sometimes, it begins even before their birth and sometimes in the adulthood and other phrases of their life. In the Indian society, it is understood that at every walk of life, women should dependent on men right from her birth. This perception has given birth to various social customs and practices. One important manifestation of these customs and practices has been that of Sati. It is seen as a pinnacle of achievement for a woman. This custom of self-immolation of the widow on her husband’s pyre was an age-old practice in some parts of the country, which received deification. The popular belief ran that the goddess enters into the body of the woman who resolves to become a sati. The practice of sati has been abolished by law with the initiative of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the early decades of 19th century. However, there has been a significant revival of the practice of sati in the last few decades. Indeed, Rajasthan has been the focal point for this practice in recent years.

7.7. Programmes for Women and Their Impact

7.7.1. Marriage Legislation

In March 1961, when the bill on unequal marriages was being discussed in the Rajya Sabha, one member quoted epic against its inclusion in the institution of Hindu marriage. Dr. Radhakrishnan, the then chairman of the Rajya Sabha, had remarked that the ancient history cannot solve the problems of modern society. This is an answer in one sentence to those critics who want to maintain a gap between social opinion and social legislation. Legislation must meet the social needs of the people, and as the social needs change, legislation also must change from time to time. The function of social legislation is to adjust the legal system continually to a society, which is constantly outgrowing that system. The gap between the current needs of the society and the old laws must be bridged. The laws have to give recognition to certain defect changes in the society. One of the changes in modern India is the change in the attitude towards marriage; hence, the necessity of laws on different aspects of marriage is essential.

The laws enacted in India relate to: (i) age at marriage, (ii) field of mate selection, (iii) number of spouses in marriage, (iv) breaking of marriage, (v) dowry to be given and taken, and (vi) remarriage. The important legislations relating to these six aspects of marriage passed from time to time are (i) The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (dealing with age at marriage), (ii) The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act, 1946 and Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 1949 (dealing with the field of mate selection), (iii) The Special Act, 1954 (dealing with age at marriage, freedom to children in marriage without parental consent, bigamy, and breaking up of marriage), (iv) the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (dealing with age at marriage with the consent of parents, bigamy, and breaking up of marriage), (v) The Dowry Act, 1961, and (vi) The Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.

7.7.2. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929

It came into force on April 1, 1930. It restrains the marriage of a child although the marriage itself is not declared void. Accordingly, contracting, performing, and facilitating the marriage of boys under eighteen and girls less than fourteen years of age were an offence. The age of girls was later on raised to fifteen years. The amendment made in 1978 further rose the age for boys to twenty-one years and for girls to eighteen years. The violation of the Act prescribes penalty but the marriage itself remains valid. The offence under the Act is non-cognizable and provides punishment of three months of simple imprisonment and a fine of up to 1000 for the bridegroom, parent, guardians, and the priest. No woman is, however, punishable with imprisonment under this Act. The Act also provides for the issue of injunction order prohibiting the child marriage. However, no action can be taken for the offence if a period of more than one year has expired from the date of the alleged marriage.

7.7.3. The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act, 1946

Among Hindus, no marriage is valid between persons related to each other within the prohibited degrees, unless such marriage is sanctioned by custom. However, this Act validated marriages between persons belonging to the same gotra or pravara (agnatic groups). This Act now stands repealed after the passing of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.

7.7.4. The Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 1949

Pratiloma (hypogamy) marriage among Hindus was invalid, whereas anuloma (hypergamy) marriage was permitted till late 1940s. However, there were judicial decisions against the validity of such marriages. The 1949 Act validated all marriages between parties belonging to different religions, castes, sub-castes or sects, but it did not validate marriage between a Hindu and a Muslim. This Act also stands repealed after the 1955 Act.

7.7.5. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

This Act was passed on May 20, 1961. The Act does not apply to Muslims. It permits exchange of gifts for not more than 2000. It prescribes the penalty of six month’s imprisonment or a fine up to 5000 or both for its violation. The police, on its own, cannot take any action for the violation of the Act unless some complaint is lodged with it. However, no action can be taken after one year of marriage.

7.7.6. Socioeconomic Programme

Under this programme, the Central Social Welfare Board gives financial assistance to voluntary organizations for undertaking a wide variety of income-generating activities that include production of central components in ancillaries units, handlooms, handicrafts, agro-based activities such as animal husbandry, sericulture, and fisheries, and self-employment ventures like vegetables or fish-vending.

For production units, only women organizations and organizations working for the handicapped women, cooperatives and institution like jails, and Nariniketans are eligible for grants to the extent of 85 per cent of the project cost and the remaining 15 per cent is to be met by the grantee institutions.

The dairy scheme focuses exclusively on women’s organizations having at least 20 women members including Mahila Mandals, Indira Mahila Kendras, Self-help groups, and organizations already assisted under STEP schemes. The benefits of the scheme are meant for women whose families are below the poverty line.

7.8. Impact of Different Programmes Launched by Government on Women

In recent years, the results of the programmes launched by the Government in different fields (social, political, and educational) have given some good results. The literacy rate, which was 8.86% in 1951, has gone up to 53.67%. Although the cent per cent literacy is yet to achieve. In comparison to 1951, the enrolment of the girls in primary schools is eight times more. About more than 40 lakhs women engage in the organizing sector, thereby playing a very important role in the development, whereas in 1951, their number was only 19.3 lakhs.

In these years, life expectancy rate has also increased. In 1951, the expectancy rate of women was only 31.6 years, which has gone up to 64.5 by 2001. From the above discussions, it is quite clear that the health facility has improved a lot. It is quite clear that the condition of women has improved in all spheres of life but much more is needed to improve and establish their due position. Reality is that in spite of acceptance of science and technology, industrial growth, modernization, our policies by the Government of India, challenges, and the norm values and ethics are changing at a very slow rate, thereby leaving women development at the back seat.

7.8.1. Central Social Welfare Board

The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was set up in 1953 with the objective of promoting social welfare activities and implementing welfare programmes for women, children, and the handicapped through voluntary organizations. The CSWB is unique in the sense that it was the first organization in post-Independence era to achieve people’s participation for implementation of welfare programmes for women and children through non-governmental organization (NGOs). Presently more than 18,000 NGOs are receiving financial assistance and guidance from the board. The programmes implemented by the board include socioeconomic programmes for the needy or destitute women, condensed courses of education and vocational training courses for women and girls, awareness generation projects for rural and poor women, family counselling centres or voluntary action bureau, holiday camps for children, welfare extension projects in border areas, balwadis, creches, and hostels for working women, and so on.

8. WOMEN ABUSE

Woman abuse is the actual or threatened physical, psychological, sexual, financial, verbal, or spiritual abuse of a woman by someone with whom she has or has had an intimate, familial, or romantic relationship. It is a serious and widespread societal problem. Women from all ages, racial and ethnic backgrounds, sexual orientations, socioeconomic classes, religions, ability levels, and professions can experience abuse.

8.1. Types of Abuses

• Psychological abuse: Threats, insults, and put-downs can be just as damaging as physical abuse because they endanger a woman’s feelings of self-worth and her ability to control her own life.
• Financial abuse: A woman who is prevented from finding a job or who is not allowed to have a bank account or keep any income is an example of financial abuse.
• Social abuse: When a woman is kept totally dependent on her partner and isolated from the support of her peers, friends, and family, it is social abuse.

Figure 18.6 Types of Abuses

• Physical abuse: Hitting, punching, slapping, kicking, bruising, pinching, and using weapons to hurt are obvious examples of physical abuse.
• Domestic violence: It occurs when you are in a relationship where your partner controls and dominates you usually through violence, threat of violence, or by controlling your social life and finance.
• Sexual abuse: It implies being forced as a woman to do or watch something sexual without her consent or to have pain inflicted on her during sexual intercourse.

8.2. Cycle of Abuse

The cycle of relationship violence shows how abuse becomes a vicious pattern made up of the following stages:

• Build-up phase: Tension rises.
• Stand-over phase: The partner becomes threatening, angry, insulting, and verbally abusive.
• Explosion phase: The violence occurs.
• Remorse phase: The partner is apologetic and promises never to do it again.
• Pursuit phase: The partner attempts to win the woman back by promising to change.
• Honeymoon phase: Things are calm and perhaps even loving.
• Build-up phase: Once again tension begins to rise.

8.3. Prevention of Women’s Abuse

There are two kinds of methods that can prevent the violence against women.

8.3.1. Legislative Method

Various social legislations like the Indian Penal Code, the Anti-Dowry Act 1961 and its subsequent amendments, Widows Remarriage Act, Women’s Property Act, Divorce Act, and so on are meant to empower the women. However, problems of women cannot be solved by legislative measures alone. Many cases of woman abuse will not come before the police or the court of law. Moreover, most of the women are reluctant to approach the law courts. They prefer suffering silently.

8.3.2. Social Measures

The other measures that can prevent women abuse and their harassment are the social ones— the improvement of the status of women in society through education, employment opportunities, economic empowerment, and development of awareness among women. These measures, no doubt, can reduce the exploitation of women to a certain extent. The women’s organizations should function effectively to protect the helpless women and the victims of rape, dowry, harassment, and other crimes. Women must be provided short-term accommodation when necessary. These organizations should create awakening in the society by asserting women’s rights.

8.4. Atrocities against Women

Male violence against women is a worldwide phenomenon. Although not every woman has experienced it, and many expect not to, fear of violence is an important factor in the lives of most women. It determines what they do, when they do it, where they do it, and with whom.

Fear of violence is a cause of women’s lack of participation in activities beyond the home, as well as inside home. Within the home, women and girls may be subjected to physical and sexual abuse as punishment or as culturally justified assaults. These acts shape their attitude towards life and their expectations of themselves.

There are various forms of crime against women. Sometimes, it begins even before their birth and sometimes in the adulthood and other phrases of their life. In the Indian society, it is understood that at every walk of life, women should dependent on men right from her birth. This perception has given birth to various social customs and practices. One important manifestation of these customs and practices has been that of Sati. It is seen as a pinnacle of achievement for a woman. This custom of self-immolation of the widow on her husband’s pyre was an age-old practice in some parts of the country, which received deification. The popular belief ran that the goddess enters into the body of the woman who resolves to become a sati. The practice of sati has been abolished by law with the initiative of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the early decades of 19th century. However, there has been a significant revival of the practice of sati in the last few decades. Indeed, Rajasthan has been the focal point for this practice in recent years.

Violence against women both inside and outside their homes has been a crucial issue in the contemporary Indian society. Women in India constitute nearly about half of its population and most of them are grinding under the sociocultural and religious structures. However, the male gender has been controlling India’s social, economic, political, and religious fabrics since time immemorial.

The condition of widows is one of the most neglected social issues in India. Because of widowhood, the quality of life is lowered for many Indian women. Three per cent of all Indian women are widows, and on an average, mortality rate is 86 per cent higher among elderly widows in comparison with married women of the same age group. Various studies indicated that (i) legal rights of widows are violated, (ii) they suffer forceful social isolation, (iii) they have limited freedom to marry, (iv) they have restrictive employment opportunities, and (v) they get little economic support from their family or from the community.

It is common to read news about violation or wrongs committed on women every day. Our orthodox society is so much prejudiced by age-old habits and customs that a violated woman, whether she is forced or helpless, has no place in the society.

Another danger in India is that, Indian law does not differentiate between major and minor rape. In every 10 rape cases, six are of minor girls. In every seven minutes, a crime is committed against women in India. Every 26 minutes, a woman is molested. Every 34 minutes, a rape takes place. Every 42 minutes, a sexual harassment incident occurs. Every 43 minutes, a woman is kidnapped, and every 93 minutes, a woman is burnt to death over dowry. One-quarter of the reported rapes involve girls under the age of 16 but the vast majority are never reported. Although the penalty is severe, convictions are rare.

8.5. Health Consequences of Women’s Abuse

The United Nations defines violence against women as ‘any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life’.

Intimate partner violence refers to behaviour by an intimate partner or ex-partner that causes physical, sexual, or psychological harm including physical aggression, sexual coercion, and psychological abuse and controlling behaviours.

Sexual violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, or other acts directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any settings. It includes rape, and it is defined as the physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body parts, or objects.

Intimate partner violence and sexual violence have serious short- and long-term physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health problems for the victims and for their children, and lead to high social and economic costs.

• Health effects can include headaches, back pain, abdominal pain, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, limited mobility, and poor overall health. In some cases, both fatal and non-fatal injuries can result.
• Intimate partner violence and sexual violence can lead to unintended pregnancies, induced abortions, gynaecological problems, and sexually transmitted infections including HIV. Intimate partner violence in pregnancy also increases the likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, pre-term delivery, and low birthweight babies.
• These forms of violence can lead to depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleeplessness, eating disorders, emotional distress, and suicide attempts.
• Sexual violence, particularly during childhood, can lead to increased smoking, drug and alcohol intake, and risky sexual behaviours in later life. It is also associated with perpetration of violence (for males) and being a victim of violence (for females).

8.6. WHO Actions

WHO, in collaboration with a number of partners, is implementing the following actions:

• Building the evidence based on the scope and types of intimate partner and sexual violence in different settings and supporting countries’ efforts to document and to measure this violence and its consequences. This is central to understanding the magnitude and nature of the problem at a global level.
• Strengthening research and research capacity to assess interventions to address partner violence.
• Developing technical guidance for evidence-based intimate partner violence and sexual violence prevention and for strengthening the health sector responses to such violence.
• Disseminating information and supporting national efforts to advance women’s rights and the prevention of and response to intimate partner and sexual violence against women.
• Collaborating with international agencies and organizations to reduce or to eliminate intimate partner and sexual violence globally.

9. UNMARRIED MOTHERS

An important function of the family is the task of procreation and childrearing. Marriage is an institutional arrangement found in all societies that controls the desire for varied sexual experiences. No doubt, the marital relations control the sexual needs of the male and the female. However, an unmarried mother, who is bereft of the proper institutions of marriage and family, is socially stigmatized. The birth of a child before marriage is considered as illegitimate. The problem of unmarried mothers is a social one that exists in all societies.

9.1. Causes of Unmarried Motherhood

The causes of unmarried motherhood are instability of the modern family, divorce and separation, suppression of the expression of sex desire, and young women being lured into romanticism and indulging in sex before marriage and becoming pregnant. Earlier, the girls used to be married in their early age. However, in the modern societies, late marriages are preferred; many parents are unable to find suitable bridegrooms because of their economic inability to pay the dowry.

9.2. Problems of Unmarried Mothers

Young men and women work together in offices, factories, and other public places. This has increased the social contacts between the opposite sexes. Consequently, premarital and extramarital relations result in a higher proportion of illegitimate births and unmarried mothers. The parents, in order to avoid embarrassment, often resort to abortion or they may even kill the illegitimate children. A large number of girls who become pregnant before marriage may commit suicide. The new-born children of unmarried mothers are ill-treated and called bastards. Thus, unmarried mothers are socially dishonoured.

9.3. Remedial Measures

Society has to develop a humanitarian and sympathetic attitude. Women’s welfare organizations and the other authorities must find out the causes of the problems of the unmarried mothers and think of solving their problems. More and more orphanages have to be started to help those children. The state should extend its helping hand by providing training and employment opportunities to unmarried mother to lead a dignified life.

9.4. Challenges of Unmarried Mothers

• Financial challenges: Unmarried mothers face financial challenges. The death of a family member can leave the surviving unmarried mothers with unexpected bills and reduced income, and they face difficulty to get married and also to lead a normal life as the support from their parents are not possible after their death. Important decisions like marriage and after child birth have to be taken care of without the support and guidance of their parents, and divorces also take place if the unmarried mothers had lost their parents.

  Divorce divides the couple’s resources and doubles the living expenses with two households to support. Once get divorced, they live as single parent, and they are restricted in the type of work opportunities and available hours due to abundant family responsibilities. This can lead to limited income and an inability to pay for basic necessities. They may turn to public assistance for help.

• Logistical challenges: Unmarried mother faces many logistical challenges that impact her ability to provide for her family both financially and emotionally. She must often work full-time and depend on full-time childcare services. She must drop her preschool or school-age children off early before school and pick them up late after school. An unmarried single parent must have a flexible job that allows her to leave work for sick children, doctor’s appointments, parent conferences, and school performances. Her work and promotion opportunities may be limited if she appears to be unavailable or her parental responsibilities outweigh her work performance.
• Emotional challenges: Unmarried single parent faces many emotional challenges as she mourns the loss of a deceased spouse or absent parent. The sudden death, divorce, or birth of an unexpected baby takes an emotional toll on a single parent, who may not have anyone to share intimately about her personal challenges. Unmarried mother may become depressed and emotionally unavailable. Alternatively, she may hold back her own feelings to help her children overcome their emotional struggles. She must help them work through the loneliness and anger that they experience. Otherwise, they may develop low self-esteem and anger issues. Unmarried mothers tend to carry this guilt and blame themselves for the painful emotions that their children feel.
• Social and academic challenges: The financial, logistical, and emotional struggles an unmarried mother faces absorb the abundance of her time. She may not have time left for a social life. Her financial limitations may leave nothing left for her personal needs or any social activities. She may also not have resources for childcare to go out because she already uses childcare full-time during the week to enable her to work. Many unmarried mothers work and go to school to improve employment opportunities. This leaves little time to help the children with homework. As a result, the children’s grades may sink; they begin to fail classes and eventually drop out of school.

10. RIGHTS OF THE CHILD

The concept of the rights of the child is of relatively recent origin. The changes in the social attitudes regarding children have brought about transformation in their legal status also. Before the 19th century, the predominant notion in the West was that of child as property. The social legislations that accompanied the Industrial Revolution brought about a change in the legal status of the child. The beginning of the 20th century witnessed tremendous changes in the recognition of the child as an independent entity. In addition, there was also a growing recognition that children should be provided special care. This was reflected in the declaration adopted by the convention at the League of Nations in 1924 that stressed protection of children from hunger and other material needs.

10.1. Fundamental Principles of the Convention

• Equal value as human rights: An underlying principle of the convention is that of according children the same value as adults. The principle stressed that childhood has value in itself.

Figure 18.7 Fundamental Principles of the Convention

• Each child has rights: The recognition that children have as much value as an adult implies that all children should enjoy rights. This principle is fundamental to the convention; the principle is based on the notion that children are subjects and not objects of the rights.
• Respect for child’s opinion: The corollary to the notion that children are subjects of rights is the principle that their opinion should be respected. It means that the child has the right to freedom of expression, thought, conscience, and assembly.
• Best interests of the child: While children have as much value as the grown-ups, they also need the protection and support from society to enjoy their childhood. The principle of best interests of the child balances the need for providing protection to them while respecting them.

10.2. Indian Laws on Child Rights

• Article 15 (3): Nothing shall prevent the state from making any special provision for women and children.
• Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories and so on. No child below the age of 14 shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.
• The Supreme Court of India, 1990, SC 292 (Justice Ranganath Mishra, Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah, and Justice P.B. Sawant) held that segregating prostitutes’ children by locating separate schools and providing separate hostels would not be in the interest of such children. Once children are born to prostitutes, it is in the interest of such children of the society at large that the children of the prostitutes should be segregated from their mother and be allowed to mingle with others and become part of the society.
• The Employment of Children (Amendment) Act, 1978, prohibits employment below the age of 15 years in railway premises.
• The Apprentices Act, 1961, prohibits a person under age of 14 years from becoming an apprentice.
• The Motor Transport Act, 1961, prohibits the employment of children less than 15 years of age.
• The Factories Act, 1948, prescribes the minimum age of employment in factories as 14 years.
• The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958, prohibits children below 15 years to be engaged in work in any capacity in a ship.
• The Employment of Children (Amendment) Act, 1951, prohibits the employment of children between the age of 15 and 17 years.
• The Factories (Amendment) Act, 1954, prohibits employment at night of children below 17 years of age.
• The Mines Act, 1952, prohibits the employment under 15 years.

10.3. Rights of the Child

• Right to life (Article 6, Para 1)
• Right to acquire nationality (Article 7)
• Right to freedom of expression (Article 13, Para 1)
• Right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion (Article 14, Para 1)
• Right to freedom of association and peaceful assembly (Article 15, Para 1)
• Right to education (Article 28, Para 1)
• Right to benefit from social security (Article 26, Para 1)
• Right to standard of living adequate for child’s physical, mental, spiritual, and social development (Article 27, Para 1)
• Right to enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health (Article 24, Para 1)
• Right to protection of the law against arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home, or correspondence Article 16, Para 1)

10.4. International Covenants

Article 24 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, spells out the following:

• Every child shall have, without any discrimination on the basis of race, colour, sex, language, religion, national and social origin, property, or birth, the right to such measures of protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society, and the state.
• Every child shall be registered immediately after and shall have a name.
• Every child has the right to acquire a nationality.

Article 10(3) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 1966, lays down special measures of protection and assistance that should be taken on behalf of children and young persons without any discrimination for reasons of parentage or other conditions.

10.5. Important Laws Affecting Children in India

India is a secular country with multicultural dimensions and various religions. So, child protection is to be viewed from various angles in this regard. The following laws also affect children in India:

• Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929
• Guardian and Wards Act, 1890
• Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956
• Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956
• Hindu Succession Act, 1956

10.6. Child Right on Health

Hospitals where children are treated provide trained staff and organizational frameworks to mitigate children’s fear, pain, and distress. Restraint should be avoided in case of invasive procedures, which include needle prick injuries, procedures requiring immobility, or minor but painful procedures (life-threatening situations are exception). Restraint is an unacceptable technique in direct contradiction to the child’s right to protection from all forms of physical or mental violence.

The most important points are as follows:

• A healthcare system accessible to all children from age 0–18 years regardless of status, cultural background, illness, or disability that ensures the highest attainable standard of healthcare provided by specifically trained paediatric staff within the necessary infrastructure and environment.
• Parents are considered by the caring team as partners who are as much as possible involved in the treatment of their child. The responsibility of parents for the care of their sick child is acknowledged by State Parties by regulations that allow paid leaves and compensate parents for all costs directly related to a child’s illness, disability, or stay in hospital.
• Children are treated in children’s hospitals or wards by specially trained paediatric staff in an environment adapted to the needs of children of different ages and stages of development.
• Children are not admitted to adult wards with non-paediatric staff and in an environment unsuitable for children. If for rare examinations, surgery, or treatments not available in a nearby children’s hospital, children are exceptionally admitted to adult wards, and then they are transferred back to the children’s ward as quickly as possible. Doctors or specialists from the adult ward visit child patients in the children’s ward and not vice versa.
• Hospitals where children are treated provide trained staff and organizational frameworks to mitigate children’s fear, pain, and distress. Restraint should be avoided in case of invasive procedures, which include needle prick injuries, procedures requiring immobility, or minor but painful procedures (life- threatening situations excepted). Restraint is an unacceptable technique in direct contradiction to the child’s right to protection from all forms of physical or mental violence.
• Children’s hospitals are fully reimbursed for non-medical care of children by professional staff (such as hospital play specialists, teachers, psychologists, social workers, and so on). The right to therapeutic and recreational play and education during a hospital stay is a basic requirement for the wellbeing of the children.
• Due to the enormous success of scientific research in the field of paediatric medicine, many fatal children’s diseases can now be cured; great progress has also been achieved in the rehabilitation of disabilities. Many of these children nowadays enjoy a life as healthy adults and are fully valid members of the society. They earn their own living and pay taxes. State Parties, therefore, need to understand that the cost of a holistic healthcare system for children is not lost money, but an investment in a society’s future.

10.7. Conclusion

National Policy for Children, 1974 envisages the scheme of integrated child development services with 33 integrated children development schemes in blocks or projects. The scheme provides for an integrated package of services comprising supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check-up, referral services, pre-school non-formal education, and health and nutritional education for mother. These programmes are being implemented and looked after with the help of CARE, World Food Programme, and UNICEF.

11. VULNERABLE GROUP: THE ELDERLY

Since time immemorial, man has been concerned with the behavioural changes associated with ageing. The process of ageing continues from birth to death. The natural phenomenon of ageing has profound implications for both the individual and society. Depending upon their necessity, different countries formulate different laws for the elderly. There are many variations in defining ageing. Some consider ageing relative, asserting that chronological age is not a good predictor of any things because of the great individual differences found in the ageing population.

11.1. The Aged and Society

In the old civilized societies, the elderly generally enjoyed a high status. The status was assumed because of the experience and knowledge of the aged that helped the family and society.

Old age has been divided into the following categories:

• Young old: 65 to 75 years
• Old: 75 to 85 years
• Old old: 85 to 100 years
• Elite old: over 100 years

11.1.1. Types of Ages

• Chronological age: Chronological age marks may be associated with specific events. They have broad social and personal significance in most of the societies in all stages of the life cycle. They also provide social regulation of the ageing process. Chronological age is a poor index of ageing as it does not take into account the range of individual difference among people.

Figure 18.8 Types of Ages

• Biological age: The biological age of an individual can be defined as an estimate of the life span. The measurement of the biological age would encompass measurements of the functional capacities of the vital life-limiting organ systems.
• Psychological age: Psychological age is reached through the adaptive capacity of an individual to changing environmental demands—the ability to adjust with time and situation. The study of psychological age involves the study of memory, learning, intelligence, skills, feeling, motivation, and emotions.
• Social age: Changes in the social age of the individuals are those that have to do with the changing circumstances or situations as a member of the family, community, and society. These may be called sociological changes.
• Functional age: Functional age can be grouped by the individual level of capacity relative to others of the same age or functioning in a given human society. The term functional is a two-fold indication of measurable characteristics in the individual, on the one hand, and of his functioning in a physical, social, or otherwise determined environment, on the other.

11.2. Services for the Aged

The family, community, government, and the elderly themselves have to contribute in providing basic services to the elderly. Table 18.7 lists the services that aged people require.

 

TABLE 18.7 Services Required for aged People

Type	Services
Social services	Medical services in hospitals or in nursing homes In the home for the aged In families: Services for the incapacitated such as home visits, home services, and escorting Recreational activities, consumer education, and legal aid for persons with physical capacity and social contacts Housing and environments Continuing education or adult education
Social welfare services	Day care services Institutional services Infirmaries Poor homes Information and referral services Services for old persons with special needs, such as the physically handicapped who are unable to look after their interests
Socio-psychological services	Community education and awareness Family support including respite care Leisure-time activities Religious and spiritual activities Preparation of retirement Counselling services
Economic services	If he belongs to a family below poverty line If he is ailing or infirm, requiring long hospitalization If he has some family responsibility such as education or marriage of his sons or daughters Social employment

11.3. Services Provided to the Elderly

• Medical care is provided for the chronologically ill through mobile dispensaries and access to health centres is established.
• Providing of aids such as spectacles, crutches, sticks, transportation, and so on
• Organizing social and religious activities in temples and spiritual gatherings
• Providing recreational activities such as low-cost movies, holiday centres, day centres, libraries, and reading rooms
• Providing better living condition in healthy environment
• Providing opportunities for community services
• Helping the elderly in managing investments and tax exemptions
• Counselling service for overcoming isolation

11.4. Elderly Abuse

The key to prevention and intervention of elder abuse is the ability to recognize the warning signs of its occurrence. Signs of elder abuse differ depending on the type of abuse the victim is suffering. Each type of abuse has distinct signs associated with it.

• Physical abuse can be detected by visible signs on the elder’s body, which include bruises, scars, sprains, or broken bones. More subtle indications of physical abuse include signs of restraint such as rope marks on the elder’s wrist or broken eyeglasses.
• Emotional abuse often accompanies the other types of abuse and can usually be detected by changes in the elder’s personality or behaviour. The elder may also exhibit behaviour mimicking dementia such as rocking or mumbling.
• Financial exploitation is a more subtle form of abuse, in comparison with other types, and may be more challenging to notice. Signs of financial exploitation include frequent withdrawals from accounts, belongings, or money missing from the elder’s home, unpaid bills, and unnecessary goods or services.
• Sexual abuse, like physical abuse, can be detected by visible signs on the elder’s body especially around the breasts or genital area. Other signs include inexplicable infections, bleeding, and torn underclothing.
• Neglect is an interesting type of abuse. It can be inflicted either by the elder’s caregiver or oneself. Signs of neglect include malnutrition and dehydration, poor hygiene, noncompliance to a prescription medication, and unsafe living conditions.

In addition to observing signs in the elderly individual, elder abuse can also be detected by monitoring changes in the caregiver’s behaviour. For example, the caregiver may not allow the elder to speak to or receive visitors, exhibit indifference or a lack of affection towards the elder, or refer to the elder as ‘a burden’. Caregivers, who have a history of substance abuse or mental illness, are more likely to commit elder abuse than other individuals. Elder abuse can sometimes be subtle and therefore difficult to detect. Regardless, any suspicion must be taken seriously and concerns must be adequately and immediately addressed.

11.5. Health Problems in Elderly

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 75 per cent of deaths in people over the age of 65 in industrialized countries are from heart disease, cancer, and cerebrovascular disease (such as stroke). Another major cause of death and disability is osteoporosis and associated bone fractures, which affects many women due to post-menopausal bone loss. Millions of senior citizens across the globe are not getting the proper healthcare they need because governments and the society are not aware enough of the problem. According to UN estimates, by 2025, there will be about 1200 million people aged 65 years and above. Failure to address oral health needs today could develop into a costly problem tomorrow. Seven per cent of the 1.1 billion Indian population is today over the age of 60 years. They too wish to have a better access to healthcare, look forward to fun, health, dignity, economic independence, and a peaceful death. They cannot afford to be ill as sickness is expensive.

11.6. Organizations Involved in Elderly Care

11.6.1. HelpAge India

In April 1978, HelpAge India was registered in Delhi. Within three months, it became autonomous as financial support ceased from UK. Soon after, the Society was awarded Certificates of Exemption under Sections 12A and 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961, thus indicating general confidence in the Society’s affairs. HelpAge is integrating its programmes and services, and consciously moving from welfare towards development and long-term sustainability for seniors. HelpAge is working closely with Senior Citizen Associations and encouraging seniors to speak up for their own rights. In our continuing fight against poverty, isolation, and neglect of elders in our society, we have made significant strides. The aim is to help elders rebuild their own lives and take charge of their own future, restoring within them a sense of self-worth and confidence. Advocacy is one of the strongest tools for impact and change; it is gaining impetus with sensitization of school principals, urging them to include Value Education on Age Care in school curriculums. In order to create a secure financial net for elders, HelpAge is also pushing forth Reverse Mortgage for seniors. To deal with the rising crime against elders, an awareness campaign was launched, sensitizing the decision makers to take action.

In a country of 100 million (current estimate) elder persons, 33 per cent live below the poverty line, 90 per cent are from the unorganized sector with no social security, and 73 per cent are illiterate and dependent on physical labour.

HelpAge reaches out to the underprivileged elderly through its various services in the areas of financial, health, and emotional security. HelpAge is slowly moving from welfare to integrated age care services for the elderly in urban and rural areas, expanding its scope of services quantitatively as well as qualitatively. In the recent past, new services have been started such as Elder Help lines and physio care, and existing services are experimenting in new areas. One such example is that of the Mobile Medicare Unit (MMU) programme. The MMU service in some areas not only provides basic healthcare but also delves into new initiative such as providing disability aids, shelter assistance, yoga, specialized home visits, and provision of psychological therapy among others.

HelpAge India runs and implements the following projects to improve the elders’ quality of life:

• Mobile Medicare Units: These are medical vans that take healthcare facilities to the doorsteps of needy older people. They dispense free medicines and health checks for the elderly. They are manned with a qualified doctor, a pharmacist, and a social worker who counsels older people and the community within which they live. In case of complicated cases, the MMUs also make referrals to local hospitals with which they have tie-ups.
• Restoring sight: Cataract destroys the vision of thousands of elderly across the nation every year. For want of a simple operation, many are unable to see. Nearly 12 million older people in India are blind due to cataract. HelpAge India conducts thousands of free cataract operations every year.
• Residential care: These are safe havens for those who fall through the family net or have no one to call their own. HelpAge believes old age homes are not the solution to the problem and the best care for an older person is within his or her own family. Many older people suffer from loneliness and depression. For them, HelpAge India’s day care centres serve as a common place to share each other’s concerns. They spend their day interacting with each other and catching up on each other’s day-to-day lives; some even take part in recreational and income-generating activities such as candle making, basket weaving, and so on.
• Support a gran: For those older people with no family and no financial or social support, HelpAge India links them to individuals and organizations who take care of their basic needs.
• Income generation: With the aim of restoring pride and dignity to thousands of elderly and making them financially self-sufficient, HelpAge has started income generation schemes, enabling the elderly to look after themselves.
• Advocacy: HelpAge voices the concerns of the elderly and has been fighting for their rights for some time now. It has also contributed towards the government’s National Policy of Older Persons. It has successfully pushed forward for travel and tax concessions and other benefits for the elderly.
• Relief and rehabilitation: Older people are especially vulnerable during disasters, but often get sidelined when aid is distributed. HelpAge is running large relief and rehabilitation programmes in Gujarat, coastal India, and Jammu and Kashmir to help them put their lives back together.

11.7. Conclusion

The problems and needs of the elderly are different in different societies because the aged suffer from multiple problems in terms of economic, social, and psychological in nature. Social work has to take into consideration the complexity of inter-relationship of several factors such as physical, health, economic resources, and social status. The old, who have discharged their duties in life, expect a peaceful life and affection from their children and grandchildren. Personal interest in old age includes interest in self, interest in appearance, interest in clothes, and interest in money. People become increasingly more preoccupied with themselves as they grow older. They may become egocentric and self-centred to the point where they think more about themselves than about others and have little regard for others’ interests and wishes.

12. VULNERABLE GROUP: THE HANDICAPPED

The handicapped are those who are physically and mentally impaired. They are generally called disabled persons. The difficulties of disabilities are experienced by the person’s themselves. The handicapped person has to become a dependant on others for a long period and is hence considered as a burden to the family and to the society. It is estimated that there are more than 400 million disabled in the world.

Physical handicap does not refer to any single problem. It includes a host of problems. One physically handicapped person may find it difficult to move or walk; another may be blind or deaf; a third one may have lost his limbs, and so on. If we treat physical handicap as a single problem, we may not be able to do justice to the handicapped in terms of assistance because the only common thing between various physical handicaps is that in every case, the lifestyle becomes restricted.

12.1. Concept of Handicapped

The concept of handicapped has been used in a broader sense in our Constitution to refer to weaker sections and so they deserve specific welfare and rehabilitation measures. Persons with disabilities can take charge of their own health when they have information related to their own experience of their bodies and health needs. Physically and mentally handicapped persons are a social problem today. They need our cooperation. If proper training is given, they can also work like normal persons. The WHO identifies three elements in disability: problems in bodily function and structure, which they call impairment; problems relating to activities or disability; and problems related to social participation, which they call handicapped.

12.2. Causes of Being Handicapped

• Congenital defects
• Physical and mental disability due to accidents
• Decrease in mobility because of communicable diseases
• Malnutrition
• Industrialization and urbanization
• Poverty and ignorance
• Low sanitary standards
• Overcrowding and insufficient resources of medical care and preventive measures
• High prevalence of infectious diseases

12.3. Types of Handicapped Persons

There are several kinds of handicaps. Table 18.8 presents the types of handicaps that people suffer from.

 

TABLE 18.8 Types of Handicapped Persons

Type	Description
Blind	Those persons who have lost total eyesight and visual activity and those with partial sight
Deaf and dumb	The non-function of the sense of hearing and consequently unable to speak. They do not hear and so cannot understand sounds. There may be various categories: partial hearing, mild impairment, serious impairment, and severe impairment.
Orthopaedically handicapped	Persons with physical defect or deformity of bones, muscles, or joints, crippled, and polio-affected persons
Mentally deficient or retarded	Below-average function of the brain and impairment in adaptive behaviour
Epileptic and the chronically sick	TB, leprosy, liver and renal diseases, and so on
The speech-impaired	Defective speech that influences with communication

12.4. Services Given to the Handicapped

The services rendered by the government for the handicapped with the assistance of the WHO and other foreign agencies are as follows:

• Medical and health services: This includes physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and prosthetics and orthotics.
• Training of personnel: This refers to training given to nurses; physiotherapists; vocational counsellors; teachers for the blind, the deaf, and the mentally deficient; and speech therapist.
• Vocational and formal education: This includes the following:
  • Special vocational training for the disabled
  • Special school for the deaf and the blind
  • Special school for the orthopedically handicapped, which gives training in carpentry, electric work, tailoring, telephone operation, cane work and so on.
• Economic assistance: This is given to students, government employees, and patients for treatment. The assistances are as postal concession for Braille material and as income tax concession.
• Legislative support: Those who suffer injury during the course of work and other physically injured persons are protected by Workmen’s Compensation Act, Employees’ State Insurance, and so on. Efforts must be made to provide compensation, security, and insurance to injured persons.

12.5. Rehabilitation Measures

• Government provides grants and other concessions to private agencies to maintain the disabled. Free treatment is given in hospitals to rehabilitate them physically and mentally.
• In an attempt to meet the challenges of providing education to the disabled, various preventive, diagnostic, and vocational services have been started.
• Under preventive services, national preventive programmes such as special nutritional programme and maternity and child health programme have been launched. Polio immunization; national blindness eradication; malaria and TB eradication; prevention of deafness, retardation, and leprosy; and other programmes have been initiated and being carried out successfully by the government.

12.6. Disability and Health

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) define disability as an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Disability is the interaction between individuals with a health condition (e.g., cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, and depression) and personal and environmental factors (e.g., negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited social supports).

Over a billion people are estimated to live with some form of disability. This corresponds to about 15 per cent of the world’s population. Between 110 million (2.2 per cent) and 190 million (3.8 per cent) people 15 years and older have significant difficulties in functioning. Furthermore, the rates of disability are increasing in part due to ageing populations and an increase in chronic health conditions.

Disability is extremely diverse. While some health conditions associated with disability result in poor health and extensive healthcare needs, others do not. However, all people with disabilities have the same general healthcare needs as everyone else and therefore need access to mainstream healthcare services. Article 25 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) reinforces the right of persons with disabilities to attain the highest standard of healthcare without discrimination.

12.6.1. Health Problems of Disabled

People with disabilities are particularly vulnerable to deficiencies in healthcare services. Depending on the groups and settings, persons with disabilities may experience greater vulnerability to secondary conditions, co-morbid conditions, age-related conditions, engaging in health risk behaviours, and higher rates of premature death.

• Secondary conditions: Secondary conditions occur in addition to (and are related to) a primary health condition and are both predictable and, therefore, preventable. Examples include pressure ulcers, urinary tract infections, and osteoporosis and pain.
• Co-morbid conditions: Co-morbid conditions occur in addition to (and are unrelated to) a primary health condition associated with disability. For example, the prevalence of diabetes in people with schizophrenia is around 15% compared with a rate of 2–3 per cent for the general population.
• Age-related conditions: The ageing process for some groups of people with disabilities begins earlier than usual. For example, some people with developmental disabilities show signs of premature ageing in their 40s and 50s.
• Engaging in health risk behaviours: Some studies have indicated that people with disabilities have higher rates of risky behaviours such as smoking, poor diet, and physical inactivity.
• Higher rates of premature death: Mortality rates for people with disabilities vary depending on the health condition. However, an investigation in the United Kingdom found that people with mental health disorders and intellectual impairments had a lower life expectancy.

12.7. Welfare of the Disabled

In Karnataka, Social Welfare Department had implemented many schemes for disabled persons to assist them to secure education and academic, technical, or professional training on the shop or floor of the industrial establishment as would enable them to earn a living and to become useful members of the society. Under this scheme, two specials schools, one for visual impaired and one for hearing impaired with hostel facilities, are running at the Government level. Besides these two Govt. schools, four NGOs have established another five special schools (four for mentally retarded and one for hearing impaired). It is common sight in our society that the persons with disabilities have been badly neglected and discriminated, but the disabled people do have outstanding abilities. However, the abilities of these people are hardly recognized because they have been excluded from the mainstream of the society.

In the wake of the growing realization of the conditions of the people with disabilities and the urgency to provide all rehabilitation services to this section of the society, this department came into existence in the year 1988. The thrust of the department is to bring the persons with disabilities into the mainstream of the society and to focus on the abilities rather than their disabilities. This department comes under Women and Child Development Secretariat and Department of Disabled Welfare, Govt. of Karnataka.

The department concerns about main disabilities such as blindness, low vision, leprosy cured, hearing impairment, locomotor disability, mental retardation, and mental illness.

With a view to provide rehabilitation services, the department implements various programmes. The annual income limit to avail these benefits under these departmental schemes in urban area is 24,000 and in rural areas, it is 11,500.

Computer training is being provided to the needy disabled students. The textbooks of PUC and BA degree courses in humanities subjects are recorded in audio cassettes and are made available to the visually disabled students along with tape-recorders (returnable) in order to encourage education among the visually disabled.

Assistance for self-employment (ADHARA) scheme aims at the economic rehabilitation of disabled persons. A kiosk (small petty shop) worth 6000 is provided free of cost, while a loan of 6000 is extended towards the working capital through the Deputy Commissioner. Under this scheme, telephone booths are provided to the disabled persons free of cost for their economic rehabilitation. Moreover, under this scheme, aids and appliances such as tricycles, hearing aids, braille watches, and so on are supplied to disabled persons.

Financial assistance to disabled persons is provided monthly. Disabled persons whose family income is less than 6000 per annum are entitled for this maintenance allowance of 100 per month, and tahsildars are the sanctioning authorities. Moreover, insurance schemes are provided for the parents or guardians of mentally retarded persons and are insured by the department after whose death wills, the mentally retarded persons will receive a monthly annuity for maintenance.

Under this scheme, identity cards are being issued to all the disabled persons, thereby enabling them to avail facilities under different programmes. This scheme aims at promoting disabled artists and provides financial assistance to the disabled artists. In addition, the scheme gives financial assistance to the disabled sportsmen to participate in national and international games.

The department is headed by the Director of Disabled Welfare at the state level. In the district level, Assistant Director of Women and Child Development is the overall authority for implementing the programmes of the Department of Disabled Welfare. The assistant director is assisted by one district disabled welfare officer to look after the works of disabled wing in the district. In addition, the child development project officers and their project staff at taluk levels are also responsible for identifying the beneficiaries under the schemes of the department.

12.8. Nurse’s Role in Disabled

Nursing encompasses autonomous and collaborative care of individuals of all ages, families, groups and communities, sick or well, and in all settings. It includes the promotion of health, the prevention of illness, and the care of ill, disabled, and dying people. Developmental Disability Nurses, also known as Special Needs Nurses help patients with mental or developmental disabilities like Down’s syndrome, autism, and so on. These nurses also educate patients’ families about the disability and provide emotional support. A Developmental Disability Nurse can work in a variety of settings, from hospitals to schools, to private businesses and patients’ homes.

12.9. Conclusion

The nurses, who are in charge of the handicapped, should behave in such a way that the latter do not feel that they are handicapped and incapable of doing anything. They should instil confidence in the handicapped and encourage them to do things better. They should see that the handicapped, especially the children, do not develop any inferiority complexes. They should be made to feel that by a little effort, they can also become useful citizens and not a burden on society. It is the duty of the government to provide special schools, teachers, and nurses with necessary equipment to train the handicapped persons in the fields of their choice and never consider them as a burden to the society.

13. CHILD LABOUR

Child labour is any work done by the children that interferes with their full physical development and their needed recreation. This is a problem widely prevalent in the poorer countries. Economic distress forces the children to indulge in activities that do not become a part of their age. These children are economically exploited because their employers find them as a cheap alternative to the grownups. On the other hand, the parents of these children are so poor that they send them to work so that the children can contribute to the family income.

13.1. Nature of Child Labour

• Domestic work: It includes cleaning, cooking, child care, and other chores in the child’s own household undertaken by children in almost all societies.

Figure 18.9 Nature of Child Labour

• Non-domestic but non-monetary work: It includes activities like farm work, fuel and water collection, and hunting. Even in the urban sector, many urban household production units are engaged in trades and services involving child labourers.
• Bonded labours: It arises as one of the obligations to landlords whereby the provision of child labour is part of the family’s rent or in a situation where children are given in settlement of debts. Bonded labour is illegal.
• Wage labours: The children may work on a piece rate or on time rate basis, as regular or casual workers, in jobs that may or may not involve something tiring.
• Marginal work: This may be regular or of a short-time nature, such as selling newspapers, shoe polishing, car washing, garbage collection, or sorting out objects from garbage.

13.2. Statistics of Child Labour

The finding of the Operations Research Group (ORG), Baroda (published in 1983), came up with an estimate of four million working children in India. This figure is based on an all India child sample survey conducted by the ORG in 1980–1981. In 1983, the Planning Commission had projected the number of child workers at 17.36 million. More than 80 per cent of working children belong to the rural areas and work in the primary sector of the economy. According to the 1981 Census, about 86.4 per cent of child work force is employed in agricultural and allied activities in the rural sector. India with 44 million child labourers has the highest incidence of child labour in the world.

While 10 per cent of them are engaged in various industries, the rest, that is, 90 per cent are bonded (Child Labour, Prachi Jaiswal, 1996). A large number of children are employed in the unorganized informal sector in which most of them are engaged as domestic helps.

13.3. Causes of Child Labour

Child labour is thriving due to several socioeconomic reasons. These causes have been put forth in Table 18.9.

 

TABLE 18.9 Causes of Child Labour

Cause	Description
Economic	India is a country in which more than 26 per cent of the people are living below poverty, as per a 2001 estimate. Many families with extreme poverty are compelled to send their children for work so that they contribute something for the family income. Child labourers have neither a labour union of their own nor the bargaining power. They are employed in mining, glass-making, carpet-weaving, and leather industries mainly with this intention. To secure more profit for factories, some industrialists believe in the appointment of child labourers as their labour is very cheap.
Familial factors	Family disorganization often leads to child labour. Extreme poverty and economic necessity of the family, as it has already been mentioned, is one of the factors favouring child labour. Divorce, desertion, rigid family relations, cruelty at home, runaway parents from the unpleasant family environment, and so on lead to child labour.
Other factors	bad habits: Children belonging to the poor families often become the victims of certain bad and costly habits such as smoking, gambling, purchasing lottery tickets, and so on. When they do not get enough pocket money from home, they often resort to outside work to earn money to satisfy their bad habits. Justification of employing child labourers: Some employers justify their act of employing little children for work. They argue that work keeps poor children away from starvation. Lack of public awareness: There is lack of public awareness regarding the social evils such as child abuse and child labour. Failure of government machinery and legislative system.

13.4. Child Labour in India

India has the largest number of child labourers in the world who are engaged in both organized and unorganized sectors. In March 1995, the number of employed children below 14 years of age and engaged in various economic activities constituted 17 million (9.5 million males and 7.5 million females). A large majority of these child labourers are engaged in agriculture and allied sectors, whereas others are found in urban and industrial areas.

13.4.1. Unorganized Sectors

• Rural areas: Villages have a large number of child labourers. More than three-fifths of them have not even turned 10 years of age.
• Urban areas: Towns and cities attract a large number of child labourers, who are mainly employed in petty shops, canteens, restaurants, workshops, and garages.
• Bonded labourers: Child labourers are also serving as bonded labourers. In Andhra Pradesh, 21 per cent of the bonded labourers are children; in Karnataka, 10.3 per cent; and in Tamil Nadu, 8.7 per cent.

Figure 18.10 Unorganized Sectors

13.4.2. Organized Sectors

Due to poor economic conditions, child labourers are found even in the so-called organized sector, that is, in factories and various industrial units. The most pitiable working children are those employed in hazardous industries like glass industry, brassware industry, firework and matchbox units, diamond-cutting, carpet-weaving industry, and so on.

13.4.3. Karnataka’s Five-point Perspective

• As responsible citizens of Karnataka, do we have the moral right to exploit the difficult situation of the child, family, and environment?
• Child labour is not a welfare issue but a development issue.
• Legislation alone cannot solve the issue of child labour.
• Why is it that in India, 11 crore children are employed while 3.40 crore adults are unemployed? There is no alternative to childhood.

13.5. Hazards of Child Labour

More specifically, hazardous child labour is working in dangerous or unhealthy conditions that could result in a child being killed or injured and/or made ill as a consequence of poor safety and health standards and working arrangements. Some injuries or ill health may result in permanent disability. Often health problems caused by working as a child labour may not develop or show up until the child is an adult.

Hazardous child labour is the largest category of the worst forms of child labour with an estimated 115 million children in the age group 5–17 working in dangerous conditions in sectors as diverse as agriculture, mining, construction, manufacturing, service industries, hotels, bars, restaurants, fast food establishments, and domestic service. It is found in both industrialized and developing countries. Girls and boys often start carrying out hazardous work at very early ages. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that some 22,000 children are killed worldwide at work every year. The numbers of those injured or made ill because of child labour are not known.

13.5.1. Latest Statistics on Child Labour Hazards

• More than half (53 per cent) of all child labourers worldwide do hazardous work.
• Hazardous work is increasing among older children, aged 15–17 years. Within four years (2004–2008), it jumped 20 per cent—from 52 million to 62 million.
• Boys (15–17 years of age) who are doing hazardous work outnumber girls by two to one and the rate remains high. For girls, the number fell by 24 per cent between 2004 and 2008.
• In the age group of 5–14 years, 53 million children (about one-third) are involved in hazardous child labour.
• About 15 per cent of all Sub-Saharan African children are involved in hazardous child labour.

Child labourers are susceptible to all the dangers faced by adult workers when placed in the same situation. However, the work hazards and risks that affect adult workers can affect child labourers even more strongly. The results of lack of safety and health protection can often be more devastating and lasting for them. It can result in more fatal and non-fatal accidents, permanent disabilities or ill health, and psychological or behavioural or emotional damage.

When speaking of child labourers, it is important to go beyond the concepts of work hazard and risk as applied to adult workers and to expand them to include the developmental aspects of childhood. As children are still growing, they have special characteristics and needs that must be taken into consideration when determining workplace hazards and the risks associated with them in terms of physical, cognitive (thought or learning) and behavioural development, and emotional growth.

13.6. Child Labour and Health

According to the ILO estimates, there are 120 million children engaged in work in the developing countries. This is an alarming statistic. Not only is child labour, arguably, an infringement of the basic rights of the child, it is also potentially damaging educational, physiological, and psychological developments of the children. A first reaction might be to support a legal ban on child work. More considered opinion suggests that a legal ban is likely to have limited effectiveness given the difficulty of regulating the informal labour markets in which many children work, and furthermore, if a ban were effective, it might not be in the best interests of children from poor families because they reliant upon their children’s productive contribution to maintain a subsistence existence. The relationships between child labour and health are complex. They can be multidimensional, dynamic, positive and negative, causal or spurious, and, in the former case, running from work activity to health or vice versa. The diversity of potential relationships makes their empirical disentanglement a difficult exercise.

Concern about the health consequences of child labour derives primarily from the belief that work increases the child’s exposure to health hazards that threaten to subject the child to illness or injury. The hazards may be obvious and threaten immediate damage to health, such as those risks arising in construction, manufacturing, and mining industries from the use of dangerous tools and machinery and exposure to high temperatures and falling objects. Alternatively, the hazards may be less perceptible and hold long-term consequences for health such as risks from contact with dust, toxins, chemicals, and pesticides; the lifting of heavy loads; and the forced adoption of poor posture. Hazards may also threaten psychological health through exposure to abusive relationships with employers, supervisors, or clients (ILO, 1998). The health consequences of child labour will vary with the type of hazards to which the child worker is exposed to. Variation in the nature of child work across industries and across countries means there is no one relationship between child work and health but a variety of such relationships.

13.6.1. Child Labour and Health Problems

Although every occupation is difficult for a child, there are some that are not only difficult but also extremely hazardous for him or her from the health point of view. Table 18.10 enumerates such occupations and also highlights the hazards to which the children are subjected to.

 

TABLE 18.10 Child Labour and Health Hazards

Occupation	Health and Injury Hazards
Beedi industry	Chronic bronchitis and tuberculosis
Glass industry	Asthma, chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis, eye defects, and burns
Handloom industry	Asthma, tuberculosis, and bronchitis
Carpet industry	Posture-related spine problems
Zari and embroidery	Eye defects
Gem- and diamond-cutting	Eye defects and injuries
Construction	Accidents and stunted growth
Rag-picking	Skin diseases, infectious diseases, and tetanus
Pottery	Asthma, bronchitis, and tuberculosis
Scone quarries	Silicosis
Sex work	Sexually-transmitted diseases like AIDS
Agriculture	Hazards related to farm machinery and pesticides

13.7. Government Measures to Prevent Child Labour

• Directive principles of state policy: In the Constitution of India, provisions have been made to protect the interests of children. Article 24 of the Constitution states that children below 14 years shall not be employed in any factory or in any hazardous unit. It declares the commitment to safe-guard children’s interests.
• Legal measures against child labours: The legislative policies undertaken after Independence to prevent child labour are as follows:
  • The Indian Factories Act 1948, which forbids appointing children below 14 years for work and fixes the duration of work at four-and-a-half hours per day.
  • The Plantations Labour Act 1951, which forbids appointment of children below 12 years for plantation work.
  • The Mines Act 1952, which prevents the appointment of children below 15 years from working in deep mines.
  • The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, which is the first national-level and universally applicable measure undertaken by the Government of India to prevent the appointment of children below 14 years.

13.7.1. UN System in India on Child Labour

A common position paper on the issue of child labour, adopted by 16 UN organizations in India, was launched on 23 October 1998 in New Delhi. The UN system in India supports a wide range of activities and programmes directly linked to eliminating child labour in India. ILO and UNICEF have played a leading role in this endeavour. Other organizations like UNDP, UNDCP, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNIFEM, and UNAIDS also conduct programmes on child labour. The UN system views child labour as a violation of the child’s basic right to education, to his or her full and harmonious social, physical, and mental development, and in some cases, a violation of child’s moral and physical integrity. Therefore, the UN system in India believes that child labour should not be tolerated in any form and must be prevented and eliminated.

13.8. Conclusion

Child labour includes children prematurely leading adult lives, thereby working long hours for low wages under conditions that damage their health and their physical and mental development, sometimes separated from their families, and frequently deprived of meaningful education and training opportunities that could shape them up for a better future.

14. CHILD ABUSE

Child abuse is the term that refers to children who have received serious physical injury, which was caused wilfully. This definition has not taken into consideration the neglect and maltreatment of children and mental and sexual harassment. The broader meaning of child abuse includes three types of abuses—physical, sexual, and emotional. The abuse may be caused by an adult or another child. It causes serious injury to the child and even results in his or her death.

14.1. Signs of Child Abuse

If a child has been abused, there are obvious signs that reflect in his or her behaviour. Such signs have been discussed in Table 18.11.

 

TABLE 18.11 Signs of Child Abuse

Child Abuse	Characteristics
Physical abuse	Unexplained or repeated injuries as bruises or burns Injuries that are in the shape of an object (belt buckle, electric rod, and so on) Injuries not likely to happen, given the age or ability of the child, for example, broken bones in a child that is too young to walk or climb Disagreement between the child’s and the parent’s explanation of the injury Unreasonable explanation of the injury Obvious neglect of the child (dirty, undernourished, clothes inappropriate for the weather, lack of medical or dental care, and so on)
Emotional abuse	Aggressive or withdrawn behaviour Shying away from physical contact with parents or adults Afraid to go home
Sexual abuse	The child telling that he or she was sexually mistreated. The child having physical signs such as: Difficulty in walking or sitting Stained or bloody underwear Genital or rectal pain, itching, swelling, redness, or discharge Bruises or other injuries in the genital or rectal area The child having behavioural and emotional signs such as: Difficulty in eating or sleeping Soiling or wetting pants or bed after being potty-trained Acting like a much younger child Excessive crying or sadness Withdrawing from activities Talking about or acting out sexual acts beyond normal for his or her age
Family characteristics	Families who are isolated and have no friends, relatives, or other support systems Parents telling that they were abused as children Families who are often in crisis (having money problems more often) Parents who abuse drug or alcohol Parents who are very rigid of their child Parents who are very rigid in disciplining their child Parents who show too much or too little concern for their child Parents who feel they have a different child Parents who are under a lot of stress

14.2. Causes of Child Abuse

Generally, the causes of child abuse are poverty, illiteracy, adaptation failure, family disorganization, death of parents, disobedience of parents, lack of adequate control, and defective socialization. Irritable nature and rigidness of authorities, low income, lack of effective school education, and other factors also lead to child abuse.

14.3. Risk Factors of Child Abuse

Research has linked certain characteristics of the child and caregiver, as well as features of the family environment, to child abuse and neglect.

Vulnerability to child abuse—whether physical, sexual, or through neglect—depends in part on the child’s age and sex. Young children are most at risk of physical abuse, whereas the highest rates of sexual abuse are found among children who have reached puberty or adolescence.

In most places, boys are the victims of beatings and physical punishment more often than girls, whereas girls are at higher risk of infanticide, sexual abuse, forced prostitution, and educational and nutritional neglect. Globally, more than 130 million children between the ages of 6 and 11 years are not in school of which 60% are girls.

Other factors that increase a child’s vulnerability to abuse include being raised by a single parent or by very young parents without the support of an extended family household overcrowding, a lack of income to meet the family’s needs, and the presence of other violent relationships in the home.

Parents who are more likely to abuse their children tend to have low self-esteem, poor control over their impulses, mental health problems, and display antisocial behaviour. They also tend to be uninformed and have unrealistic expectations about child development.

Research also shows that child maltreatment is more likely in communities with high rates of poverty and with lesser social networks and neighbourhood support systems, which have been shown to protect children.

14.4. Effects of Child Abuse

• Child abuse produces a negative attitude called social devaluation. In other words, it is called loss of social esteem. Furthermore, it leads to deviant behaviour.
• A large number of victimized children indulge in violation of social norms. Consequent to their dependency, they try to escape from such a situation. Absence from school, absence from work, running away, stealing of money, drug addiction, and so on are some of the common deviant behaviours found among abused children.
• Child abuse also leads to social and interpersonal problems like isolation, withdrawal from interactional settings, and antagonistic relations with parents or caretakers.
• There are more chances of the children being re-victimized, which hinders the development of their personality. Hence, a majority of them are forced to become child labourers. They are exposed to work for longer hours in hazardous work conditions. They miss education, and many of them become bonded labourers.
• Majority of the children are found working in fireworks, tea gardens, hotels, household works, mining, and so on. Working under inhuman conditions and unhygienic surroundings, the children suffer from various diseases such as lung diseases, tuberculosis, eye diseases, asthma, bronchitis, and so on.

14.5. Measures to Ameliorate the Problem

• The first Factory Act to regulate the employment of children and their hours of work was introduced in 1881. Later on, the Child Labour Act 1933 and the Factory Act of 1948 provided some safeguards to child labourers.
• The Juvenile Justice Act 1986 was introduced in different stages. Advisory boards and state children funds for preventing the abuse of children and providing protection and care of children, educational facilities, and training and rehabilitation facilities were provided.
• The government has tried to improve their working conditions, reduce working hours, and ensure minimum wages and health arid education. However, the legislative measures have proved to be ineffective.
• The Union Government set up a National Advisory Board in 1993 to eliminate child labour in hazardous industries by the year 2000. The Government provided 850 core to rehabilitate the child workers and educate them. However, the Government was not serious in implementing the plan.
• The Supreme Court in 1996 banned child labour and ordered to set up a child labour rehabilitation welfare fund aimed at safeguarding the social and humanitarian rights of the children.
• UNICEF has taken up various ameliorative measures for child welfare.
• The present need is that the laws must be enforced to curb this menace. People need to change their attitude towards children, who must be provided opportunities to develop their potentialities in a healthy and free social environment and must be protected against exploitation.

14.6. Forms of Child Abuse

Child abuse falls into one or more of four categories: physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect.

• Physical abuse: Physical abuse may involve hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning or scalding, drowning, suffocating, or causing physical harm to a child. It may also be caused when a parent or caretaker fabricates symptoms of or induces illness in a child.
• Emotional abuse: Emotional abuse is the persistent emotional ill treatment of a child such as to cause severe and persistent effects on the child’s emotional development. Some level of emotional abuse is involved in most types of ill treatment of children, although emotional abuse may occur alone. It may involve the following:
  • Conveying to a child that he or she is worthless, unloved, inadequate, or valued only insofar as he or she meets the needs of another person
  • Imposing developmentally inappropriate expectations, for example, interactions beyond the child’s developmental capability, overprotection, limitation of exploration and learning, and preventing the child from participation in normal social interaction
  • Causing a child to feel frightened or in danger, for example, witnessing domestic violence and seeing or hearing the ill treatment of another
  • Exploitation or corruption of a child
• Sexual abuse: Sexual abuse involves forcing or enticing a child to take part in sexual activities, such as prostitution, whether or not he or she is aware of what is happening.

  Activities may involve physical contact including penetrative and non-penetrative acts. ‘Penetrative acts’ include ‘rape’ (forced penetration of vagina, anus, or mouth with a penis) and ‘assault by penetration’ (sexual penetration of vagina or anus of a child with a part of the body or an object).

  Sexual activities may also include non-contact activities such as involving a child to look at abusive images, to watch sexual activities, or to encourage him or her to behave in sexually inappropriate ways. It may include use of photos, pictures, cartoons, literature, or sound recordings via internet, books, magazines, audio cassettes, tapes, or CDs.

  Children less than 16 years of age cannot lawfully consent to sexual intercourse, although in practice, they may be involved in sexual contact to which, as individuals, they have agreed. According to law, a child less than 13 years is considered incapable of providing consent.

• Neglect: It involves the persistent failure to meet a child’s basic physical and/or psychological needs, which is likely to result in the serious impairment of the child’s health and development. Neglect may occur during pregnancy as a result of maternal substance misuse. Once the child is born, neglect may involve failure to:
  • Provide adequate food, clothing, or shelter (including exclusion from home or abandonment)
  • Protect from physical and emotional harm or danger
  • Meet or respond to basic emotional needs
  • Ensure adequate supervision including the use of adequate caretakers
  • Ensure access to appropriate medical care or treatment
  • Ensure that her or his educational needs are met
  • Ensure her or his opportunities for intellectual stimulation are met

14.7. Child Abuse and Health Problems

There are four main types of abuse:

1. Physical: It happens when parents or other adults deliberately injure a child or do nothing to prevent it. This not only includes physical violence but also giving children alcohol or drugs. The most serious cases can result in brain damage and even death.
2. Emotional: It happens when parents continuously fail to show love and affection to a child. This might include sarcasm, threats, criticism, yelling, and taunting. The effects are serious and long-lasting.
3. Neglect: It happens when parents fail to meet a child’s basic needs for food, warmth, clothing, or medical attention. Neglected children may be very withdrawn or very aggressive and can develop health problems or have difficulty in coping at school.
4. Sexual: It happens when an adult, or sometimes an older child, uses a child for sexual gratification. This might mean forcing a child to carry out sexual acts or deliberately showing a child adult pornographic videos or magazines, and filming or photographing children in a sexual way. Both boys and girls are sexually abused, and it can happen to very young children—even babies—as well as older ones. The effects of sexual abuse are enduring and highly damaging. Some children who are abused in this way may go on to become abusers themselves.

14.8. Child Abuse Prevention Programme

The statistics can feel overwhelming. In 2006, an estimated 9,05,000 children in the United States were found to be victims of child abuse and neglect. However, child abuse and neglect can be prevented. State and local governments, community organizations, and private citizens take action every day to protect children. Research has shown that parents and caregivers who have support—from family, friends, neighbours, and their communities—are more likely to provide safe and healthy homes for their children. When parents lack this support or feel isolated, on the other hand, they may be more likely to make poor decisions that can lead to neglect or abuse of their children.

Preventive activities are conducted by many State, local, and Tribal governments, as well as community and faith-based organizations. The services they provide vary widely. Some preventive services are intended for everyone such as public service announcements (PSAs) aimed at raising awareness about child abuse within the general population. Others are specifically targeted for individuals and families who may be at greater risk of child abuse or neglect. An example of this might be a parenting class for single teen mothers. Some services are developed specifically for families where abuse or neglect has already occurred to reduce the negative effects of the abuse and prevent it from happening again.

Common activities of prevention programmes include the following:

• Public awareness, such as PSAs, posters, and brochures, promote healthy parenting, child safety, and how to report suspected abuse.
• Skills-based curricula teach children safety and protection skills. Many of these programmes focus on preventing sexual abuse.
• Parent education help parents develop positive parenting skills and decrease behaviours associated with child abuse and neglect.
• Parent support groups, where parents work together, help to strengthen their families and build social networks.
• Home visitation focuses on enhancing child safety by helping pregnant mothers and families with new babies or young children learn more about positive parenting and child development.
• Respite and crisis care programmes offer temporary relief to caregivers in stressful situations by providing short-term care for their children.
• Family resource centres work with community members to develop a variety of services to meet the specific needs of the people who live in surrounding neighbourhoods.

Two elements have been shown to make prevention programmes more effective, regardless of the type of service or intended recipients. Involving parents in all aspects of programme planning, implementation, and evaluation helped to ensure that service providers are working in true partnership with families. Parents are more likely to make lasting changes when they are empowered to identify solutions that make sense for them.

14.9. Child Abuse Protective Factors

Prevention programmes have long focused on reducing particular risk factors or conditions that have been found through research to be associated with child abuse and neglect in families. Increasingly, prevention services are also recognizing the importance of promoting protective factors and conditions in families and communities that research has shown to increase the health and wellbeing of children and families. These factors help parents who might otherwise be at risk of abusing or neglecting their children to find resources, supports, or coping strategies that allow them to parent effectively, even under stress. The following protective factors have been linked to a lower incidence of child abuse and neglect:

• Nurturing and attachment: When parents and children have strong, warm feelings for one another, children develop trust that parents will provide what they need to thrive.
• Knowledge of parenting and of child and youth development: Parents who understand how children grow and develop can provide an environment where children can live up to their potential.
• Parental resilience: Parents who are emotionally resilient have a positive attitude, creatively solve the problem, effectively address challenges, and are less likely to direct anger and frustration at their children.
• Social connections: Trusted and caring family friends provide emotional support to parents by offering encouragement and assistance in facing the daily challenges of raising a family.
• Concrete supports for parents: Parents need basic resources such as food, clothing, housing, transportation, and access to essential services that address family-specific needs (such as child care, health care, and mental health services) to ensure the health and wellbeing of their children.

14.10. Conclusion

Child abuse and child labour are serious problems in India. A large majority of the Indian children are neglected by parents, exploited by employers, harassed, and abused. They remain in distress and turmoil. Millions of children from poor families are compelled to join the labour force, In India, 15 per cent of the children are child labourers. Sexual abuse among children refers to involvement of immature children in sexual activities, rape, prostitution, and so on. Emotional abuse is maltreatment of children. Social abuse of children includes kidnapping and forcing them to beg in streets or using them for sexual gratification.

15. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Juvenile delinquency refers to the criminal offences committed by children and youth. Antisocial practices of this type are a serious danger to the welfare of society. Juvenile delinquency, a legal term for criminal behaviour carried out by a juvenile, is often the result of escalating problematic behaviour. Juvenile delinquents are non-adult criminals or underage criminals. Usually, the delinquents fall between 7 and 16 years of age. According to Juvenile Justice Act of 1986, the age limits have been set as 16 years for boys and 18 years for girls.

15.1. Causes of Juvenile Delinquency

According to Pauline Young, the most important causes of juvenile delinquency are poverty, slums and infected areas, immigrant communities, lack of meaningful and satisfying relationship, family disorganization, war, comic books, bad companionship, and social change.

According to W. Healy and A. Bronner, the main causes of juvenile delinquency are bad company, adolescent instability and impulses, early sex experiences, mental conflicts, extreme social instability, love for adventure, motion pictures, school dissatisfaction, sudden impulses, and physical conditions of all sorts.

• Personal cause: This may include the biological and psychological conditions of a child.
• Environmental cause: This may include the geographical or ecological causes.
• Psychological cause: These may include feeblemindedness, emotional strain, love for adventure, stubbornness, and non-fulfilment of basic wishes such as recognition, response, and security.
• Sociocultural factors: These may be considered to be more important than biological or physical ones as sociologists hold the view that man is not born criminal but made so.
• Family: The home is the first school for a child. His or her socialization and personality development takes place in the family. Most sociologists have laid much stress on the condition of the family for the causation of juvenile delinquency. Broken homes, too much discipline or too less discipline, irresponsible parents, mother working outside the home, too many children, and lonely child are some of the causes.
• Economic conditions: Poverty at home, unemployment of parents, and the instability of the parents to provide the children with adequate facilities create delinquency.
• Education: The absence of education or the lack of proper education may result in juvenile delinquency. Overcrowded schools, uncommitted teachers, and teaching being uninteresting to the young boys and girls may lead to truancy.
• Religion and morals: Religion and morals help the children in their socialization and social control. In the absence of these, the children turn delinquent.
• Unhealthy recreations: Unhealthy recreation like cinema, television, and radio also causes delinquency. The young mind is much influenced by the modern media.
• Political conditions: A healthy political situation provides control and welfare of the society. However, political instability, corruption, and confusing leadership mislead the young. Political conflicts like war and revolutions also affect their behaviour.

15.2. Characteristics of Juvenile Delinquency

• The delinquency rates are much higher among boys than among girls.
• The delinquency rates tend to be the highest during early adolescence (12–16 years age group).
• Juvenile delinquency is more in urban areas than in rural areas. The metropolitan cities produce more juvenile delinquents than small cities and towns.
• Low education background is the prime attribute for delinquency.
• Poor economic background is another important characteristic of juvenile delinquency in India.
• Although some delinquencies are committed in groups, the number of juvenile gangs having support of organized adult criminals is not much in our country.
• More than four-fifths of the juvenile delinquents are first offenders and only a little more than one-tenth are recidivists or past offenders.

15.3. Forms of Juvenile Delinquency

In the United States, some of the patterns of juvenile delinquency are bullying, cheating, cruelty, drinking, gambling, obscenity, sex perversion, smoking, stealing, teasing, truancy from home and school, undesirable companions, filth, and violation of traffic rules.

In India, some of the serious forms of juvenile delinquency are delinquent action against properties like stealing and damaging, gambling, murder and suicide, assault, sexual offences like rape and sodomy, ticketless travel especially in trains, and escape from custody.

15.4. Types of Delinquency

• Truancy: This is called kindergarten crime. The school children attempt to escape from school. Generally, a truant stays out of the school. He indulges in bad company and in wandering and gambling. This kind of behaviour may be due to unsuitable conditions at home and school, and strictness in school.
• Vagrancy: This is another type of delinquency. Vagrant children are generally neglected, uncared, and wandering. These children generally belong to poor families or disorganized families, which could not provide them the basic needs of food, education, affection, clothing, and so on.

15.5. Control and Remedy of Juvenile Delinquency

While treating a juvenile delinquent, the welfare of the child is given the foremost importance. As he is a minor, he cannot be held responsible for the offensive act he has committed. The purpose is not to punish him but to correct his criminal tendencies and make him a useful citizen. The Children’s Act of 1960 passed by our parliament seeks to provide care, protection, maintenance, welfare, training, trial, and rehabilitation of delinquent and neglected children. Every attempt is made to correct his deviant behaviour and also to equip him for a normal adult life such as the following:

• Proper assessment of the entire problem in a scientific and sociological manner
• Improvement in economic conditions
• Better education
• Training of parents to have a responsible parenthood
• Revival in the system of religion and morals
• Facilities for proper treatment and reformation of juvenile delinquents with supervision of juvenile courts, juvenile police, and reformation centres

15.6. Preventive Measures

• Team work of private and public agencies. These include schools, church, parent–teacher associations, youth organizations like scouts and guides, social workers, police department, and so on.
• Establishment of child guidance clinics. Seriously disturbed and maladjusted children can be treating by these clinics.
• Education of the family; family life must be strengthened by educating the members of the family.
• Establishment of wholesome recreational activities such as sports, drama, puppet show, and other cultural activities. Youth organizations must take such responsibilities.
• Assistance to the underprivileged children.
• Propaganda about causes and protecting of the youth must be undertaken.
• Improving the environment, providing better schooling and housing facilities, and raising the income level of poor families.

15.7. Rehabilitation Measures

Today’s children are tomorrow’s citizens, and if the rate of delinquency increases, naturally they become criminals tomorrow. Therefore, it is the most important task of the society and the government to think of protecting, preventing, and rehabilitating children from falling into social evils. The following measures have been taken for rehabilitation:

• In 1850, the Apprentice Act was introduced in which provision was made towards learning of trade and craft so that the juvenile can make an honest living.
• Reformatory Schools Act of 1877 can be regarded as a landmark in the treatment of delinquents. The underage offenders were detained in reformatory schools for a period not less than three years and not more than seven years, where they would be given industrial training. They would be provided with food, clothing, and bedding in a good environment.
• After Independence, the Juvenile Justice Act 1986 was passed, which has made all provisions for the minimum standards for basic needs, living conditions, and therapeutic services to juvenile institutions.

15.8. Important Juvenile Institutions

• Remanded homes: The juvenile children are kept in remand homes during the tendency of their trial. They are not to be mixed with adult offenders in prisons. These are observational homes, where some welfare measures are taken by probation officers. Besides, healthcare facility is provided.
• Certified schools or reformatory schools: In the reformatory schools, the delinquents are kept for a minimum period of three years and a maximum period of seven years. They are meant only for boys. They are managed by voluntary bodies or by the government. They provide school education, industrial training, and so on.
• Borstal schools: Borstal schools are established for youth offenders in the age group of 16–21 years. Special treatment is provided to adolescent offenders by keeping them separate from the adult offenders. The main motive behind separation is to provide correction service and to rehabilitate the youngsters.
• Probation hostels: Probation hostels are the institutions that provide residential care and treatment to the offenders released under probation. They will be under the supervision of a probation officer.

15.9. Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Programmes

Juvenile delinquency prevention programmes take many forms, working not just with at-risk individuals but also with their families, detention centres, and the surrounding community. Education, recreation, and family intervention programmes are all examples that aim to lower the number of juvenile offenders. Additional programmes work to reform convicted delinquents through detention centres and probation offices with the aim of preventing offenses repeated both during and after offenders’ release from custody.

• Education programmes: These are aimed at parents, children, and the community as a whole to increase awareness about gangs, drugs, sex, and violence. Programmes for parents may involve information regarding signs of gang involvement and drug use or how to give meaningful talks to children about sex and drugs; children’s programmes are usually offered through schools and may include how to deal with peer pressure or family problems; community programmes are specific to the given community and may include neighbourhood watches, curfews, or simply meetings where statistics and ideas are discussed and goals are outlined.
• Recreation programmes: The purpose of recreation programmes is essentially to provide youths with meaningful activities in which to participate, make friends, and stay away from potentially violent or unhealthy environments. Such activities include sports teams, youth groups, and community clubs such as the Boy or Girl Scouts. Recreation programmes also provide adult supervision and unite members of the community, that is, children and parents alike.
• Family intervention programmes: Many parents are unprepared and/or poorly equipped to take care of their children. Reasons may include lack of income or education, living in especially unhealthy communities, and dealing with difficult child developmental or behavioural problems. Family intervention programmes, such as the parent–child interaction training programme, exist to assist these parents with raising their children. In this 12-week programme, therapists teach parenting methods to parents of two- to seven-year-old children with behavioural problems. Additional programmes deal with parenting at all stages, ranging from before birth to adolescence.
• Detention centres: Detention centres are places where the youths are incarcerated and given opportunities by the state to exhibit reforms in their attitudes and behaviour, thereby reducing the severity of their punishments. Depending on his case, an inmate may receive drug rehabilitation treatment, anger management sessions, or other counselling. Educational opportunities are also offered as a source for reform. In the Nebraska Correctional Youth Facility, for example, the inmates have the opportunity to complete general education as well as to take college-level courses. The main goal of these programmes is to reduce the rate of repeated offenses upon release. Probation programmes aid this transition through monitoring activity, imposing curfews or other limitations, and administering continuing drug tests.
• Ineffective programmes: The effectiveness of a prevention programme is generally evaluated by its ability to reduce the rates of first-time offenders and repeat offenders. Examples of ineffective programmes are the ‘scared straight’ and ‘juvenile boot camp’ programmes. These emerged under the ‘get tough on crime’ policies of the 1990s. Basing their strategies on scare tactics and harsh discipline, these programmes failed to reduce offense rates, and in some cases, it was even counterproductive.

15.10. Effective Ways to Prevent Juvenile Delinquency

The adolescent period of human development can be a difficult time for both the teens and their parents. Still legally under their parents’ control, adolescents also strive to establish independence and forge their own identities. While the conflicts and arguments that arise during this period are typically short lived, mistakes tied to juvenile delinquency can have consequences that are long lasting. Ultimately, it is crucial to prevent juvenile delinquency so that young people do not harm themselves or others or face legal consequences with long-term repercussions.

• Talk to children when they are young: Young children spend most of their time with their parents or primary caregivers. As such, the early childhood years present an ideal time to prevent the emergence of delinquent behaviour in later years. The establishment of a relationship of trust between parents and a young child helps facilitate continued communication into the teen years. Parents can take advantage of the precious early years of their children by spending quality time with them so they feel loved and protected.
• Monitor socialization: A parent’s job, however, does not end once a child reaches adolescence. During this period, parents must know who their child’s friends are and stay abreast of his or her activities. However, it is important not to be too strict or oppressive of teens or they may rebel. Instead, show a general interest in meeting their friends and maintain a welcoming home environment so that they feel comfortable inviting friends over. In the computer age, particular attention must be paid not only to in-person social interactions but also to online exchanges, profiles, and visits to social networking sites.
• Minimize free time: Minimizing an adolescent’s unstructured time is another way to prevent delinquent behaviour. After-school or summer activities such as sports, clubs, and jobs are excellent options. Volunteering is an activity that can keep teens occupied as they serve their community. It is important to give young people access to the things that most interests them. While major cities offer a host of activities for young people, teens in rural areas could have fewer options. Therefore, it is important to be creative in finding activities that interest rural teens because boredom is strongly linked to delinquency.
• Promote independence: When teens are independent and self-confident, they may be less likely to succumb to negative peer influence that leads to juvenile delinquency. Instead, they can rely on their own standards of right and wrong when making decisions and engage in behaviours that correspond with their own personal convictions and beliefs. Depending on their personality, maturity, and responsibility level, independent teens may not even require the establishment of a curfew. Instead of punishment, a system of rewards based on access to the activities that they love could make delinquent behaviour less appealing.

15.11. Effectivenesss of Treatment for Violent Juvenile Delinquents

Violent crimes carry some of the harshest penalties in the justice system and have very high repeat rates for convicts. The juvenile justice system attempts to minimize the number of violent offenders in prisons and in juvenile facilities by rehabilitating violent juvenile delinquents. Participants may be required to participate in treatment programmes as a condition of release or may participate while in a delinquent facility. Many of these programmes may also be used as a preventive measure for a child or teen who may be getting in trouble.

15.11.1. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a category of psychological treatment designed to transform maladaptive cognitions and behaviours. This type of therapy format is used very frequently in the rehabilitation of violent juvenile offenders, and has been shown to be among the most successful of treatment types. The following are the four types of treatment for violent juvenile delinquents all based on CBT techniques.

• Anger management: Anger management training teaches participants to control anger with relaxation and self-coaching in a group format. This type of training can be successful in reducing recidivism in violent juvenile offenders, but there are conditions under which treatment is more likely to be effective. Small group size, specificity of targeted behaviour, specificity of offense, and longer training length are all characteristics of more successful anger management training programmes.
• Cognitive skills programming: Cognitive skills programmes teach participants to think about situations in a more positive way as well as teach them problem-solving skills, which are often lacking in violent teens. This type of programme teaches teens to avoid acting upon a first impulse when faced with a difficult situation. Instead, careful consideration of alternatives and consequences is encouraged before action is taken. This programme does have at least moderate effects in reducing recidivism in violent youth participants, which is estimated at 36 per cent by Correctional Services Canada.
• Violence Prevention Unit Programme: The Violence Prevention Unit programme (VPU) is among the more intense and lengthy of treatments for violent juvenile delinquents. Treatment is provided in a group format and usually lasts about 28 weeks. In this programme, participants are coached through eight learning units, where the focus is placed on empathy and morals as well as changing cognitions and learning problem-solving skills. This type of treatment has been shown to be very helpful in reducing relapse in violent delinquents who finished the programme and in extending time before re-conviction in those who did not complete the full programme.
• Functional family therapy: It is often used to treat violent juvenile offenders who may have an abusive or dysfunctional family history. In this type of therapy, the therapist will work with the family of the offender to determine ways to improve individual and family functioning. The goals of therapy are to improve communication between family members, resolve conflicts, and restore healthy self-image to the offender and their family. Functional family therapy has, in general, been found to be successful in reducing recidivism in its participants as well as the siblings of offenders who may also participate in therapy.

15.12. Conclusion

Juvenile delinquency is a very serious social problem. It is also an educational problem because it has been found that the delinquents usually show evidence of poor adjustment in schools before they get into difficulties with the juvenile courts. The problems of juvenile delinquency and crime can be remedied by creating better social institutions and environment in our society. Better homes, better economic conditions, better education, recreation, and better governance can go a long way in this direction.

16. CRIME

Crime is a great social problem facing every society. It is an act forbidden by law, and there is a penalty prescribed for it. It is the price paid for the advance of civilization. It is a major problem in modern civilized societies. It is the omission of an act that the law of the land asks to do or the commission of an act that it forbids doing. The law may be written or unwritten. When the law is not written, crime is generally recognized as transgressions against the traditions, or mores of the community crime, therefore, may be regarded as that behaviour of the individuals which the group strongly disapproves of.

16.1. Classifications of Crime

• Crimes against body: Murder or its attempt, culpable homicide not amounting to murder, kidnapping and abduction, hurt, and causing death by negligence.
• Crimes against property: Dacoity, its preparation and assembly, robbery, burglary, theft, and extortion.
• Crimes under public order: Riots and arson.
• Economic crimes: Criminal breach of trust, cheating, and counterfeiting.
• Crimes against women: Rape, dowry death, cruelty by husband and relatives, molestation, sexual harassment and importation of girls, and outraging the modesty of women.
• Crimes against children: Child rape, kidnapping and abduction of children, selling or buying of girls for prostitution, abetment of suicide, exposure and abandonment, infanticide, and foeticide.
• Professional crimes: The term professional is used when offenders are highly skilled and are accorded high status among criminals. Their activities include pick-pocketing, shoplifting, burglary, passing bad cheques, extorting money from persons in illegal sex activities, and operating a variety of con games.

16.2. Commonest Forms of Crime

There are also crimes that stem from the drug business (e.g., money laundering) and from economic necessity because the abusers need money to buy more drugs. Apart from these crimes, there are organized crime problems, which are intertwined with the drug crime problem. Drug trafficking is the major source of income for organized crime groups. In addition, there is a white-collar crime problem. It is also linked with other types of crime. For example, federal investigators uncovered a scheme in 1998 by two New York crime families and half a dozen Wall Street stockbrokers to commit stock fraud.

• Drug crimes: The drug crime category encompasses a range of offenses connected with the use, transportation, purchase, and sale of illegal drugs.
• Street crime: The most common forms of predatory crime—rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny, and auto theft—occur most frequently on urban streets. Racial minority citizens account for a disproportionately high number of the arrests for street crimes.
• Organized crime: The term organized crime refers to the unlawful activities of members of criminal organizations that supply illegal goods and services.
• Political crime: The political crime category includes both crimes by the government and crimes against the government. Political goals motivate political criminals.
• Victimless crime: Consensual acts (in which people are willing participants) and violations in which only the perpetrator is hurt, such as the personal use of illegal drugs, are called victimless crimes.
• White-collar crime: White-collar crimes are offenses that persons commit while acting in their legitimate jobs and professions. White-collar criminals behave in unethical ways for self-gain (e.g., embezzlement) or for the benefit of a business (e.g., corporate price-fixing). Victims of white-collar crime include the economy, employers, consumers, and environment.

16.3. Factors of Crime

According to M.A. Elliot and F.E. Merrill, in any satisfactory analysis, the factors must be considered in relation to the whole rather than as the sum of the single isolated factors.

• Physical and mental characteristics of the individual: Mental defects, epilepsy, mental disorder, and certain emotional disturbances have a great bearing upon the making of the criminals.
• Biological factors: These are insanity, physical disability, and defective glandular and nervous systems. The physiological causes may be neurosis, psychopathy, and emotional instability.
• Environmental factors: Home conditions are definitely responsible for producing criminals. When the home is immoral or when there are immoral, drunken, epileptic, insane, or feebleminded parents present in the family, the child is easily led astray.
• Economic factors: Economic factors often foster crime. It has been observed in the West that crimes increase with depression and unemployment and decrease with good living conditions. They are also committed when the individuals are not satisfied with their lawful earnings and adopt unsocial conduct for the satisfaction of their desires. The economic factors of crime are economic competition, poverty, unemployment, desire for more wealth, unlimited desires, industrialization, poor natural resources, inflation, and so on.
• Poverty: Large-scale unemployment means social disorganization, which leads to poverty, and poverty in turn leads to crime.
• Urbanization and industrialization: The growth of industries in industrial areas has led to agglomerations of the people in large numbers, especially from the rural areas and from different social strata.
• Superstition: Because of their ignorance and weak morale, people are often led to believe that spells and sacrifices can bring material advantage. These beliefs cause frequent crimes such as human murders.
• Sociological factors: The frequency of offence is due to social interaction, social disintegration, social competition, social mobility conflict, defective social institutions, and lack of education in a society.
• Area and regional differences in crime: It has been observed by sociologists that crime arise in volume and form by areas and regions. The areas of high crime rates in cities provide an unstable social setting in which individuals can become unadjusted to the way of living required by the dominant moral group.
• Effects if class, sex, age, and race: Owing to their sociological position, the individuals in the lower classes of a society are suspected of displaying greater risk and liabilities for getting involved in crime and for being acted upon officially.

16.4. Psychological Effects from Hate Crimes

A hate crime is a crime intended to harm or intimidate people because of their race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or other protected group status. Hate crimes are shown to be more harmful than other non-motivated types of crimes and have longer residual effects psychologically. As hate crimes affect both the person directly involved as well as the larger community, the effects are far-reaching.

• Sexual orientation: According to Dr. Gregory Herek of the National Institute of Mental Health, hate crimes based on sexual orientation are the most distressing of the hate crimes. Survivors of this type of hate crime show increased depression, stress, and anger. These psychological effects have significant damage on the person’s self-esteem and harm coping skills in the person as well. The victim often lives in fear of another experience and often questions their self-worth as a person.
• Posttraumatic stress disorder: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is likely to occur in any victim of a hate crime. This disorder emerges after a person experiences an event that involves death, injury, or threat. Symptoms of this disorder often include intrusive thoughts, recurring dreams, inability to discuss the event, and emotional distancing between the victim and people in their lives. Sufferers sometimes show signs of irritability and difficulty in concentrating, which affect their work lives and social relationships.
• Effects on community: Typically, the person who is committing a hate crime is often trying to deliver a message about their negative opinion of a larger group of people. Members of this larger group do not have to be directly affected by a hate crime to feel its residual effects. These people also often experience fear and anxiety, and question their safety following a hate crime incident. By sharing the victim’s identity, other members of the community internalize feelings of distress and often have lower self-esteem.
• Behavioural changes: In response to a hate crime, the victim sometimes changes his or her behaviour in an effort to ward off future crimes. He or she often feels that changing the way he or she acts prevents future attacks. The victim sometimes feels paranoid and is easily agitated. Changes in behaviour include withdrawal from normal activities and changes in appearance. Other behavioural changes include retaliation, where the person becomes aggressive and suspicious of others.

16.5. Crime in India

In India, there are no reliable figures on crime. The available statistics cover only those arrested and convicted or the crime known to the police, and even these figures are not reliable. Racketeering, black marketing, tax evading, corruption, and so on are crimes committed by white-collared men in their business and professional transactions. Our moral sense is at its lowest ebb. Terrorism has become the order of the day. The social causes of crime are disorganization, social competition, social mobility and conflict, defective social institutions, lack of education, sexual literacy, and so on. Reform of the criminal is the main motive in this treatment. In India, various measures are being taken to give better treatment to the criminals in jails.

16.5.1. Crimes under Special and Local Laws

India has enforced several laws to curb criminal activities. Table 18.12 enlists these laws.

 

TABLE 18.12 Special and Local Laws

Special and Local Laws
Arms Act
Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act
Gambling Act
Prohibition Act
Explosive Act and Explosive Substances Act
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act
Indian Railways Act
Registration of Foreigners Act
Protection of Civil Rights Act
Indian Passport Act
Essential Commodities Act
Terrorist and Disruptive Activities Act
Antiquity and Art Treasure Act
Dowry Prohibition Act
Child Marriage Act
Indecent Representation of Women (P) Act
Copyright Act
Sati (Prevention) Act
SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act

16.6. Ways of Reducing the Crime Rate

Regardless of whether a community engages in a crime prevention programme, crime rates may continue to rise if such a programme is not implemented wisely. Violent crime as well as non-violent crime should be a cause for concern. If citizens gauge their crime prevention strategies on the basis of verifiable data, such as police reports, they may be able to create effective prevention programmes that serve to reduce the crime rate within their communities.

• Intervention programmes: Negative trends can be reversed. True to the maxim that ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’, intervention programmes aim to prevent criminal behaviour before it occurs. Whether targeting primary school children or prison inmates, such programmes are implemented to curb criminal tendencies.
• Providing stiff penalties: Stiff penalties, such as capital punishment, are a deterrent for many criminals. Individuals who are deterred by little else than these drastic penalties operate at stage one of the preconventional level of morality as outlined by the prominent social psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. This level of morality deems necessary obedience only as a means for avoiding punishment. Thus, punishment of a violent sort that possibly results in death is meted out to the individuals who habitually engage in violent crimes in order to deter other would-be criminals from engaging in similar behaviour.
• Infiltration: Undercover operations can be used to expose criminal behaviour and to hold individuals accountable for their actions. While police sometimes conduct undercover stings that are focused on rooting out drug dealers or exposing prostitution rings, citizens also can use undercover techniques to record criminal activities within their own communities. Videos of illegal activity that have been posted on online social networking sites have assisted law enforcement officials in prosecuting criminals for their behaviour.
• Community awareness: Keep your finger on the pulse of your community by nurturing relationships with family, neighbours, or employees of local businesses. In many respects, citizens are more effectively prepared to combat crime than are seasoned law enforcement officials.
• Avenues of communication: Communication is the key to the process of crime prevention. Law enforcement officials should be encouraged to create proactive response programmes, such as the Amber Alert that is used to report abducted children. By permitting citizens easy access to crime reports, officials can further increase opportunities for volunteer collaboration in reducing the crime rate.

16.7. Types of Prison Rehabilitation

Prison inmates can have certain freedoms of life restricted after being convicted of criminal activity. The goal of prison is both to punish and to rehabilitate the inmates, with the intent that upon release, an inmate has a higher chance of re-entering society and functioning without criminal activity. Although not all inmates participate in rehabilitation programmes, some rehabilitation programmes include educational, spiritual, work, and transitional programmes.

• Educational programmes: Educational programmes within the prison environment include classes to help with obtaining a graduate degree or high school diploma, college level coursework, learning English as a second language, and activities within the library. Inmates who increase their skills in these areas often have a higher chance of re-entering the society and being more successful at not repeating the criminal behaviour. Working within these educational settings gives an inmate something else to do with his time.
• Spiritual programmes: Prisons hire chaplains to minister, supervise, and manage the spiritual needs of an inmate population. Inmates are free to practice any religion of their choice, including no religion at all. Community leaders and organizations often volunteer their time to provide study over sacred texts, worship services, meditation sessions, and other spiritual practices in accordance with prison rules and safety requirements. Self-help programmes are also provided, such as life-building and communication skill-building classes.
• Work programmes: Working within the prison gives inmates several benefits, including a structured work day, the ability to practice positive team-building skills, and receiving pay that helps them fund incidental living expenses behind bars. Work programmes include inmates working as part of day-labour crews that are hired to do things like janitorial work, stripping and waxing of flooring, garbage clean-up along state and federal roadways, concrete work, landscaping, and other similar types of work. After release, this work experience can help inmates obtain jobs or help in providing paperwork to the court for receiving custody of children from foster care.
• Transitional programmes: Transitional rehabilitation programmes help the inmate prepare for release and then guide the inmate back to successful re-entry to society. These take the form of counselling to help with anxieties about being released and sessions that provide information on local resources that help with free clothing, housing assistance, and more. Some inmates may be required to stay at a halfway house for a temporary period, where he is provided assistance in finding employment, required to save money, abide by a curfew, and abstain from alcohol and drug usage. These rules vary depending on the type and purpose of each halfway house.

16.8. Conclusion

Crime is due to maladjustment between the individual and the group that creates a critical situation. It is an act forbidden and punished by law. It is almost always immoral according to the prevailing ethical standards. It is normally feasible to repress it by penal measures, and its repression is necessary or supposed to be so. In the attitude of the society towards the criminal, personal responsibility has been emphasized. The criminal is looked upon as a depraved sort of human being.