Index

A

  • abrasion collar, 193
  • abrasions, 197–198, 219
  • absorption-elution, 237
  • accelerants, fire, 129, 131–133
  • accidental cuts, 196
  • accidental deaths, 144, 268
  • acid phosphatase, 211, 242
  • acid screen, 271
  • acids, to get rid of a body, 158
  • adipocere formation, 186
  • aerial reconnaissance and photography, 51
  • affidavit, search warrants and, 44
  • AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System), 74, 86–87
  • alcohol
    • blood-alcohol concentration (BAC), 275
    • Breathalyzer test, 275, 276
    • hangings and, 222
    • intoxication, 275, 276
  • alcohol screen, 271
  • alkaline screen, 271
  • alligator effect, 331
  • alpha-amylase, 243
  • alterations, in documents, 327–329
  • ambient temperature
    • estimating time of death, 178
    • lividity and, 181
    • putrefaction and, 184
    • rigor mortis and, 180
  • amino acids, 170
  • ammonium nitrate, 138
  • ammonium nitrate-based explosives (ANFO), 138
  • ammunition (ammo), 309–312
  • amphetamines, 278, 279
  • amplification, 253
  • amylase, 243
  • anabolic steroids, 282–283
  • analgesics, 277
  • Anastasia Romanov, 347–348
  • angel dust, 280
  • angulation fractures, 201
  • anthropologist, forensic, 22, 174–175, 361
  • anthropometry, 80, 82
  • antibodies, in blood serum, 233
  • anticonvulsives, 278
  • antigen-antibody complex, 233, 236
  • antiserum, 236–237
  • appointments, missed or forgotten, 189
  • arches, 84–86
  • arms, bones of, 166
  • arsenic, 265, 274, 284
  • arson, 125–135. See also fires
    • to cover another crime, 126
    • fire-starters, 126
    • for insurance fraud, 126
    • psychological reasons for, 126
    • for revenge, 126
    • staged crime scene, 39
    • for suicide or murder, 126, 127
    • terrorism, 126
    • where and how the fire started, 127–130
    • witnesses, 128
  • arterial bleeding, 101–102
  • artifacts, 159, 170
  • asphyxia. See also suffocation
    • autoerotic, 222
    • fire-related deaths, 136
    • in general, 143
    • hangings, 221–222
    • by strangulation. See strangulation
    • strychnine poisoning, 283
    • succinyl choline, 285
  • associative evidence, 41
  • Atlanta Child Murders, 42
  • ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate), 179, 180
  • autoerotic asphyxia, 222
  • autolysis, 182
  • Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), 76, 86–87
  • automobile tires. See tires
  • automobiles, trace evidence, 116
  • autopsies, forensic
    • deciding who gets autopsied, 146–148
    • definition of, 24
    • filing the official autopsy report, 155–156
    • forensic pathologist and, 145–146
    • performing
    • clothing, 149–150
      • dissecting the body, 152–153
      • external examination, 148–149
      • identifying the body, 148
      • injuries, 151–152
      • measuring and weighing, 149
      • photographing the body, 149
      • stomach contents, 267
      • time of death, 150
      • X-rays, 150
  • autopsies, medical, 146
  • autopsies, psychological, 74
  • avulsion, 200
  • azoospermia, 211

B

  • back spatter, 103
  • ballistics, 307
  • bar arm hold, 219
  • barbiturates, 278
  • Barlow, Kenneth, 154
  • base pairing, 247
  • Bass, William, III, 190
  • Beamish, Douglas, 295
  • Becker, Abraham, 163
  • Behavioral Science Unit, FBI’s, 68, 69
  • Bertillon, Alphonse, 80, 82
  • bertillonage, 80, 82
  • Bianchi, Kenneth, 61
  • binders, in paint, 303
  • biological evidence, in general, 40
  • biological forensic science, 11–12
  • biotransformation, 265
  • birefringence, 297
  • birthmarks, 160
  • bite marks, 202–203, 211
  • black eye, 354
  • bleeding (hemorrhaging)
  • bloating, putrefaction and, 183
  • blood
    • class and individual characteristics, 42
    • clotting, 95
    • composition of, 232
    • confirmatory tests for, 235
    • fluorescence of, 235
    • in general, 94
    • identifying as human, 235–237
    • lividity and, 181–182
    • paternity testing, 239–241
    • physical characteristics of, 94
    • population distribution of ABO blood types, 238
    • presumptive tests for, 234–235
    • surface tension, 94
    • tests for, 234–235
    • toxins, 265–266
    • typing, 232–233, 237–239
    • viscosity, 94
  • blood groups, discovery of, 14
  • blood-alcohol concentration (BAC), 275
  • bloodstains (blood spatters)
    • from blood spurting or gushing, 95
    • in general, 94
    • hypothetical case, 106–108
    • identifying source of, 233–234
    • passive, 96–97
    • patterns, 96
    • projected. See projected blood spatters
    • reconstructing the crime scene from, 105–106
  • blowback spatter, 103
  • blowflies, 188
  • blunt-force trauma
    • abrasions and scrapes, 197–198
    • bite marks, 202–204
    • bruising and battering, 198–200
    • fractures (breaking bones), 172, 200–202
    • head and brain injuries and skull fractures, 204–207
    • overview, 197
  • boa constrictor, 216
  • body language, lying and, 60
  • body of a victim
  • body temperature, estimating time of death, 178–179
  • bolt cutters, 123
  • bone density, 166
  • bone marrow, diatoms in, 227
  • bones. See also skeletons
    • burned, 171
    • desiccation of, 171
    • determining cause and manner of death, 171–173
    • determining race, 168–169
    • determining sex, 167–168
    • determining whether they are human, 165
    • estimating stature, 166–167
    • fractures (breaking bones), 171–172, 200–202
    • identifying unknown victims, 164–168
    • nitrogen level in, 170
  • Borkenstein, R. F., 276
  • Boston Strangler, 260
  • botanist, forensic, definition of, 23
  • Bouchard, Gaetane, 295
  • boxer’s posture, 136
  • Brady, Patrick, 161
  • brain
    • assessment of, 56–59
    • blunt-force trauma, 204–207
    • carbon monoxide intoxication and, 224
    • dissection at autopsies, 152
  • brain death, 142
  • Branion, John, 315
  • breath test, for alcohol, 275, 276
  • Breathalyzer test, 275, 276
  • breechblock patterns, 312
  • bruising, 199
  • bruising and battering, 198–200
  • Brussel, James, 69
  • bulking up, 282–283
  • bullets. See also ammunition; firearms evidence
    • bones, 172
    • classification of, 310–311
    • extracting information from, 310–311
    • glass broken by, 301
    • handling, 310
    • tracking, 192
  • bumper fracture, 200
  • Bundy, Ted, 67, 340–341
  • burial site, artifacts from, 170
  • buried corpses, 174, 184, 189
  • Burke, William, 217
  • “Burking,” 217

C

  • cacti and mushrooms, 280
  • cadaveric spasm, 181
  • Calabro, Carmine, 73
  • CALGANG database, 160
  • caliber of a weapon, 311–312
  • callus, 201
  • Capone, Al “Scarface,” 12
  • Carbon-14 (C-14), 171
  • carbon dioxide, as suffocating gas, 217
  • carbon monoxide (CO)
    • fire-related deaths, 136
    • inhalation of, 223–224
    • intoxication, 136
  • carboxyhemoglobin, 137, 223
  • cardiac arrest, 143
  • cardiac arrhythmias, 207
  • carotid arteries, 218, 219
  • carotid hold, 219
  • carpets
    • accelerant residues, 132
    • shoeprints on, 115
  • castings
    • of shoeprints, 114
    • of tire tracks, 120
  • cast-off blood, 102
  • Caucasians, 169
  • cause of death, 143
  • cavitation, ultrasonic, 319
  • cell growth, 198
  • cell membrane, 246
  • cell regeneration, 198
  • center-fire, 312
  • centrifuge, 94
  • cerebral contusion, 143
  • cerebral hypoxia
    • in autoerotic asphyxia, 222
    • definition of, 218
  • chain of custody, 49–50
  • Cheat Sheet, 3
  • chemical and electrochemical etching, 319
  • chemicals. See drugs; poisons; toxicology
  • chokehold, 219
  • choking, 215–216
  • choline, 242
  • chop wounds, 196
  • Christensen, Steve, 331
  • chromatograph, 133
  • chromosomes, 246
  • circular fractures, 205
  • circumstantial evidence, 40
  • civil cases, forensic psychiatry and, 54
  • class characteristics, 41–42
  • Claudius, Emperor, 162
  • climatologist, 189
  • clinical psychiatry, 54
  • clothing. See also fibers
    • of corpse, 149–150
    • fabric impressions, 123
    • identifying unknown victims, 159
  • coatings of papers, 330
  • cocaine, 278, 279
  • cocaine screen, 271
  • CODIS (Combined DNA Index System), 261
  • coffin, 159
  • collagen, 161
  • collusion between suspects and witnesses, 35
  • colon, empty, 188
  • color tests, 270
  • combination fractures, 201
  • combination spatters, 101
  • Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), 261
  • comminuted fracture, 200
  • comparison microscopes, 122, 123, 289, 293
  • comparisons of evidence, 43
  • competence, determining, 63
  • compound fracture, 200
  • compression fractures, 201
  • compression wedge, 200
  • Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur, 14
  • concentric cracks, 301
  • conchoidal lines, 300
  • confessions, false, 61–62
  • confirmatory tests
    • for blood, 235
    • for drugs or poisons, 269, 272
  • consented search, 46
  • contrecoup, 206–207
  • control samples, 48–49
  • contusions, 198–199
    • at autopsies, 151
    • black eye, 354
    • strangulation, 218
  • cop killers, 311
  • copiers, 333
  • Coppolino, Carmela, 285
  • corneas, 187
  • cornu, 219
  • coronal scales, 292
  • coroner, 24
  • coroner’s case, 147
  • coroner’s technicians
    • definition of, 20
    • duties and responsibilities of, 27–28
  • corpse
  • cortex of hair, 291
  • coup, 206–207
  • court system, 28–30
  • crime labs
    • common procedures, 13–14
    • fire investigations, 132–135
    • first, 12
    • in Hollywood films, 356
  • crime scene investigator, 359
  • crime scenes
    • assessing
      • arriving at a crime scene, 34–35
      • documenting the procedure, 35–36
      • overview, 33–34
      • preserving and processing the scene, 35–36
      • primary and secondary crime scenes, 34
    • in general, 33
    • linking criminals and, 76
    • reconstructing, 37–39
    • removing a body from, 149
    • scene markers, 189–190
    • searching, 46–47
    • staged, 39
    • staging of, 71
  • crime-scene investigation unit (CSIU), 10, 20
  • crime-scene investigators. See also criminalists
    • definition of, 20
    • equipment and supplies, 15
    • in general, 8
  • criminalists (forensic investigators)
    • career in, 359
    • definition of, 20
    • job titles for, 20–21
  • crush fracture, 200
  • crystal pattern mapping, 319
  • CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (TV series), 21
  • CSI Effect, 21
  • Cunanan, Andrew, 66
  • cut wounds, 195
  • cuticle of hair, 292
  • cutting marks, of tools, 121
  • cyanide
    • in general, 264
    • inhalation of, 224–225
    • Operation Iceman, 185
    • poisoning, 283
  • cyanoacrylate vapor, 90
  • cytoplasm, 244, 246

D

  • date-rape drugs, 281–282
  • Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., 31
  • death
  • Death Cap and Death Angel mushrooms, 283
  • decay, byproducts of, 51
  • deception, dealing with, 59–62
  • decomposition of the human body (decay), 182–186
  • defensive wounds, 151, 195, 200
  • delusions, 279
  • density, of glass, 299–300
  • depressed skull fractures, 206
  • DeSalvo, Albert, 260
  • descriptors, 70
  • desiccation of bones, 172
  • diatoms, 130, 227
  • differential thermal analysis, 304–305
  • digitalis, 264
  • Dillinger, John, 84
  • diminished capacity, 64
  • diphenylamine, 317
  • diphtheria, 215
  • direct evidence, 40
  • directionality of blood drops, 98
  • disguised writing, 326
  • disorganized offenders, 70
  • dissecting the body, at autopsies, 152–154
  • DNA
    • in cellular debris (Touch DNA), 92
    • databank, 261
    • double helix, 247
    • genome, 249–250
    • from hair, 294
    • junk, 250
    • overview, 245–247
    • pollen and seeds, 305
    • polymer, 246
    • polymorphism, 250
    • rape exam, 210
    • repeats on particular loci of DNA, 251–252
    • tracking down and preserving, 248
    • types of sequences, 250–251
    • uniqueness and, 247–248
    • Y-STR, 258–259, 260, 348
  • DNA analyst, forensic, 363
  • DNA fingerprinting (DNA typing or analysis), 250
    • familial DNA, 256
    • Green River Killer, 254
    • identifying unknown remains, 164
    • lineage determined by, 256–260
    • making the match, 254–255
    • McCourt murder case, 258
    • polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 253
    • process of, 252–256
    • RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism), 252–253, 255
    • SNP analysis, 253–254
    • STR analysis, 252–254
    • touch DNA, 256
  • document examination, 11
  • document examiner, forensic, 11, 22, 321, 325, 329, 332, 362–363
  • documentation, crime scene, 36
  • documents, validity of. See also document examiner, forensic
    • adding words, 328–329
    • eradicating the original, 327–328
    • exposing alterations, 327–329
    • forgeries, 326, 331
    • handwriting analysis, 322–326
    • Hitler’s diaries, 348–349
    • indented writing, 327
    • papers and inks, 329–331
    • questioned documents, 321, 323–325, 331, 332
    • typewriters and photocopiers, 332–333
  • dogs, tracking, 51
  • domain of killers, 75
  • double helix, 247
  • downhill searches, 50
  • driving under the influence (DUI), 275
  • drownings
    • dry, 227
    • in general, 214
    • overview, 226–228
  • drug screening, 271
  • druggist’s folds, 48
  • drugs. See also poisons (toxins); toxicology; specific drugs
    • anabolic steroids, 282–283
    • barbiturates, 278
    • common, 274–283
    • date-rape or rave, 281–282
    • depressants, 277–278
    • hallucinogens, 279–280
    • hangings and, 222
    • stimulants, 278–279
  • dry drownings, 227
  • dry labbing, 29
  • Duguay, Shirley, 293
  • Duncan, Isadora, 221
  • dynamite, 137

E

  • earwitness testimony, 61
  • Ecstasy, 280, 282
  • electrical conductivity, measurement of, 51
  • electrocution, 207–208
  • electroencephalogram (EEG), 142
  • electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA), 329
  • elution, 237
  • embalming, 276–277
  • emergent situations, warrantless searches in, 45
  • energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), 318
  • energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS), 289
  • entomologist, forensic, 23, 188
  • entry wounds, 192–193
  • environmental suffocation, 214
  • epidural bleeds, 204
  • epiglottis, 215
  • epithelial cells, vaginal, 244
  • erasures, 325
  • erythrocytes, 232
  • ESDA (electrostatic detection apparatus), 329
  • etching, chemical and electrochemical, 319
  • ethanol, 275, 277, 284
  • ethylene glycol poisoning, 284
  • evidence
    • analyzing, 43
    • associative, 41
    • chain of custody, 49–50
    • class and individual, 41–42
    • classifying, 39–43
    • collecting and preserving, 46–50
    • collecting control samples, 48–49
    • direct or circumstantial, 40
    • gathering, 47
    • impending loss of, 45
    • locating, in general, 43–46
    • locating a missing corpse, 50–52
    • packaging, 48, 49
    • physical and biological, 40
    • reconstructive, 41
    • searching the area, 46–47
    • trace. See trace evidence
  • evidence storage, 10
  • exaggerations, 59
  • exclusionary shoeprints, 113
  • exit wounds, 192–194
  • expert testimony, 28–32
  • explosions, 137–138
  • explosives, types of, 137–138
  • exsanguination (bleeding to death), 95, 143, 192
  • extender oils, 116
  • extenders, in paint, 303
  • extractor and ejector marks, 312
  • eyes, estimating time of death, 187
  • eyewitnesses, debunking, 60

F

  • fabrics
    • blood transfer patterns, 103, 105
    • impressions, 123
  • faces
    • in hangings, 221
    • reconstructing, 173–174
    • strangulation and, 218
  • false confessions, 61–62
  • familial DNA, 266
  • fantasies, of serial offenders, 66–67
  • Fast Blue B, 280
  • fatherhood, determining, 240–241
  • Faulds, Henry, 81
  • febrile process, rigor mortis and, 180
  • Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
    • General Rifling Characteristics File, 313
    • taphonomy, 190
  • femur, 167
  • fibers
    • chemical composition of, 298
    • classifying, 296–297
    • collecting, 297
    • comparing, 297–298
    • overview, 294
  • field sobriety test, 275, 276
  • finger pads, 79
  • fingerprint examination, 11
  • fingerprint examiner, 362
  • fingerprints
    • at autopsy, 150
    • blood transfer patterns, 103
    • cellular debris in, 92
    • chemistry used to expose, 90–91
    • classification of, 84–88
    • cleaning up, 91
    • in general, 248
    • history of, 81–82
    • lifting, 90
    • locating, 88–91
    • overview, 79–80
    • powdering, 89–90
    • residue of, 92
    • Stella Nickell case, 341–342
    • taking a suspect’s prints, 83
    • touch DNA, 256
    • types of, 88
    • unknown corpses, 162
    • usefulness for identification, 83, 84
  • fire investigations, 132–135. See also arson
  • firearms evidence. See also guns and gunshot wounds
    • caliber and gauge, 311–312
    • classification of guns, 308–309
    • determining distance, 318
    • gunshot residue (GSR), 316–318
    • rifling patterns, 313
    • shell casings, 312
  • firearms examination, 11
  • firearms examiners, forensic, 21, 308
  • fires
    • accelerants, 127, 131–132
    • collecting samples at the scene, 131–132
    • destroying a document, 327
    • drawing conclusions from testing, 135
    • to get rid of a body, 158
    • homicidal, 135–137
    • ignition devices, 130
    • incendiary (intentional). See arson
    • intensity at any particular location, 129
    • lab analysis, 132–133
    • path (route) of, 128
    • point of origin, 128–129
    • potential causes of, 129–130
    • witnesses, 128
  • fire-starters, 126
  • firing pin, impression left by, 312
  • FISH (Forensic Information System for Handwriting), 325
  • flaccid stage of rigor mortis, 180
  • flat spots, 119
  • floating bodies, 187
  • fluorescein, 235
  • Flynn, William, 331
  • food
    • choking to death on, 215–216
    • stomach contents, estimating time of death, 187
  • foramen magnum, 205
  • forensic autopsies, 25
  • forensic careers, 357–363
  • forensic cases, ten famous
    • Anastasia Romanov, 347–348
    • Georgi Markov case, 344–345
    • Hendricks case, 345–346
    • Hitler’s diaries, 348–349
    • Jeffrey MacDonald case, 342–344
    • John List case, 346–347
    • Lindbergh kidnapping, 337–339
    • Sacco and Vanzetti, 339–340
    • Stella Nickell, 341–342
    • Ted Bundy, 340–341
  • Forensic Files (TV series), 21
  • Forensic Information System for Handwriting (FISH), 325
  • forensic investigators, 359. See also criminalists
  • forensic science. See also specific types of scientists
    • biological, 11–12
    • definition of, 8
    • history of, 14
    • Locard Exchange Principle, 15–17
    • other sciences and, 9
    • overview, 9–10
    • physical, 11
    • placing a suspect at crime scene, 17
    • services offered by, 10
    • specialists, 22–23
    • standardizing, 29
  • forensics, definition of, 8
  • forensics labs. See crime labs
  • forensics teams
    • coroner’s technician, 27–28
    • court system and, 28–30
    • expert testimony, 28–30
    • forensic science specialists, 22–23
    • medical examiner, 24–27
    • overview, 19–20
  • forgeries, 326, 331
  • forward spatter, 103
  • found body, 147
  • Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, search warrants and, 44
  • fractures (breaking bones)
    • blunt-force trauma, 200–202
    • identifying unknown victims, 171–174
    • skull, 204, 205–206
  • freehand simulation, 326
  • friction ridges, 79–80, 89, 162
  • Frye Standard, 31
  • Frye v. United States, 31
  • fully jacketed bullets, 311
  • furrow pattern, in hangings, 221

G

  • gait patterns, 113
  • Galton, Sir Francis, 81, 84
  • gas chromatography (GC), 133, 271, 303
  • gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), 133–134, 272
  • gases
    • gunshot residue (GSR), 316–318
    • inhalation of toxic, 214, 223–226
  • gasoline, as fire accelerator, 131
  • gauges, shotgun, 311
  • GC (gas chromatography), 133, 271, 303
  • GC/MS (gas chromatography/mass spectrometry), 133–134, 272
  • General Rifling Characteristics File, 313
  • genome, 249–251
  • genotypes, 239–240
  • geographic profiling, 75
  • GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyrate), 281
  • Gilbert v. California, 324
  • glass, 298–302
  • glove prints, 124
  • glycogen, 244
  • Goddard, Calvin, 12, 14
  • graphologist, 323
  • Green River Killer, 252, 254
  • Griess test, 317
  • grooves
    • in fingerprints, 79
    • tire tread, 116
  • Gross, Hans, 14
  • guns and gunshot wounds (GSWs). See also firearms evidence
    • at autopsies, 151–152
    • entry and exit wounds, 192–194
    • found at crime scene, 39
    • overview, 192
    • restoring serial numbers of guns, 319
    • shotgun patterns, 194
    • tracking bullets, 192
  • gunshot residue (GSR), 316–318

H

  • hackle marks, 300
  • hair
    • analysis of, 291
    • anatomy of, 291–292
    • cortex of, 291
    • cuticle of, 292
    • DNA, 294
    • dyed, 293
    • John Vollman case, 295
    • matching criminal to, 292–293
    • medulla of, 292
    • mitochondrial DNA in, 259–260, 295
    • source of, 291, 294
    • toxins in, 267, 274
  • hallucinations, 279, 280
  • hallucinogens, 279–280
  • hand guard, 196
  • handedness, 167
  • handguns. See also firearms evidence; guns and gunshot wounds
    • class and individual characteristics, 41–42
    • definition of, 308
  • handprints, 81
  • hands, rape exam, 210
  • handwriting analysis, 322–325
  • handwriting examiner, 323
  • handwriting style, 322–324
  • hangings, 221–222
  • haptoglobin, 241
  • Hare, William, 217
  • Hauptmann, Bruno Richard, 338–339
  • head, blunt-force trauma to, 204–207
  • headspace vapor extraction, 132
  • headstamps, 312
  • heavy metals, poisoning, 284
  • height, estimating, 166
  • Helmer, Richard, 175
  • Helpern, Milton, 285
  • hematoma, 198, 200
  • Hendricks, David, 345–346
  • Henry, Sir Edward, 81, 86
  • Henry System, 86
  • heroin, testing for, 277–278
  • Herschel, Sir William, 81
  • hesitation wounds, 152
  • high-risk victims, 74
  • high-velocity spatters, 103
  • hip replacement surgery, 162
  • Hitler’s diaries, 348–349
  • HLA (human leukocyte antigen), 241
  • Hofmann, Mark, 331
  • Hollywood films, forensic mistakes in
    • the bleeding corpse, 352–353
    • the disappearing black eye, 354
    • the exact time of death, 353
    • the fast-acting poison, 354
    • the high-tech lab, 356
    • the instant athlete, 355–356
    • the one-punch knockout, 353–354
    • the pretty death, 352
    • the quick death, 351–352
    • the untraceable poison, 355
  • Holmes, Reginald, 161
  • homicidal choking, 215
  • homicidal fires, 135–137
  • homicidal incised wounds, 195
  • homicidal poisonings, 267
  • homicidal smothering, 215
  • homicides
    • definition of, 144
    • ligature strangulation, 220
    • rape-homicides, 212
  • huffing, 282
  • human leukocyte antigen (HLA), 241
  • humerus, 167
  • hydrogen sulfide, 226
  • hyoid bone, 219
  • hypnosis, 58–59, 61
  • hypocalcination, 203

I

  • icons used in this book, 2–3
  • identification of evidence, 43
  • identifying unknown victims
    • artifacts, 159
    • bones and skeletons, 164–173
    • cause and manner of death, 171–173
    • DNA analysis, 164
    • fingerprints, 162
    • individual characteristics, 169–170
    • mass graves, 174
    • overview, 158–159
    • reconstructing faces, 173–174
    • scars, birthmarks, and tattoos, 160
    • teeth, 163
    • time since death, 170–171
    • wounds or diseases, 160–163
  • igniters, fire, 128, 130, 137
  • ignition devices, 130
  • imbricate scales, 292
  • immunoassays, 270
  • immunological reactions, antigen-antibody, 236
  • impact angle of blood drops, 98
  • impact spatters, 101
  • impression evidence, 42
  • incendiary fires. See arson
  • incised wounds, 195
  • inconclusive shoeprints, 115
  • indentation marks, of tools, 120–121
  • indented writing, 11, 329
  • individual characteristics, 41–42
  • infrared photography, gunshot residue (GSR), 317
  • infrared spectrophotometry (IR), 134, 290
  • infrared spectroscopy, 272
  • inhalation of toxic gases, 214, 223–226
  • initiating explosives, 138
  • injuries at autopsy, 151–152. See also wounds
  • Ink Library, 332
  • inks, identifying, 330–332
  • insanity, 63–64
  • insects, 188–189, 267
  • insulin, overdoses of, 284
  • insurance fraud, 39, 126
  • Integrated Bullet Identification System (IBIS), 316
  • intelligence quotient (IQ), 58
  • intelligence tests, 58
  • interference holography, 115
  • interrogation tactics, false confessions and, 62
  • intestines, putrefaction and, 183
  • intracerebral bleeds, 143, 204
  • investigator, forensic, 359. See also criminalists
  • iodine fuming, 91
  • isoenzymes, 238

J

  • jaw bone (mandible), 167
  • Jeffreys, Sir Alec, 248
  • Jennings, Thomas, 82
  • Jones, Jim, 225
  • The Journal of Police Science and Administration, 82
  • junk DNA, 250
  • junk science, 31

K

  • Karow, Juliette, 285
  • Kastle-Meyer Color Test, 234
  • Kennard, Karl, 163
  • kerosene, as fire accelerator, 131
  • ketamine, 281, 282
  • Kirk, Paul, 105
  • Koehler, Arthur, 338
  • Kuklinski, Richard, 185

L

  • lacerations
    • at autopsies, 151
    • from blunt-force trauma, 200
  • Landsteiner, Karl, 14
  • larvae (maggots), 188, 189
  • laryngeal spasm, 227
  • latent bloodstains, 105–106
  • latent print examiners, definition of, 20
  • latent prints
  • Lattes, Leone, 14
  • law enforcement, integrating science into, 8–9
  • lawful arrest, warrantless searches, 46
  • LD50 of a drug, 273
  • lead alloy bullets, 311
  • lead bullets, 310
  • lead poisoning, 284
  • leathers, impressions left by, 123
  • legs, bones of, 166
  • length polymorphism, 250
  • lethal level of a drug, 273
  • leucocytes, 232
  • leucomalachite green (LMG), 234
  • Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph, 209
  • Lichtenberg figures, 209
  • lifting fingerprints, 90
  • ligature strangulation, 220–221
  • lightning, 209
  • Lindbergh kidnapping, 337–339
  • linkage, 43
  • linoleum flooring, accelerant residues, 132
  • List, John, 346–347
  • liver
    • contusions, 198
    • drugs (toxins) in, 267
  • lividity, 181–182, 222
  • livor mortis, 181
  • LMG (leucomalachite green), 234
  • Locard, Edmond, 15–16
  • Locard Exchange Principle, 16, 35, 288
  • long bones (legs and arms), 166–167
  • loops, 84, 85
  • Los Angeles Police Department, 12, 87
  • low-risk victims, 74
  • low-velocity spatters, 101–102
  • LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 280
  • lugs, tire tread, 116
  • luminol, 106, 235
  • Luster, Andrew, 281
  • lycopodium powder, 327
  • lying, 59–60

M

  • McCourt, Helen, 288
  • MacDonald, Jeffrey, 233, 342–344
  • machine pistols, definition of, 309
  • McNaughten rule, 64
  • Mad Bomber, 69
  • maggots, 188, 189
  • magnaflux, 319
  • malingering, 60
  • Malpighi, Marcello, 81, 84
  • mandible (jaw bone), 167
  • manner of death, medical examiner and, 27
  • manual strangulation, 218–219
  • manufactured fibers, 296
  • Marathon Man (movie), 356
  • marijuana, 279–280
  • marijuana and cocaine screen, 271
  • Markov, Georgi, 344–345
  • Marquis test, 277
  • Masgay, Louis, 185
  • mass graves, 174
  • mass murderers, 65
  • mass spectrometry (MS), 272
  • mass spectroscopy (MS), 133–134
  • masturbation, autoerotic asphyxia and, 222
  • mechanical asphyxia, 216–217
  • mechanism of death, 143
  • medical autopsy, 146
  • medical examiner (ME), 24–28, 135
  • medical examiner system, 24
  • medium-risk victims, 74
  • medium-velocity spatters, 102–103
  • medulla of hair, 292
  • medullary index, 292
  • Mengele, Josef, 175
  • mental retardation, 63
  • mercury, 264, 284
  • mescaline, 280
  • metabolism, 265
  • metabolites, 265
  • metal detectors, 52
  • metallic elements, poisoning, 284
  • Metesky, George, 69
  • methane (sewer gas), 217, 223, 226
  • micro expressions, 60
  • microgrooving, 313
  • microscopes
  • microscopic examination, for semen, 242
  • microspectrophotometry, 289, 297, 330
  • Mikrosil Casting Kit, 90
  • mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 169, 259–260, 295
  • mixed offenders, 70
  • modifiers, in paint, 303
  • modus operandi (MO), 68, 72–74
  • Mongoloids, 169
  • monomers, 246
  • Moran, George “Bugs,” 13
  • Mormon forgeries, 331
  • morphine, 277–278
  • mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA), 169, 259–260, 295
  • multiple murderers, 65
  • mummified bodies
    • estimating time of death, 186
    • fingerprints obtained from, 162
  • murderers
    • mass, 65
    • multiple, 65
  • mushrooms
    • hallucinogens, 280
    • poisoning, 283

N

  • NAA (neutron activation analysis), 290, 294, 295
  • napthalene, 282
  • narcotic screen, 271
  • narcotic sedatives, 277
  • National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC), 69, 76
  • National DNA Index System (NDIS), 261
  • National Integrated Ballistics Information Network (NIBIN), 316
  • natural causes of death, 26
  • natural deaths, 144, 145, 268
  • natural fibers, 296
  • natural opiates, 277
  • NCAVC (National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime), 69, 76
  • NDIS (National DNA Index System), 261
  • neck injuries, in strangulation, 219
  • neck markings, in hangings, 221
  • Negroids, 168
  • nervousness, signs of, 56
  • Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP), 60
  • neutron activation analysis (NAA), 290, 294, 295
  • Nickell, Stella, 341–342
  • Nielson, Burt, 315
  • Night Stalker case, 87
  • ninhydrin (triketohydrindene hydrate), 91
  • nitrogen level in bones, 170
  • NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), 60
  • noise treatment, tires, 118
  • noninitiating explosives, 138
  • nonrequested standards (nonrequested samples), 323
  • Norkin, Reuben, 163
  • normal level of a drug, 273
  • note taker, at crime scene, 36–37

O

  • odontologist, forensic, definition of, 23
  • offender profiling, 68
  • Omnibus Crime Code for Insanity, 64
  • Operation Iceman, 185
  • opiates, 277–278
  • opisthotonos, 283
  • organized offenders, 70
  • Osborn, Albert, 14
  • osteoblasts, 201
  • overwriting, 328
  • oxalic acid poisoning, 284

P

  • packaging the evidence, 48, 49
  • paints, 302–304
  • papers and inks, 329–332
  • passive bloodstains, 96–98
  • patent prints
  • paternity testing
    • blood type and, 239–241
    • DNA, 256–257
  • pathologist, forensic, 22, 24, 145–146, 360
  • pathology, 22
  • pathology technician, forensic, 360–361
  • PCP (phencyclidine), 280
  • Peacock, Linda, 203
  • pelvis
    • determining sex, 167
    • identifying an unknown corpse, 166
  • penetrating injuries, 195–196
  • Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS), 244
  • personality inventories, 57
  • Perugia, Vicenzo, 83
  • petechial hemorrhages, 218
  • PETN (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), 138
  • pets, hair of, 294
  • peyote, 280
  • phencyclidine (PCP or angel dust), 280
  • phenolphthalein, 234
  • phenotypes, 239
  • phosphoglucomutase (PGM), 238
  • photography
    • aerial, 51
    • of body, during autopsy, 149
    • comparing photographs, 174–175
    • crime scene, 37
    • skull-to-photo superimposition, 173
  • photography unit, 10
  • physical evidence, in general, 40
  • pigments, in paint, 303
  • pistols
    • machine, 309
    • semiautomatic, 308
  • Pitchfork, Colin, 248
  • plants, 304–305
  • plasma, 94, 232
  • plastic prints
    • fingerprints, 88
    • shoeprints, 111–112, 114
    • tire tracks, 116
  • platelets, 232
  • point of convergence, of bloodstains, 99
  • point of origin, of bloodstains, 99
  • poisons (toxins). See also drugs
    • accidental poisonings, 268
    • acute or chronic poisonings, 274
    • collecting samples, 266–267
    • common poisons, 283–285
    • concentration of, 272–273
    • definition of, 264
    • degree of toxicity of, 263–264
    • fast-acting poison, 354–355
    • finding, 265–269
    • homicidal poisonings, 269
    • metals as, 266
    • route of entry of, 272
    • suicide, 269
    • untraceable, 355
  • polarized light fiber analysis, 298
  • polarized light microscope, 289
  • Polifrone, Dominick, 185
  • pollen, 305
  • polymer, DNA, 246
  • polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 252
  • polymorphism, 250
  • posterior ramus, 167
  • postmortem hypostasis, 181
  • powdering fingerprints, 89–90
  • presumptive tests
    • for blood, 234
    • for drugs or poisons, 270
    • for semen, 241, 242
  • Price, David, 154
  • primary crime scene, 34
  • probable cause, 44
  • profiler, 68
  • profiling
    • geographic, 75
    • the perpetrator
      • assessing the perpetrator’s psyche, 70–71
      • distinguishing MO from signature, 72–73
      • domain of killers, 75
      • overview, 68–69
      • taking trophies and souvenirs, 72
      • victimology, 74
  • projected blood spatters
    • classification of, 100–101
    • in general, 96
    • high-velocity, 103
    • low-velocity, 101–102
    • medium-velocity, 102–103
    • source and location of the blood, 98–100
    • void patterns, 100
  • projective drawing, 57
  • projective testing, 57
  • prostate-specific antigen (PSA), 241, 242
  • psilocin and psilocybin, 280
  • psychiatrist, forensic, definition of, 23
  • psychiatry, forensic
    • assessing competence and sanity, 62–64
    • clinical psychiatry differentiated from, 54
    • deception and, 59–62
    • false confessions, 61–62
    • how the mind matters in, 55
    • multiple murderers, 65
    • profiling the perpetrator. See profiling, the perpetrator
    • role of psychiatric professionals, 53–54
    • serial offenders, 64–67
  • Psycho (film), 195
  • psychological autopsy, 74
  • psychopaths, 65
  • P30 immunodiffusion test, 211
  • pubic hair, rape exam, 211
  • pugilistic position, 136
  • pulmonary edema, 226, 278
  • pupae, 188, 189
  • Purkinje, Johannes, 81
  • putrefaction, 183, 233
  • pyrolysis gas chromatography, 303

Q

  • questioned documents, 321, 323–325, 332, 333
  • quicklime, to get rid of a body, 158

R

  • race, hair and, 294
  • radial cracks, 301
  • radial loops, 85
  • radioactive isotopes, 171
  • radius, 167
  • Ramirez, Richard, 87
  • rape
    • overview, 210–212
    • requirements for charge of, 210
    • secretor status, 243
    • serial rapists, 66
    • timing, 242–243
    • vaginal fluid, 244
  • rape exam, 210, 241, 261
  • rape kits, 241
  • rape-homicides, 212
  • Rapid Stain Identification of Human Blood (RSID) test, 235
  • rave drugs, 281–282
  • RBCs (red blood cells), 232, 237
  • RDX (pentaerythritrol tetranitrate), 138
  • reconstructing the crime scene, 37–39
  • reconstructive evidence, 41
  • red blood cells (RBCs), 232, 237
  • reflected light, 300
  • reflective index, 298
  • refracted light, 300
  • refractive index, 298
  • remodeling, 198
  • reportable death, 147
  • requested standard, 323
  • restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), 252, 254
  • Revere, Paul, 163
  • revolvers, definition of, 308
  • RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism), 252, 254
  • ribs, identifying an unknown corpse, 166
  • ridges
  • Ridgway, Gary, 254
  • rifles, definition of, 309
  • rifling patterns, 312–316
  • rigid stage of rigor mortis, 180
  • rigor mortis, 180
  • rim-fire, 312
  • Rohypnol, 281, 282
  • Rorschach test, 57
  • rotational fractures, 201
  • Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 293
  • RSID (Rapid Stain Identification of Human Blood) test, 235
  • Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of evidence, 31
  • Ryan, Leo, 215

S

  • Sacco and Vanzetti, 339–340
  • St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, 12
  • saliva, 243–244
  • sanity, 62–64
  • scab formation, 197–198
  • scanning electron microscope (SEM), 289–290, 298, 318
  • scars, 160
  • scene markers, 189–190
  • Scheele, Karl Wilhelm, 265
  • sciatic notch, 167
  • scrapes, 197–198
  • screening, toxicological, 270–271
  • search warrants, 44–45
  • searches, consented, 46
  • secondary crime scene, 34
  • secretors, 243
  • security log, 36
  • seeds, 305
  • semen, 211, 241–243
  • semiautomatic pistols, 308
  • semijacketed bullets, 311
  • sepsis
    • definition of, 143
    • putrefaction and, 184
    • rigor mortis and, 180
  • serial killers, 65–67
  • serial numbers of guns, restoring, 319
  • serial offenders
    • linking to crime scenes, 76
    • overview, 64–67
  • serologist, 23
  • serology. See also blood
    • definition of, 231
    • overview, 231–232
    • semen, 241–243
  • serum, 94, 232
  • sewer gas (methane), 223, 226
  • sex, determining from skeletal remains, 167–168
  • sexual intercourse, timing, 242–243
  • sexual offenders, 67
  • sexually sadistic serial killers, 67
  • Shark Arm Murder, 161
  • sharp-force injuries, 195–196
  • Sheets, Kathy, 331
  • shell casings, 312
  • Sheppard, Sam, 104
  • Sherlock Holmes, 14
  • shoeprints
    • blood transfer patterns, 103
    • characterizing and using, 111
    • collecting shoe impressions, 113–114
    • comparing, 115
    • exclusionary, 113
    • figuring out gait patterns, 113
    • multiple, 111
    • overview, 110–111
    • points of entry and exit at a crime scene, 110
    • several crimes linked by, 110
    • wear patterns, 111–113
  • Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), 250–254
  • shot, gauge of, 311
  • shotgun patterns, 194
  • shotgun pellets, 311–312
  • shotguns
    • definition of, 309
    • gauges of, 311–312
  • signature, distinguishing MO from, 72–74
  • silencers, gun, 314
  • silica, 130
  • silver nitrate, 91
  • Simms, Ian, 258
  • simple fracture, 200
  • single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs), 250, 252–254
  • single-transverse fracture, 200
  • sipes, tire tread, 117
  • skeletons (skeletal remains). See also bones
    • cause and manner of death, 171–173
    • identifying unknown victims, 164–169
    • race, 168–169
    • sex, 167–168
    • stature, 166–167
    • time since death, 170–171
  • sketches, crime scene, 37
  • skin
    • abrasions and scrapes, 197–198
    • facial reconstruction and thickness of, 173
    • lacerations, 200
    • putrefaction and, 183
  • skull
    • determining sex, 167
    • facial reconstruction, 173
    • identifying an unknown corpse, 165–166
  • skull fractures, 204, 205–206
  • skull-to-photo superimposition, 173
  • sliding marks, of tools, 121
  • slots, tire tread, 117
  • small intestine, empty, 188
  • Smith, Debbie, 261
  • Smith, James, 161
  • smoke detectors, 129
  • smoke inhalation, 135
  • smothering, 215
  • sniffing volatile chemicals, 282
  • Snowball (cat), 295
  • Snowprint Wax, 115
  • SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism), 250, 252–254
  • sobriety test, 275, 276
  • sociopaths, 65
  • sodium pentothal, 59
  • soils, 304–305
  • solvent extraction, 132
  • souvenirs, taking, 72
  • spalling, 129
  • spectrophotometer, 276
  • sperm, 211
  • spermine, 242
  • spinous scales, 292
  • spiral fracture, 201
  • spleen, contusions, 199
  • spontaneous combustion, 130
  • spree killers, 65
  • stab wounds, 151–152, 195
  • staging of a crime scene, 39, 71
  • stance (track width), of tires, 118
  • standards (writing samples), 323–324
  • stature, estimating, 166–167
  • steam distillation, 133
  • stellate fractures, 206
  • stereomicroscope, 290
  • steroids, 282–283
  • stimulants, 278–279
  • stomach
    • estimating time of death and contents of, 187
    • putrefaction and, 183
    • toxins in contents of, 267
  • strangulation
    • common threads in, 218
    • definition of, 214
    • ligature, 220–221
    • manual, 218–220
    • overview, 218
  • Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward, 29
  • striations, bullet, 314, 315
  • STRs (Short Tandem Repeats), 250–254
  • strychnine poisoning, 283
  • subdural bleeds, 204
  • succinyl choline, 285
  • suffocating gases, 216–217
  • suffocation. See also asphyxia
    • by “Burking,” 217
    • fire-related deaths, 136
    • in general, 214
  • suicidal wounds, 195
  • suicide
    • definition of, 144
    • drugs (poisonings), 269
    • forensic psychiatry and, 55
    • hesitation wounds, 152
    • by ligature strangulation, 220–221
    • smothering, 215
  • Sullivan, Mary, 260
  • Super Glue, 90
  • suture lines, 166
  • symphysis, 166
  • synthetic fibers, 297

T

  • tachyphylaxis, 278
  • taphonomy, 170, 190
  • tattoos, 160
  • teeth
    • bite marks, 202–203
    • identifying unknown victims, 162, 165
  • television shows, 21
  • temperature
    • ambient
      • estimating time of death, 178–179
      • lividity and, 181–182
      • putrefaction and, 183
      • rigor mortis and, 180
    • body, estimating time of death, 178–179
  • terminal velocity, of blood drops, 97
  • terrain, variations in, 50
  • terrorism, arson, 126
  • testimony. See also witnesses
    • earwitness, 61
    • expert, 28–32
    • standards of acceptance, 31
  • tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 279–280
  • tetramethylbenzidine (TMB), 234
  • THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), 279–280
  • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 57
  • therapeutic level of a drug, 273
  • thermal imaging, 51
  • thin-layer chromatography (TLC), 270, 330
  • three-dimensional impressions, tire tracks, 120
  • Throckmorton, George J., 331
  • through-and-through gunshot wound, 193
  • thyroid cartilage, 219
  • tile adhesives, accelerant residues, 132
  • time of death
    • autopsies, 150
    • defining, 178
    • estimating
      • adipocere formation, 186
      • autopsies, 150
      • body temperature, 178–179
      • cadaveric spasm, 181
      • decomposition, 182–184
      • examining the body, 178–187
      • insects and, 188–189
      • lividity, 181–182
      • mummification, 186
      • rigor mortis, 179–181
      • scene markers, 189–190
      • stomach contents, 187–188
      • time since death, 170–171
      • water, bodies found in, 187
  • tires
    • analyzing tire-track evidence, 117–119
    • manufacturer, 117–119
    • matching track to car, 119
    • obtaining tire impressions, 119–120
    • overview, 116–117
  • TLC (thin-layer chromatography), 270, 330
  • TMB (tetramethylbenzidine), 234
  • TNT (trinitrotoluene), 138
  • toluene, 282
  • tool marks, 120–123
  • tool-mark examiners, 21
  • touch DNA, 92, 256
  • toxic level of a drug, 273
  • toxicologist, forensic, 23, 264–265, 361–362
  • toxicology. See also drugs; poisons
    • cause and manner of death, 268–269
    • definition of, 254–265
    • dissection at autopsies, 155
    • interpreting the results of tests, 272–274
    • testing procedures, 269–274
  • toxins. See poisons
  • trace evidence
    • analysis of, 288–290
    • on automobiles, 115
    • on body during autopsy, 150–151
    • chemical makeup of, 290, 300
    • definition of, 287–288
    • fibers, 296–298
    • in general, 11
    • glass, 298–302
    • hair, 291–295
    • overview, 287–288
    • paints, 303
    • reading, 17
    • searching a crime scene for, 47
  • trace evidence examiner, 22
  • tracing, 326
  • track width (stance), of tires, 118
  • tracking dogs, 51
  • transfer patterns, 103
  • transmitted light, 300
  • transverse grooves, tire tread, 117
  • trichloroethylene, 282
  • trophies, taking, 72
  • truth, court system and, 30
  • truth serum, 59
  • turning radius, vehicle, 118
  • Twain, Mark, 14
  • two-dimensional impressions, tire tracks, 119–120
  • typewriters, 332–333

U

  • ulnar loops, 85
  • ultrasonic cavitation, 319
  • ultraviolet (UV) light, 171
  • ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, 271
  • United States v. Mara, 324
  • unknown subjects (unsubs), 68
  • unknown victims, identifying. See identifying unknown victims
  • urine, toxins in, 266–267

V

  • V pattern, point of origin of fire, 129
  • vaginal fluid, 244
  • Van Urk Color Test, 280
  • Van Urk’s reagent, 280
  • vapor concentration, 133
  • Vapor Trace Analyzer (VTA), 131
  • Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs), 250
  • vegetation, changes in, 51
  • velocity, classifying blood spatters by, 100
  • victimology, 74
  • Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP), 76
  • vitae dubiae asylums, 142
  • vitreous humor, 187, 267
  • VNTRs (Variable Number Tandem Repeats), 250
  • void patterns, 100
  • volatile chemicals, inhaling, 282
  • Vollman, John, 295
  • Vucetich, Juan, 81

W

  • waiting mortuaries (vitae dubiae asylums), 142
  • walk-through examination, 36
  • Walther PPK, 315
  • warrantless searches, 45–46
  • warrants, search, 44–46
  • Warren, Joseph, 163
  • water, bodies found in, 186–187
  • water intoxication, 264
  • watermark, 330
  • wear bars (wear indicators), tire, 117
  • wear patterns
    • shoeprints, 111–113
    • vehicle, 119
  • weather conditions, estimating time of death and, 189. See also temperature, ambient
  • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 58
  • Welcker, Herman, 82
  • West, Will and William, 82
  • What is it about this victim, 68
  • wheelbase, 118
  • whorls, 84, 86
  • William the Conqueror, 162
  • Williams, Wayne, 42
  • witnesses. See also eyewitnesses; testimony
    • collusion between suspects and, 35
    • fire scene, 128
  • work, missed, 189
  • wounds. See also blunt-force trauma; guns and gun evidence
    • defensive, 152, 200
    • hesitation, 152
    • in unknown corpse, 160–162

X

  • X-ray diffraction, 290
  • X-rays
    • bullets, 192
    • dental, 162
    • energy dispersive (EDX), 318

Y

  • Y-shaped incision, 153
  • Y-STR DNA, 258–260, 348

Z

  • zinc coatings, on locks, 123
  • Zugibe, Frederick, 185
  • zygote, 259
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