Subject Index
A
AC circuits, total power in, 171
parallel connected loads, 172
series connected loads, 172
total active power, 171
total reactive power, 171
AC–DC converters, 313
AC filter, 333
schematic of, 334
AC input supply, 313
classification, 313
controlled rectifiers, 313
DC filter, 333
schematic of, 334
DC signals, magnitude of, 314
filters for, 333
fourier series analysis, 322
output current, 314
output voltage, 314
pulse width modulated rectifiers (PWM), 314
rectifiers, 313
renewable energy systems (RES), 313
transformer utilization factor, 315
uncontrolled rectifiers, 313
AC filter, 398
Acid/base catalyst, transesterification process for, 153
corrosive effect of, 526
AC motors
construction of, 354
AC power, 355
frequency of, 355
generation, 488
ACSR conductors
cross-sectional view, 383
AC system, 477
decoupled control, 477
frequency response of, 484
fuzzy-based controls, 477
neural network, 477
sliding mode control, 477
vector control, 477
Active solar energy system, 43
principle, 43
Active voltage control, 514
AC vs. DC supply, 6
Aerodynamic force, 65
ideal wind turbine output, 65–66
Agroresidues, utilization of, 147
Air core transformer, 229
Alkali ash, 143
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC), 94
All-aluminum alloy conductor (AAAC), 383
All-aluminum conductor (AAC), 383
Alternators, 184
Aluminum conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR), 383
Aluminum conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR), 383
Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX), 145
Anaerobic digestion process, 146
Aquatic plant life, 523
Argon, 526
Armature current, variation of, 255
ASTM standards, 143
Autotransformers, 231
primary windings, 231
secondary windings, 231
winding diagram of, 231
B
Balanced delta loads, 203
active power, 203
reactive power, 203
Balanced wye loads, 202
Ball milling, 143
Band gap energy, 457
Base-catalyzed reactions, 152
Battery load, 319
Biochar, 148
Biocoal, physical characteristic of, 151
Biodiesel fuels, 152
methanol, 152
vegetable oils, 152
Bioethanol, production of, 153
cellulose hydrolysis, 153
pretreatment phase, 153
sugar solution
microbial fermentation of, 153
separation processes, 153
bioethanol from, 153
characterization of, 142
cogasification of, 152
energy cultivation of, 540
gasification of, 151
generators, 154
intensive harvesting of, 540
oxygen content of, 143
plantation materials, 142
cellulose, 142
hemicellulose, 142
lignin, 142
plants, 494
pretreatment of, 143
biological, 145
chemical, 145
physical, 143
chipping, 143
grinding, 143
milling, 143
physicochemical, 145
ammonia fiber explosion, 145
steam explosion, 145
utilization scenario of, 154
value-added products, contribution to, 147
wastes, 144
Biomass, conversion process, 146
biochemical, 146
liquefaction, 146
physical, 146
thermochemical, 146
Biomass to liquid fuels (BTL), 150
Bio-oil, 148
Bioresources, 140
Bipolar junction transistors (BJT), 294
basic structure, 295
circuit schematic of a darlington, 295
circuit symbols of, 294
cross-sectional area, 294
v–i characteristics of, 296
Bipolar SPWM inverter, 370
load current, 370
Boiling water reactor (BWR), 533
Boost converter
charging mode, 345
conventional topology, 345
current waveforms, 344
switching network, 343
voltage waveforms, 344
current waveforms, 346
discharging mode, 345
Briquetting technique, 150
Brönsted catalysts, 153
charging mode, 349
conventional topology, 348
discharging mode, 349
transistor–diode switching network, 348
Buck converter, 340
charging mode, 342
continuous conduction mode (CCM), 343
discharging mode, 342
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), 343
switching network, 340
Bus admittance matrix, 416
equivalent circuit, 417
four-bus system
impedance diagram, 416
one line diagram, 416
generator power, 416
Bus impedance matrix, 420
N-port network, 420
Z bus
modification, type 2, 421
modification, type 3, 422
modification, type 4, 423
type III modification, 423
type II modification, 421
type IV modification, 423
Z bus
modification, type 1, 420
type I modification, 421
C
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, 532
Capacitance
electric fields, 382
line-to-neutral, 386
magnetic field, 382
lines, 384
Carbon cycle, 540
emission levels, 528
Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), 527
Carbonic acid (H2CO3), 525
Carbon mass transfer, 140
Carbon monoxide (CO), 149
Carbon-rejection processes, 150
Carrier generation, energy for, 458
Catastrophic greenhouse effect, 521
Cellulose, crystallinity of, 143
Centrifugal pump, 81
Charcoal, 148
Charge carrier drift, 462
Chemical energy, 8
Chemical processes, 12
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 521
circuit breakers, 33
“CLOSE” control signal, 33
Coal to liquid fuels (CTL), 150
Cocombustion technique, 151
Coefficient of performance, and turbine efficiency, 68
CO2 emissions, 60
Complex impedance, 165
Complex number analysis, 164
Complex power, 170
apparent power, 170
reactive power for various loads, 171
complex current conjugate, 171
current phase angle, 171
Concept of phasors, 161
Conduction loss, 310
Conductor
inductance, 384
material properties, 14
Constant extinction angle, 399
Constant ignition angle, 399
Constant load voltage, 280
Continuous conduction mode (CCM), 343
Control centers, 36
Controlled rectifiers, 313
thyristors, 313
Controlled rectifiers, single-phase full bridge, 329
schematic of, 329
thyristor conduction, 331
voltage thyristors, 329
waveform, 330
Controlled rectifiers, three-phase, 331
output voltage, 331
ripple voltage, frequency of, 331
schematics of, 331
thyristor switch conduction, 333
waveforms, 332
Conventional energy sources, 60
Conventional power generation, 488
Conversion efficiency, 44
Current, 218
and voltage waveforms, 4
Current control loop, 480
definition of, 480
methods of, 480
resultant, 481
Current density, 384
Current rating, 310
applications of, 355
D
Dangerous climate change, 521
DC-AC inverters, 354, See also SCR
AC power, 355
frequency of, 355
current-source inverters, 374
characteristics of, 374
freewheeling diodes, 374
semiconductor device, 374
thévenin impedances, 374
three-phase current-source inverters, 377
thyristors, 374
type of, 374
typical current-source inverter, 376
voltage blocking devices, 374
development of, 354
inverters, category of, 354
load impedance, 356
multiple switching, 354
multistepped Inverters, 366
definition, 366
filter size, 366
multistepped waveform, 366
phase shift, 367
phasor diagram, 367
secondary winding voltages, 367
sine wave, 366
sinusoidal wave, 366
square wave, 368
total harmonic distortion, 366
trigger signals with dead time, 366
twelve-step inverter, 367
winding ratios, 367
operating mechanism of, 355
operating scheme, 355
output current
waveform, 356
outputs of, 354
output voltage, 356
fourier series, 359
phase of, 354
PWM inverters, 368
industrial inverters, 368
output waveform, 368
phasors, 368
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM), 368
switching loss, 368
three-phase six-stepped inverter, control of, 368
variety of techniques, 368
semiconductor switches, 356
single-phase voltage-source inverters, 355
phase-shift voltage control, 359
single-phase full-bridge inverter, 358
single-phase half-bridge inverter, 357
thévenin resistance, 356
three-phase bridge voltage-source inverters, 361
component of, 361
dead time, duration of, 366
equivalent circuit showing voltage, 364
line output voltages, 365
nonzero integer, 365
output voltages, 365
output voltage waveforms, 363
phase output voltages, 365
switching speed, 366
trigger control system, 366
triplet harmonics, 362
utilized for, 361
waveform, harmonics in the, 365
type of, 356
DC–DC converters, 337, See also MOSFET
applications, 338
LED street light, 338
boost converter, 343
buck–boost converters, 348
buck converter, 340
steady-state analysis, 341
buck converter, conventional, 341
component of, 338
critical inductor value, 343
duty cycle, 338
flyback topology, 338
industrial applications, 337
input current, 347
input voltage, 341
LED illumination system, 340
output voltage, 341
photovoltaic powered street light, 339
SEPIC converter, 350
single-ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC), 337
switching network, 338
switch-mode, basic nonisolated, 338
transistor–diode combination, 338
width modulation, 340
DC filter, 398
DC voltage, 354
Decentralized hybrid system, 288
Decoupled control, 479
Deforestation, 526
Delta-connected balanced load, 192
impedance angle, 192
phase currents, 192
Delta-connected balanced source, 188
equivalent circuit, 201
Delta to wye conversion, 198
delta-connected load, 198
principle of superposition, 198
Delta–wye network, 201
Diesel generating (DG), 250
Diodes, 313
conduction of, 323
current, 458
numbering of, 323
systems, 1
Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), 343
Distributed generator (DG), 501
radial distribution network, 35
Distribution transformers, 505
Doubly fed induction machine (DFIM), 266
rotor phasor diagram of, 268
schematic diagram of, 266
Drying process, 151
Dump load (DL), 287
Duty cycle, 476
E
Electrical conductance, 213
basic components, 21
classification of, 2
representation of, 37
Electrical generators, 8
Electrical power, 6
generation, 154
Electrical voltage, 457
Electric circuit
classification of, 156
Electric grid, alternative energy, source of, 339
Electricity, 457
generation, 238
global demand for, 41
industry, 520
Electric machines (EM), 238
basic construction, 239
air gap, 239
rotor, 239
slip ring and brush arrangement, 239
squirrel-cage winding, 239
stator, 239
general features, 239
conductor and core, 239
electromagnetic field, 239
electrostatic field, 239
motoring and generating action, 239
supply system and load, 239
Electric power, 169
generators, 25
networks, 499
real power, 169
definition of, 169
instantaneous values for voltage, current, 170
Electric power systems, 488
base current, 408
base impedance, 408
components of, basic, 404
one-line diagram, 404
fault analysis, 425
double line-to-ground fault, 431
fault in impedance, 437
flashover, 425
human errors, 425
insulation failure, 425
line-to-ground fault with Z f, 429
line-to-line fault with Z f, 430
sequence networks, 433
short circuit, 425
symmetrical component analysis, 425
thévenin’s theorem, 437
Z bus matrix, Systematic analysis using, 433
drawing, assumptions for, 407
interconnected systems, 414
bus admittance matrix, 416
bus impedance matrix, 420
microgrids, 414
leakage reactance, 410
line voltage, 408
megavolt amperes (MVA), 408
one base to another, conversions from, 409
one-line diagram, 405
per unit quantities, 407
power flow study, 438
bus classification, 439
distribution transformers, 438
fast decoupled load flow method, 449
fixed slope decoupled Newton–Raphson, 451
load flow analysis, 438
load flow equations, 438
methods of solution, 438
modification of G–S method, PV buses are present, 441
Newton–Raphson method, 443
PV buses are absent, G–S method, 440
power system engineering, phases of, 413
distribution subsystem, 413
power system network, 413
power system network, 413
power system stability, 452
microgrids, stability analysis in, 455
drawing, assumptions for, 407
single line diagram, 404
symbolic representation of components, 404
single-line diagram, 405
static loads, 407
Electric power transmission system, 382
high voltage DC transmission, 396
AC filter, 398
converter, 396
DC filter, 398
DC link, 396
overhead transmission lines, 383
all-aluminum alloy conductor (AAAC), 383
all-aluminum conductor (AAC), 383
aluminum conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR), 383
aluminum conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR), 383
extra-high voltage, 383
H-frame structures, 383
strength to weight ratio, 383
transmission level voltages, 383
ultra-high voltage, 383
transmission line parameters, 384
line capacitance, 386
line inductance, 384
line resistance, 384
transmission line representation, 388
equivalent circuit of a short transmission line, 389
generator supplying a balance three-phase load, 388
lump parameters, 391
series impedance equation, 392
shunt admittances, 390
shunt capacitance, 390
shunt capacitors, 389
shunts arms equation, 392
single-phase equivalent of the circuit, 389
T model, 388
total admittance, 390
Electric supply, 241
Electric trains, 290
Electrodes, 12
Electrolyzer, 108
Electromagnetic fields (EMFs), 537
Electromagnetic radiations, 458
Electromagnetic signature, 19
current magnitude, 15
electric field vector, 15
electromechanical conversion system, 16
energy balance, 17
force on a particle carrying, 15
induced electromotive forces, 16
machine power balance, 17
mechanical forces, 16
mechanical losses, 16
mechanical subsystem energy, 16
wire segment vector, 16
Electron, charge of, 458
Electron-hole pair, 458
Electrostatic precipitators, 529
Emerging infectious disease (UID), 530
Emissions-free power generation technology, 60
electromagnetic interaction phenomena, 242
Faraday’s law, 242
field energy of density, 242
flux linkage, 242
Kirchhoff’s voltage/current laws, 242
magnetic field energy, 242
Ohm’s law, 242
torque production, 242
Energy conversion processes, 7
Energy conversion schemes, for hydroelectricity, 86
Energy equation, in hydraulic machines, 84
velocity triangle diagram for a generalized rotor vane, 84
Energy production, 24
contribution of different energy sources, 24
GNI per capita, 24
Energy production, by different economies, 24
Energy resources, 19
Energy storage systems, 18
Environmental concerns with
fossil fuel power plants, 520
acid rain, 525
ashes, 528
carbon dioxide, 526
Legionnaires’ disease and cooling towers, 529
nitrogen oxides, 523
ozone, 524
sulfur oxides, 521
hydroelectric power plants, 530
forest and river ecosystems, area destruction of, 530
population resettlement, 531
nuclear power plants, 531
coolant, loss of, 534
radioactive release during normal operation, 532
radioactive wastes, loss of, 535
renewable energy, 536
biomass, 540
fuel cells, 538
geothermal energy, 539
atmospheric emission, 539
land disturbance, 539
solar energy, 536
large land area, use of, 537
solar panel, recycling of, 537
solar photovoltaic panels, toxic chemicals used in, 536
wave energy, 537
wind energy, 537
landscaping, visual impact on, 538
noise, 538
wildlife, effects on, 538
Environmental considerations, for energy system, 19
Equivalent circuits
impedance, 38
one-line diagram of a power system, 38
reactance diagrams, 38
and reactance diagrams, 37
Ethanol fermentation, 146
Euler’s equation, 84
Eutrophication, 523
Extra-high voltage, 383
F
Fabric filters, 529
Faraday’s law, 217
Fast diodes/fast recovery diodes, 293
Fast switching diodes, 294
Fault analysis, 425
components in terms of phase a, 427
double line-to-ground fault, 431
L–L–G faultthrough a fault impedance, 432
line-to-ground fault with Z f, 429
line-to-line fault with Z f, 430
three-phase unloaded alternator, 430
operator a, definition of, 426
sequence networks, 433
delta connections, 433
shunt switch, 433
Z bus matrix, systematic analysis
switching combination, 434
Feed-in tariff (FIT), 499
FF, See Form factor
Fischer–Tropsch process, 150
Flicker, 506
Flue gas, 528
Flux linkage, 211
Fly ash, 528
PM, 528
PM2.5, 528
PM10, 528
Forestry, 140
Form factor (FF), 315
Fossil energy resources, 19
power plants, 520
Fourier analysis, 322
Free fatty acids (FFAs), 152
Frequency droop coefficient, 485
actual, modeling of, 103–105
advantages, 105–106
disadvantages, 105–106
and environment, 107
equivalent circuit, 100–103
fundamentals, 93–94
hydrogen production and safety, 107
ideal, modeling of, 98
power applications of, 106
grid-connected fuel cell configuration, 106
block diagram, 107
standalone fuel cell configuration, 107
block diagram, 108
stationary power generation applications of, 92
steady-state electrical characteristics of, 103
technology, development of, 538
thermal–electrical processes of, 99
types, 94–98
G
Gallium nitride (GaN), 291
Gasifiers
cross-draft bed, 151
downdraft, 149
fixed bed, 149
fluidized bed designs, 151
updraft, 151
Gate drive voltage, 310
Gate resistance, 310
Gate turn-off thyristors (GTO), 306
Gearbox, 497
Generators, 494
asynchronous, 495
employed for grid fed mode, 87
synchronous, 495
Generic fuel cell energy system
components and processes in, 93
Geometric mean distance (GMD), 385
Geometric mean radius (GMR), 384
Geothermal cooling, 122
absorption refrigeration cycle, 123
direct use of, 117
in agriculture, 118
effect of temperature on the growth of, 119
calculations, 124
configurations of piping system for geothermal warming, 119
in district heating system in Reykjavik, Iceland, 118
effect of temperature on growth or production of food animals, 121
Lindal diagram, 117
space or object heating, 117
using piping/ducting systems for geothermal heating, 120
geopressured systems, 116
hot dry rocks (HDRs), 116
hydrothermal systems, 116
indirect use of, 124
geothermal power plant, simplest form, 124–126, See also geothermal power plant
h–s and P–h diagrams, 127
isentropic efficiency of a dry turbine, 125
schematic and process diagrams, with a separator, 126
t–s process diagram, 124
types, 128
locations sources, 115
meteoritic steam, 116
petrothermal systems, 116
ring of fire, 115
typical geothermal field, 116
Geothermal gases, 539
carbon dioxide, 539
hydrogen sulfide, 539
methane, 539
Geothermal power plant
binary or organic Rankine cycle (ORC), 131
t-s process diagram, 132
direct dry steam, 128–129
double and multiflash steam, 130
t-s process diagram, 131
evaluation of, 137
hot dry rock, 135–137
hybrid system, 134–135
Kalina cycle, 132–133
simplest form, 124–126
h–s and P–h diagrams, 127
isentropic efficiency of a dry turbine, 125
schematic and process diagrams, with a separator, 126
t–s process diagram, 124
single flash steam, 129
T–s diagrams, 130
total flow devices, 134
types, 128
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) 2013 statistics, 60
Greenhouse gases, 520
carbon dioxide, 521
carbon monoxide, 521
chlorofluorocarbons, 521
emissions, 78
hydrocarbons, 521
methane, 521
nitrous oxide, 521
Grid-connected systems, 496
inverter based, 478
phasor diagram for, 482
Grid fed systems, 87
Grid system, 2
definition of, 414
H
Harmonics, 350
Heat pump, 121
heating water and air for domestic use, 122
Hemicelluloses, 142
Heterogeneous catalysts, 153
High-electron-mobility transistors (HEMT), 303
converter, 396
mode of operation, 397
output voltage, 397
simplified converter diagram, 400
six-pulse converter, 396
thyristor valve, 396
twelve-pulse converter, 396
types of, 396
V d – I d characteristic, 399
station, 396
advantages of, 396
system
constant extinction angle (CEA), 399
constant ignition angle (CIA), 399
control mode, types of, 399
control of, 398
control strategies, 398
filter in, 398
power flow, 398
Hot spot, due to partial shading, 51
Household voltage, 37
Hydraulic turbine, 82
Hydrocarbon fuels, 143
process of, 80
Hydrogen
economy, 111
production, 108
alkaline electrolyzer, 109
from renewable energy, 109–110
from renewable resources in a hydrogen economy society, 112
through water electrolysis, 108
safety, 110
Hydrogen-powered ICEs, fuel cells, 111
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 149
Hydropower, 530
global capacity, 79
plants, 23
storage, 18
systems, 8
Hydroturbines, 17
WFSG feeding power to grid, 87
I
Ideality factor, 458
Ideal PV model, 44–45
I – V curve, 45
Ideal transformer, 218
impedance, 219
power, 218
IEEE Standard 1547, 502
IEEE Standard 1547.4, 502
IEEE Standards 519, 510
IEEE Standards 1159–1995, 508
Imaginary number, 164
Impedance, 218
magnetizing, 220
Impulse turbine, 82
Inductance
electric fields, 382
magnetic field, 382
Induction generator, 88
Induction machines, 256
characteristics with speed under different modes, 261
induction generators, 263
doubly fed induction generators, 266
grid-connected squirrel-cage induction generators, 263
self-excited induction generators, 272
single-phase self-excited induction generators, 279
modeling and analysis, 258
vs. synchronous machines, 256
Inductor current, 342
Industrialization, 526
Industrial processing, 488
Input current
fourier series analysis, 323
RMS value, 315
Input side, 315
crest factor, 316
displacement angle, 315
displacement factor, 315
RMS value, 315
total harmonic distortion (THD), 316
Input voltage, 341
Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), 299
basic structure of, 299
bipolar device, 301
circuit symbol, 301
forward bias, 300
gate drive requirements, 301
MOS-bipolar integration, 299
precautions for handling, 302
current sensing, 302
power circuit layout, 302
reverse bias, 300
v –i characteristics of, 301
voltage-controlled switch, 301
Integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCT), 307
Interconnected systems, 414
diversity factor, 414
economical limitation, 414
load factor, 414
Inverter terminal voltage, 479
Isolation diode, 474
J
Jatropha curcas, 153
Junction temperature, 310
K
Kalina cycle, 132
geothermal power plant, used in, 133
Kirchhoff’s law
voltage, 351
application of, 351
L
Large generator interconnection, 512
Laws of thermodynamics, 8
first law, 9
second law, 10
third law, 10
zeroth law, 9
Lead–acid battery, 13
Lead dioxide plate, 13
Leakage currents, 382
Leakage reactance, 410
Legionella pneumophila, 529
Legionellosis, 529
cooling towers, 530
Legion fever, 529
Lenz’s law, 218
Lewis catalysts, 153
Light emitting diodes (LEDs), 294
street light
grid-connected, 339
off-grid, 339
SEPIC topology, 339
Lignins, 142
Lignocelluloses, physical treatment of, 143
Line capacitance, 386
single-phase overhead lines, 386
three-phase overhead lines, 386
effect of bundling, 386
Line currents, 188
definition of, 188
Line drop compensation, 501
Line inductance, 384
single-phase overhead lines, 384
geometric mean radius (GMR), 384
single-phase with two wire line, 385
three-phase overhead lines, 385
geometric mean distance (GMD), 385
spacer-dampers, 386
three-phase line with asymmetrical spacing, 385
AC resistance, 384
conductor resistivity, 384
current density, 384
DC resistance, 384
of solid round conductor, 384
skin effect, 384
Line voltages, 186
phase, 189
phasor diagram, 187
dynamic, 241
electrical system configurations, 35
equal phase impedances, 35
inductor, 357
linear, 241
nonlinear, 241
per-phase equivalent circuit
for a balanced three-phase system, 36
static, 251
unbalanced, 251
Load flow equations, 438
Gauss–Seidel method, 439
advantages of, 439
disadvantages of, 440
load flow solution for microgrids, 439
Load impedance, 321
angle, 321
Load sharing, droop characteristics for, 485
Lorentz force law, 15
Loss of coolant accident (LOCA), 534
Lung disease, 525
M
Magnetic circuits, 210
Magnetic components, 210
energy storage devices, 210
inductors, 210
energy transfer devices, 210
transformers, 210
Magnetic field, 210
strength, 211
Magnetic flux, 210
density, 211
Magnetic induction vector, 15
Magnetomotive force (MMF), 211
air core coil, 214
equivalent circuit of, 214
Maximum power point (MPP), 463
in DC-to-DC converter, 492
incremental algorithm, 469
in PV systems, 492
Mechanical energy, 8
Medium-voltage drives, 290
Megavolt amperes (MVA), 408
Megawatts (MW), 238
Metal electrodes, 11
basic structure of, 297
circuit symbol, 298
forward bias, 297
four layered structure, 296
gate circuit requirements of, 299
power applications, 296
reverse bias, 298
unipolar devices, 296
v–i characteristics of, 298
voltage-controlled switch, 301
configuration of, 415
grid-connected mode, 415
heat loads, 414
load flow solution, 451
G–S method, 451
N–R method, 451
power flow analysis, 451
management of, 415–416
microsource controllers (MCs), 414
mode of operation, 414
point of common coupling (PCC), 414
renewable energy hybrid systems, 414
stability analysis in, 455
Microhydel system, 83
components, 83
Microhydro system, hardware of, 90
Microsource controllers, 414
Migratory birds, investigating for, 538
Minimum capacitance, 273
Mismatch, in solar cell parameters, 49–51
Model, of a PV cell, 12
Modulation index, 477
schematic diagram, 98
Monocrystalline cells, 44
Montreal protocol, 524
Multistepped inverters, 366
N
National grid control center, 489
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 536
Natural gas, 60
Newton–Raphson method, 443
advantages of, 443
disadvantages of, 443
Nitric acid (HNO3), 525
Nitric oxide (NO), 523
Nitrogen, 526
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 523
human health, effects on, 523
Nonideal transformer, 219
equivalent circuits, 219
transformer equivalent circuit, 220
two-winding transformer, schematic of, 220
vs. ideal transformer, 219
Nuclear-based power plants, 23
Nuclear fusion, 8
O
Offgas system, 533
Off-grid (microgrid) systems, 89–91
On-load tap changer (OLTC), 503
Open circuit voltage, 462
OPEN control signal, 33
OrCAD simulation, 510
Organic PV cells, 44
Output current, 314
root-mean-square (RMS) value, 314
form factor (FF), 315
fundamental component, 365
ripple factor (RF), 315
root-mean-square (RMS) value, 314
Oxygen, 526
Ozone-depleting substances (ODS), 524
carbon tetrachloride, 524
CFCs, 524
halons, 524
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, 524
methyl bromide, 524
methyl chloroform, 524
Ozonolysis, 145
P
Palm oil mill effluent (POME), 149
Parallel impedance, 167
total resistance, 167
Parallel resistance, 465
Parameter cos (θ), 4
Particulate matter
aerodynamic diameter of, 528
high temperature high-pressure control of, 529
Particulate scrubbers, 529
Passive solar energy system (PSES), 41
basic aim of, 42
categories of, 41
design of, 41
drawback of, 42
implementation, 42
Performance parameters of output side, 314–315
Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs), 256
Permeance, 212
Perturb and observe (P&O) method, 467
Per-unit system, 37
Phase angle, 158
Phase currents, 187
phase angle, 187
definitions of, 359
phase difference, 359
shift angle, 359
Photogenerated current, 460
Photon energy, 458
Photons, 457
Photovoltaic, See PV
Physical recycling process, 154
Planck’s constant, 458
forward biasing of, 460
d axis current controls, 479
q axis current controls, 479
Pole zero cancellation methods, 480
Polycrystalline cells, 44
Polysaccharides, 142
arabinose, 142
galacturonic acids, 142
glucose, 142
mannose, 142
methlyglucorine, 142
xylose, 142
Pontiac fever, 529
Power, 3
calculation of three-phase circuit, 202
balanced wye loads, 202
capacitors, 36
converter, 354
diodes, 291
forward bias, 292
reverse bias, 293
types, 293
fast diodes/fast recovery, 293
fast switching, 294
light emitting, 294
power rectifier, 293
Schottky, 294
Zener, 294
distribution networks, 500
existing, 500
future, 501
flow study, 438
generation, renewable energy-based, 280
grid-fed systems, 281
bio energy, 284
small (or mini) hydro, 284
solar-thermal and geothermal energy, 285
wind energy, 281
off-grid systems, 286
bio energy, 287
hybrid system with microgrid, 288
small hydro energy, 287
wind energy, 286
networks, voltage control in, 503
feeders, voltage drop in, 503
transformers, voltage control using tap changers, 504
voltage fluctuation, 506
output, from practical turbines, 67
transmission line
circuit constant, 391
correction, 175
capacitor bank, 175
inductive loads, 175
current and voltage phasors, 173
load character, 174
power triangle, 174
Power plants, 22–24
energy conversions into electricity, methods for, 23
World Bank’s statistics, 23
Power profile, of PV array, daily, 52
Power quality (PQ), 508
communication systems, interference with, 509
control and protection equipment, maloperation of, 509
definition and impacts of, 508
effects and solutions, 509
extra losses, 509
harmonic current distortion, limits of, 510
metering and instrumentation, 509
problems with, 509
Power rectifier diodes, 293
Power system stability, 452
classification of, 453
kinetic energy, 454
power angle curve, 454
swing equation, 454
Practical PV array
equation for, 45
Practical PV model
Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 533
Prime movers, for electric generators, 17
Producer gas, 151
Protection equipment, 33
main components of system, 33
P-type silicon, 11
Pulse width modulation (PWM), 510
Pump, 81
classification of, 81
storage plants, 494
as turbine (PAT), 85
advantages, 85
concept of, 85
cost-effective PAT application, 86
limitation, 86
selection, 86
PV cell to external load circuit
connection of, 44
PV daily performance ratio, 53
PV panel, 11
PV power production profile, 53
actual
characteristics of, 466
equivalent circuit of, 465
antireflection layer, 459
battery storage, 474
cell to module and array, 467
charge controller, 474
DC/DC converter, 474
decoupled d–q control structure, 478
derated operation of, 483
droop control for power sharing, 485
grid connected system, transformer applications in, 478
historical perspective, 41
ideal
characteristics of, 462
equivalent circuit of, 460
inverter, 474
mode of operation of, 474
parallel-connected cells and shade mitigation, 473
series-connected cells and shade mitigation, 469
short circuit current, 460
simple cell, structure of, 459
supply in AC system, 477
supply in DC system, 476
transformer, 474
control unit, 495
double-stage, 475
energy conversion systems, 10–12
energy wastes, 537
landfill for, 537
recycling management system, 537
special municipal incinerators, use of, 537
evaluation of, 55
AC electricity generation effectiveness, 57
energy cost savings, 58
equivalent annual hours of peak production, 56
equivalent daily hours of peak rated production, 56
facility electrical load offset production, 56
facility total energy load production, 56
net production, 55
peak demand reduction, 57
performance ratio, 57
total electricity delivered to utility, 57
total incident solar radiation, 57
grid-connected, 495
inverter, 495
main components of, 495
rechargeable batteries, 495
secondary frequency regulation of, 484
single-stage, 475
solar energy systems, 337
DC/DC converter, 337
SEPIC converters, 337
standalone, 495
system integration, 54
grid connected (on-grid) PV system, 54
network connected solar power plants, 55
standalone (off-grid) PV system, 54
typical grid-connected, 476
PWM inverters, 368
singe-phase SPWM inverter, 370
bipolar SPWM inverter, 370
sinusoidal, 369
harmonic amplitudes, 371
output voltage, 371
single-phase inverter, 371
line voltage, 373
modulation index, 370
modulation signal, 369
modulation waveform, 369
phase voltage, 373
sinusoidal modulation waveforms, 373
unipolar SPWM inverter, 372
modulation signal, 372
output voltage, 373
signal, 372
sinusoidal waveform, 372
switches, 372
PWM rectifier, 328
gate signal, 328
voltage source rectifier (VSR), 328
Pyrolysis process, 148
biochar, 148
classification of, 148
pyrolytic oil, 148
Pyrolytic oil, 148
R
Radial electrical energy system, 22
Radioactive wastes, 535
high-level, 535
low-level, 535
management of, 535
medium-level, 535
Rate of change of frequency (ROCOF), 502
Reaction turbine, 82
control loop, 480
definition of, 170
unit of, 170
Reciprocating pump, 81
Rectified voltage
with DC filter, 334
without DC filter, 334
Rectifier circuit, single-phase, 316
battery load, 319
charging current, 320
fourier analysis, 322
inductive load (R–L), 321
load impedance, 321
resistive load, 317
DC voltage, 315
definition, 314
efficiency of, 315
signal, conversion of, 314
three-phase, 323
applications, 323
diode conduction, 325
inductive load, 325
load current, 325
resistive load, 324
schematic of, 324
types of, 314
Reference active power, 485
Refrigerant, 122
Relays, 33
Reluctance, 212
carbon footprint of, 542
distribution with predominant hydro energy, 79
biomass, 494
distributed, 499
benefits of, 499
impact on grid, 500
islanded operation and microgrids, 502
of electricity, 24
sun, 24
wind, 24
photovoltaic systems, 491
I–V characteristics, 491
wind energy conversion systems, 492
grid connection of, 495
other sources, 499
PV systems, 495
WECS, 497
fixed-speed wind turbine, 497
variable-speed wind turbines, 497
tidal, 494
water, 494
wave, 494
biomass, 490
connection to grid, regulations for, 511
growth in United Kingdom, 489
tidal, 490
wave, 490
Residual voltage, 272
Resistive load, 317
Reverse saturation current, 458
Rotary positive displacement pump, 81
Rotational kinetic energy, 8
Rotodynamic pump, 81
Rotor, rotational speed of, 493
S
Schottky diodes, 294
Scott-connected transformer, 230
Seebeck coefficient, 14
Seebeck generator, 14
Self-excited induction generators (SEIG), 272
analysis and performance of, 275
capacitor, effect of, 273
equivalent circuit with load, 276
magnetizing curve, 275
Semiconductor material, 457
Semiconductor physics, 457
Semiconductor switches, 356
Series and parallel connections, of solar cells, 49
Series impedance, 166
total impedance, 166
Shaded cell
I–V characteristics under, 472
photogenerated current of, 471
Shift angle, 359
Short circuit temperature coefficient, 460
Shunt conductance, 382
Shunt resistance, 471
Silicon carbide (SiC), 290
circuit symbol, 306
forward bias, 304
reverse bias, 305
as switches, 356
v–i characteristics, 306
Silicon PV cell
effect of light on, 43
Sine wave, 366
different phase angles, 158
properties of, 158
Single-ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC), 350
coupled inductors, 350
electrical stress, 350
harmonics, 350
isolated topology, 350
standard nonisolated topology, 350
steady-state analysis, 351
Single-phase AC supply
advantages of, 177
alternating current (AC)
advantages of, 156
generators ratings, 156
waveform, 157
cosine function, 159
phase angle, 158
rotating phasor, 158
sine function, 157
sine waves at different phase angles, 158
sinusoidal voltage, 157
voltage sine wave, 157
complex impedance, 165
impedance of a circuit, 165
parallel impedance, 167
series impedance, 166
total voltage, 165
complex number analysis, 164
definition of, 164
different forms, 164
imaginary number, 164
concept of phasors, 161
cosine form, 161
current waveforms at various circuit characters, 164
fixed complex number, 161
phase angle, 164
phase shift, 164
simulation results, 164
sine form, 161
sinusoidal waveform, time-varying, 161
AC circuits, total power in, 171
complex power, 170
definition of, 176
measurement of, 169
power factor, 173
power factor correction, 175
reactive power, 170
real power, 169
source of, 169
phase shift, 160
complex operator, 160
definition of, 160
impedance, 160
V – I relationship, 161
plot of waveform, 157
root mean square, 159
definition of, 159
sinusoidal form of induced voltage, 159
symbol used for, 159
Single-phase current-source inverters, 374
load current, fundamental component of, 374
load voltage, 377
phase-locked-loop control, 377
phasor, 377
reactive power loading, 377
resonant frequency, 377
sinusoidal wave, 374
Single-phase full-bridge inverter, 358
impedance phase angle, 358
inversion by shift control, 360
operation mechanism, 360–361
operation principle, 358
output waveforms, 358
Single-phase half-bridge inverter, 357
component of, 357
fourier series, 358
load current, 357
load inductor, 357
load voltage, 357
output waveforms, 357
RL load, 357
Single-phase self-excited induction generators, 279
three-phase, 279
two-phase, 280
Single-phase transformers, 404
configurations of, 404
winding representations of, 404
Sinusoidal generated voltage, 280
Sinusoidal PWM, 368
pulses, 369
three-phase inverter, 373
waveforms of, 375
Sinusoidal voltages, 508
Six-pulse converter, 396
Small generator interconnection, 512
Smart grid solutions, 513
Smart transformers, 236
built-in STATCOM functions, 236
distribution grid, 236
electric vehicles, 236
power conversion system, 236
solarwind renewable energy storage, 236
Smog, 523
effect of irradiance and temperature on, 47–48
i – v characteristic curve in different ambient conditions, 47
parameters of solar PV Kyocera model, 48
p – v characteristic curve in different ambient conditions, 47
p – v characteristic curve in different ambient temperatures, 48
i – v characteristic curve of, 46
types of, 44
advantages of, 58
energy independence, 58
jobs and economy, 58
price saving and earning, 58
security, 58
disadvantage, 58
orientation of a house, 42
Solar radiation, 458
Solar thermal concentrators, 24
chemical reactions of, 97
Solid-state transformers (SSTs), 235
advantages, 235
economical, 235
efficient, 235
reliable, 235
limitations, 235
environmental mineral oil concerns, 235
harmonics, sensitive to, 235
system disruptions and overloads, 235
voltage drop under load, 235
Special transformer connection, 229
air core transformer, 229
Scott-connected transformer, 230
speed measurement, 64
SPWM, See Sinusoidal PWM
in a minihydro system, 88
Standalone hybrid wind-solar-fuel cell energy system, 110
Standalone micro-/picohydro system, 89
Steady-state voltage, 272
Subsynchronous motoring, 271
Subtransmission, 34
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 522
Sulfur monoxide (SO), 522
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), 522
Supersynchronous motoring, 270
power distribution, 268
Sustainable carbon lifecycle, 141
Swing equation, 454
solutions of, 455
Symmetrical component analysis, 425
fortscue’s theorem, 425
phase component, 426
equivalent circuit, 247
four-pole round (nonsalient) rotor, 26
four-pole salient rotor, 26
operational modes, 250
grid-connected mode, 250
standalone or off-grid mode, 250
performance characteristics under load, 252
excitation characteristics, 253
grid-connected generator, performance characteristics of, 254
load characteristics, 252
performance equations, 249
permanent magnet, 256
phasor diagram, 249
schematic diagram of, 243
voltage generation, 244
System efficiency, 18
T
Tap changer, 505
Temperature gradient, 14
Tesla’s
rotating magnetic field, 7
Thermal conversion processes, 146
biochemical process, 149
biogas, 149
biomass liquefaction process, 150
direct, 150
indirect, 150
combustion processes, 147
conversion processes, 146
gasification process, 149
physical conversion process, 150
pyrolysis processes, 148
fast, 148
Thermal–electrical processes of fuel cells, 99
enthalpy, 99
Gibbs free energy, 100
Helmholtz free energy, 99
internal energy, 99
thermodynamic potentials, 99
conversion of, 146
combustion, 147
dry process, 147
gasification, 147
oxygen requirement, 147
pyrolysis, 147
Thermochemical recycling approach, 154
Thermoelectric
devices, 14
energy conversion systems, 14
energy converter, 7
Thévenin resistance, 356
Thin film technology, 44
Thomson effect, 14
Three-phase
electricity production, 25
Y-connected and ∆ -connected, 25
positive sequenced system, 26
balanced, phase and line voltages for, 26
SPWM inverter, 373
synchronous generator, 25
system, 5
energy consumed by load, 5
neutral RMS voltage, 6
phase-to-phase and phase-to-neutral voltages, 6
voltage and current waveform expressions, 5
Three-phase AC supply
advantages of, 205
bulk loads, 184
circuits with mixed connections, 193
delta-connected load, 199
delta–delta network, 201
delta to wye conversion, 198
delta–wye network, 201
wye-connected source, 199
wye–wye network, 193
delta-connected balanced source, 188
line currents, 190
line voltages, 189
phase currents, 189
phase voltages, 189
delta connection, 184
disadvantages of, 205
three-phase circuit
connections of, 185
balanced source, Wye-connected, 185
delta-connected balanced load, 192
wye-connected balanced load, 190
power calculation of, 202
balanced delta loads, 203
balanced wye loads, 202
three-phase voltages
generation of, 184
alternators, 184
renewable energy sources, 185
waveforms of induced voltage, 184
types of connections, 184
Three-phase bridge voltage-source inverters, 361
Three-phase circuit
connections of, 185
line currents, 188
line voltages, 186
phase currents, 187
phase voltages, 185
delta-connected balanced source, 188
internal voltages, 188
source impedance, 188
Three-phase current-source inverters, 377
capacitor banks, 377
counterelectromotive force (CEMF), 377
effective leakage inductance, 377
equivalent ASCI circuit, 379
harmonic heating, 378
three-phase autosequential current-source inverter (ASCI), 377
three-phase bridge ASCI inverter, 378
thyristor, 377
torque pulsation problems, 378
zener diode load, 378
Threshold voltage, 299
Thyristors commutation, 495
Thyroid cancer, 532
Tidal energy, 494
Tip speed ratio, 493
TL insulators, 33
Torrefaction process, 150
Total harmonic distortion (THD), 316
air core, 216
definition of, 215
design tests, 221
equivalent circuit, 410
IEEE standard
Type 2, 226
instrument, 232
applications, 232
operation of, 232
iron or steel core, 216
microgrid, 234
one-line diagram, 412
operational principle, 215
in parallel, 227
leakage impedances, 228
line voltage ratios, 227
phase sequence, 228
polarity, 228
relative phase displacement, 228
windings, 228
performance test, 222
open-circuit, 222
short-circuit, 223
phase turn ratio, 367
polarity of, 226
phase relationship, 226
single-phase, 227
production tests, 221
applied-voltage, 221
impulse, 222
induced-voltage, 221
pu impedance, 411
reactance diagram, 413
representation of, per unit, 410
routine tests, 220
simple, 215
single-phase pad-mounted, 226
special connection, 229
special tests, 220
switch arrangements, 435
tests for, 220
acoustic noise level, 221
dielectric, 221
harmonics, 221
insulation resistance, 220
load loss, 220
resistance of windings, 220
short-circuit impedance, 220
temperature, 221
voltage ratio, 220
voltage vector relationship, 220
zero sequence impedance, 221
third harmonics, 233
hysteresis loop, 233
magnetizing current, 233
three-phase connections, 229
three-phase, parallel operation of, 230
no-load ratio of transformation, 230
percentage impedance, 230
phase-angle displacement, 230
phase rotation, 230
polarity, 230
power ratio, 230
resistance to reactance ratio, 230
three-winding, 231
type tests, 220
Transmission
network, 382
systems, 2
capacitance
conductance
properties of, 382
equivalent p circuit, 392
inductance, 30
properties of, 382
long line model, 394
HVDC station, 396
two-port ABCD model, 394
medium line model, 394
shunt capacitance, 394
short, medium, long, 32
nominal circuit, 390
power flow, 392
representation, 388
resistance, 30
properties of, 382
short line model, 393
total line distance, 393
two-port model, 393
unit series impedance, 393
two-port model, 393
black box, 393
receiving end current, 393
sending end current, 393
two-port network, 392
types of models, 392
Triplet harmonics, 362
Turbine, 82
characteristic with maximum power point tracking, 74
classification, 82
system, 8
Turbine–generator set, 490
Turbine/SEIG assembly installed in the field, 91
Turbines, variable-speed systems, 497
wide range with synchronous generator, 497
Turbo machine, 80
Twelve-pulse converter
simplified diagram, 398
Two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), 303
Two-port model, 393
U
UK Nuclear Regulatory Authority, 532
Ultra-high voltage, 383
Uncontrolled rectifiers, 313
diodes, 313
switching device, 313
Unipolar SPWM inverter, 372
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 532
Uranium fuel, 534
Order 2006, 512
Order 2003a, 512
V
Velocity triangle diagram, for a generalized rotor vane, 84
Voltage, 218
control loop, 481
droop coefficient, 485
rating, 310
regulators, 34
at full load as in Equation, 34
secondary winding, 218
transformation ratio, 218
Voltage–frequency measurement, 64
Voltage-source inverter, 354
applications, 354
Voltage source rectifier, 328
schematic of, 328
waveforms of, 329
Voltage source with connected load, 3
W
Water, kinetic energy from, 494
Water streams, acidification of, 526
Water vapor, 526
Weber, 210
Whole-body radiation doses, 533
Wind
direction, 64
power, 60
speeds, 75
turbine
blade, diagram of, 63
brakes, 64
gearboxes, 63
generators, 63
horizontal axis, parts, 62
nacelle, 63
protection of turbines, 64
rotor blades, 61
towers, 64
yaw mechanism, 64
Wind energy, 60
advantages, 74
disadvantages, 76
environment friendly, 74
Wind energy conversion systems (WECSs), 490
doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), 498
wide range variable speed, 498
Wind energy system (WES), 281
advantages, 282
low maintenance cost, 282
low manufacturing cost, 282
with DFIG, 284
drawbacks, 283
large fluctuation in output power, 283
low conversion efficiency, 283
with full-power converters, 283
power variation, 282
schematic diagram of, 282
performance, 74
Windings, 239
asymmetrical, 280
auxiliary, 280
primary, 266
rotor, 239
secondary, 266
squirrel-cage, 239
stator, 239
three-phase balanced, 243
Wind kinetic energy, 64
Wind turbine generator system (WTGS), 72
fixed speed wind turbine generator system, 72
variable speed wind turbine generator system, 72–73
classifications of, 69
horizontal axis wind turbine, 69
vertical axis wind turbine, 69–71
fixed speed, 497
horizontal and vertical axes of, 494
operating range of, 68–69
rotor mechanical frequency, 498
system, 538
aerodynamic noise, 538
mechanical noise, 538
variable speed, 493
variable-speed operation of, 498
World Health Organization (WHO), 521
World Nuclear Association, 531
Worldwide standards, 37
Wound field synchronous generator (WFSG), 87
Wye-connected balanced load, 190
delta-connected load, 192
impedance angle, 192
line currents, phasor diagram of, 191
line voltages, 190
load current, 192
phase voltage, 192
wye-connected load, 191
Wye-connected source, 199
delta to wye conversion, 199
magnitude load current, 199
equivalent circuit, per-phase, 195
line currents, 194
line voltages at the load terminals, 195
line voltages at the source terminals, 196
load impedance, 193
phase current, 193
phase currents, 194
three-phase networks, types of, 193
Z
Zener diodes, 294
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