8

Applications

NEW MEDIA

In business, the use of telephone, voice mail, phone conferencing, video conferencing, cell phones, and e-mail occurs in accordance with the need and purpose of the communicator. Since the communicators in these situations are not face-to-face, one has to have a high level of oral communication skills to be able to communicate effectively through these methods.

Phones

In business, for immediate information and response, the handiest mode of communication is the telephone. Though convenient for the caller, it is often viewed by top managers or very senior executives as a source of interruption. Hence, the phone is often received by an administrative assistant. After the caller explains the purpose of the call, he or she is put through to the concerned person.

Most organizations have a standard way of answering phone calls. The normal practice is for the receiver to greet the caller and then state his or her name and department. On picking up the phone, one should never say, “Yes—who is it—what do you want?” Instead, the receiver should sound polite by saying something like “May I know who is calling?” or “May I know in what regard you are calling?”

Nowadays, organizations have automatic exchanges that facilitate direct connections with the desired extension; alternatively, the Interactive Voice Response (IVR) may guide callers to the extension or ask them to wait for the operator. The operator usually begins by stating the organization's name, or by a greeting such as, “Good morning, IMT.”

In business, courtesy counts. One doesn't automatically know how important the caller is for the company's business. So, every phone should be received with a standard sequence of phrases. If the intended receiver is not available, courtesy demands that a message be taken. But, for that, one has to be ready and equipped with a pen or pencil and paper. If the call reaches the receiver directly, generally, the response is just the name of the person, for instance, “Vinod”.

Business telephone conversations should be only as long as is essential. If the other person starts going off-topic, the receiver may indicate that he or she wants to close the conversation by summarizing and repeating the intended/decided-upon action. The call should end with some expression of goodwill, such as “Thanks for calling”, “Pleasure talking with you”, or “I will get back to you.”

Voice Mail

Voice mail facility is a common feature of an organization's phone system. It is a means of digitally recording voice messages that can be saved and forwarded, or skipped and deleted. It allows executives to attend to calls when they are free. When they are busy with meetings or work outside the office, they can transfer their calls to voice mail and check messages from any location at any time.

The voice mail message should sound as natural as possible and should be courteous. The caller should be able to recognize it as the intended receiver's voice. The recorded message may be something like “This is Pallavi Mehta in the R&D department. Please leave me a message. I shall call you back. Thank you.”

Conference Calls

Telephones and cell phones have a conferencing system that allows several persons to talk with each other at the same time. This technology is now commonly used by companies across the globe.

There can be two types of business calls. The first is a one-way closed circuit communication that allows employees to tune in and hear an announcement; for example, daily/early morning progress reports, plant production reports, or other briefings are simultaneously heard by dozens of widely spread out persons via the phone and/or a public announcement system.

The second type of call is interactive. A number of persons can be on the same conference call. In this system, each participant can listen as well as talk. Through a conference call, different members of a team working on a project together are able to update themselves on the progress, made by the team without conducting meetings face-to-face. Through the interactive conference call system, each team member can interact with others from their own work location. This saves companies’ time and transportation costs. Moreover, the interaction is real-time and can happen as and when required.

Conference calls are used by most organizations as a routine communication channel for planning, updating, coordinating, and monitoring activities without requiring employees to travel long distances for a meeting of a few hours.

Cell Phones

Cellular phones are a popular instrument of communication worldwide. Their utility for business executives has been greatly enhanced by the introduction of General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) technology. GPRS technology allows the radio transmission of small packets of data, especially between mobile phones and the Internet. Mobile handsets enabled with GPRS technology do the work of laptops/computers and voice recorders. They are more convenient than laptops, as they are smaller and easier to transport.

Video Conferencing

Internet-enabled video conferencing is an electronic version of face-to-face communication. Business meetings, interviews, and other urgent interactions among several distantly located individuals can be effectively conducted without requiring participants to move from their respective places of work. Video conferencing is more complex than talking on the phone. It involves the use of cameras for images and phones for speech and sound communicated back and forth over the Internet. As with face-to-face communication, video conferencing calls for a whole range of oral skills, such as clear and natural speaking, attentive listening, and positive body language. For successful video conferencing, the following points may be kept in mind:

• Choose a quiet place as this will eliminate background noise.
• Set sound/volume to an appropriate level.
• Ensure that the faces of the speakers are visible by checking the lighting in the room.
• Sit comfortably facing the camera. Do not move unnecessarily.
• Wait for the image of the other person and your own image to appear on the screen before beginning the discussion.
• At the beginning of the conversation, introduce yourself and your team to the other party.
• Wait for the transmission to complete before responding. Due to technical issues, there may be pauses between the two speakers.
• Always direct your message or question by specifying the person you are addressing.
• Treat video conferencing as an audio–visual medium of relaxed business and social communication connecting people in different locations.

TELEPHONIC COMMUNICATION

In telephone conversations, the way we listen, respond, speak, or hang up is often as important as what is communicated.

Making a Call

Before initiating a call, be clear about the why (purpose) and what (content) of the call, how to begin the call, and what to do if the call is cut off.

Prepare Before Calling

For business calls, you must know exactly who you want to speak to and choose the most convenient time to make the call. You should also know whether you are calling to follow up on earlier communication or if it is the first step in the interaction.

• To be brief and concise, jot down the points you want to discuss and think about the order in which to discuss them. Always keep these notes at hand when making the call.
• Keep a notepad and pen ready to write down any information worth recording.
• Consider whether the call is important from your point of view or from the receiver's point of view. In the latter case, structure your information from the receiver's point of interest. Begin first with what is important for the receiver. Talk about your interests later.
• Keep the conversation as short as possible. The other person may not be able to spare much time for your call. During the office hours, call the landline number first, directly or through the assistant, depending on your familiarity with the person. Cell phones should be used in case of urgent matters or when the relationship is of a personal nature.
• Calling a cell phone from a landline number should be avoided as it may give the impression to the receiver that you are taking their availability for granted. In addition, the receiver may not recognize the number if it is not in their cell phone directory.
• Avoid calling a cell phone number through an administrative assistant. It might give an impression of discourtesy.
• Avoid the use of cell phones in movie halls, crowded restaurants, hospitals, fuel stations, and so on. Cell phones should be switched off or kept in the silent mode during meetings and important discussions. People whose calls you have missed in such a situation should be called back later.

How to Begin or Receive a Call

The first few words spoken by the caller or receiver are important for establishing identities and the purpose of the call. They create the context for further conversation.

 

As a caller, you may not be personally known to the receiver. The receiver may be familiar with your purpose and your company, but may not exactly know you unless you have met in person or spoken to each other earlier. Therefore, begin by introducing yourself—state your name, company, and purpose.

In organizations, calls are generally routed through a receptionist. The usual practice at the reception is to attend to the call within five rings; if you have been kept waiting longer than that, the receptionist will usually greet you with an apology. If your call is not answered even after ten rings, it is advisable to disconnect and try calling later, or try another number, if any.

Greet the receptionist (“Good morning”); tell him or her your name and your organization's name, and then mention whom you want to speak with. When speaking with a personal assistant, use the same introduction and tell him or her the purpose of the call. He or she will connect you to the desired person only after checking whether he or she is free to talk to you at that moment. Remember to be patient and pleasant while dealing with the assistant, who is an important link between the caller and the desired contact person.

 

If the receiver does not know you, you should first introduce yourself, for instance by saying something like “Good morning Mr Chaturvedi, I am Pallavi Mehta, marketing manager of Ferns n Petals. I want to know the details of your company's order for floral decoration…”. As a caller, you should use the opportunity to make the receiver feel that the information you want can be acquired only from him or her and that it is required immediately. In other words, involve the receiver in a dialogue, instead of questions that can be answered just by saying “yes” or “no”. Suppose you say, “Can I have the details of…”, the receiver can respond by saying, “No, not now” and may hang up. Hence, use your conversational skills to establish a good relationship with the other person so that the call ends on a positive note.

In the case of a cell phone conversation, it is always better to check if you are clearly audible. You may be able to hear the other side clearly, but it is possible that the other side is not able to hear you completely because of a poor signal. During official meetings, it is always better to keep the cell phone on silent mode. If you are expecting an important call, you may like to inform the chair about it before the meeting begins and step outside after excusing yourself. It is also necessary to keep all such calls short.

The ring tone expresses a person's style. However, it should be in sync with the environment of the workplace. The volume of the phone's ring should not be too loud. Similarly, the volume of the person should also not be very loud. Sometimes, people discuss even confidential matters so loudly that the entire floor can hear them.

If the Call Is Disconnected

Sometimes, the call may be suddenly disconnected or dropped. In such situations, courtesy demands that the person who originally initiated the call should redial immediately and say, “Sorry, the call got disconnected”. In case the receiver has to suspend the call to attend to some other more important call, it is the duty of the receiver to resume the call and give a satisfactory explanation to ensure that the caller does not feel slighted.

Common Telephone Courtesies

Always use the interrogative form for making a request, such as “Could I…?” or “May I…?” as Direct categorical statements may seem like an order. “I want to talk to…” is not a polite request. Instead “May I talk to…” is more polite. Even the statement, “I request you to connect me to so and so number/person” is not quite appropriate when ones does not know the other party well. Instead, say, “May I request you to…”.

Telephone Etiquette Observed by Administrative Assistants

In business, telephone calls are mostly received by personal assistants. Sometimes, the assistant has to act quickly to find out whether his or her supervisor is free to talk. So they may say, “Please hold on” while they check. If their supervisor is present but does not want to speak to the caller for some reason, the assistant will choose any one of the following polite excuses:

“Sorry, she is busy in a meeting. May I have your number? She will call you back”.

“He is busy with a foreign delegation. May I ask him to call you back as soon as he is free?”

These statements may not necessarily be true. However, they are intended to keep the caller satisfied even when the call is not successful. Personal assistants should never try to overhear the conversation between the caller and the receiver. After putting through the call to their supervisor, they should hang up.

Telephone Precautions

As a caller you do not know whether the person receiving your call is alone. Therefore, confidential matters should never be discussed over the phone. They can be overheard/tapped in transmission. However, if you have to discuss something personal that you do not want others to know, you should check with the person you are calling in a polite manner. For example, you may say, “Can we talk about the tender for the Golden Highway project?” or simply, “Are you free? Can we talk about the tender?” This would save you from causing any embarrassment to the receiver or risk being overheard.

 

Communication over the phone requires the use of non-verbal skills, such as pleasant tone, proper intonation, and clear articulation of words. You should be able to convey a large part of the message through your way of speaking rather than the meaning of the words alone.

INTERVIEWS

An interview can be defined as an oral tool used to test a candidate's suitability for employment or admission to an institute of learning. As it is an oral test, it calls for the skills of oral and non-verbal communication, which are necessary to impress the interviewers. There are different types of interviews, such as panel interviews, sequential interviews, academic interviews, personality interviews, and so on. Each type requires the careful application of a particular set of communication skills.

Types of Interviews

The types of interviews frequently encountered by job applicants are:

• Panel interviews: In a panel interview, each member of the panel is closely observing the interviewee. Hence, the interviewee's body language and eye contact are especially important. The interviewee should give the impression of speaking to all the members of the panel, not just a single individual, by making eye contact with all panel members.
• Telephone interviews: The interviewee should consider this a face-to-face interview and use proper modulation of voice to reflect his or her thoughts. The interviewee's voice should be clear, steady, and audible.
• Lunch/dinner interviews: This type of interview is conducted in an informal environment, but still requires that the interviewee be careful about his or her body language and manners. The interviewee should never drink alcohol at an interview, even if the interviewer does.
• Preliminary interviews: As a preliminary interview is a first-stage screening test, the interviewee should pay full attention to it. This stage must be cleared before moving to the final interview. The interviewee's communication skills express his or her confidence and ease.
• Sequential interviews: In this form of interview, the interviewee has to report to several people successively. He or she should be very careful about his or her behaviour, speech, and manners in each interview, as each interviewer is a prospective employer.
• Skill-based interviews: Such interviews require the interviewee to demonstrate skills that are relevant to the job. For instance, someone seeking to be an actor or a salesperson can be asked to act or read a script or demonstrate his or her pitch and skills of persuasive oral communication.
• Academic interviews: An academic interview is conducted in a question-and-answer format. The interviewee should be able to demonstrate attentive listening, eye contact, clarity of ideas, and depth of knowledge.
• Personality interviews: This form of interview evaluates the interviewee as an individual in terms of his or her response to certain situations. The emphasis is not on the answers themselves, but on how they are delivered. The entire range of non-verbal communication skills are brought into play to demonstrate a “well-rounded personality.”

What Does a Job Interview Assess?

According to the employer's needs, interviewers look for the following attributes in candidates:

• Clarity: This refers to the candidate's clarity on academic subjects, his or her career objectives, the reasons for these objectives, long-term goals, national and global issues, and so on.
• Depth: Depth of knowledge and understanding across a wide range of subjects and issues, along with clarity, demonstrate the candidate's academic excellence.
• Personality: A candidate's attitude, honesty, and professionalism reflect his or her ability to work in an organization and with other people. In addition, the candidate's self-awareness and analysis of personal strengths and weaknesses are important.

   

  Assessment of individuals in a job interview is basically an effort to predict their behaviour in a particular job and in the environment of that job.

• General awareness: This refers to the interviewee's level of general awareness about current issues of national and international concern.
• Application of concepts to real-life problems: The interviewee's initiative and capacity for independent thought are judged by responses to application-based questions, which assess how far he or she has moved beyond classroom learning.

   

  Employers look for consistency in what is written in the CV and the interviewee's responses to questions during the interview. It is therefore extremely important to be honest when drafting the CV.

• Communication skills: The candidate's ability to express his or her thoughts clearly and concisely is evaluated along with his or her listening and comprehension skills. In addition, his or her verbal and non-verbal communication and body language exhibit his or her personality as an individual. Assessment of individuals in a job interview is basically an effort to predict their behaviour in a particular job and in the environment of that job.
• Integrity: The candidate's integrity is important to prospective employers. Employers look for consistency in what is written in the CV and the interviewee's responses to questions during the interview. Since the résumé is the starting point of the interview, applicants should know their résumés thoroughly and be prepared to discuss and explain anything on them. It is therefore extremely important to be honest when drafting the CV.

   

  Since the résumé is the starting point of the interview, applicants should know their résumés thoroughly and be prepared to discuss and explain anything on them.

Focus of Job Interviews

Though each job has its own specific requirements, there are some elements that are common. Most interviews focus on three issues:

• Technical competence
• Motivation
• The candidate's ability to handle situations where he or she does not know the answer

Technical Competence

Technical competence is assessed by examining the candidate's academic background and previous job profiles. For instance, if someone is applying to be a salesperson, his or her knowledge of marketing and sales management and logistics will be tested. The questions asked are related to the candidate's specialization, but are usually of a general nature. They are generally application-based questions.

Suppose you are an applicant for a sales position at Godrej. The interviewers can assess your technical competence by asking questions such as: “What features of our Godrej mini-fridge would you highlight to promote its sale in rural markets?” Your answer would demonstrate your knowledge of the principles of selling in general as well as your ability to apply those principles to a specific, targeted group.

Motivation

All employers want to evaluate a prospective employee's level of interest in a job and how strongly he or she wants to fulfill his or her goals. For instance, in an interview for a sales job, the candidate's motivation can be judged by posing a complex situation (for instance, a transportation strike at the same time as an important meeting with a dealer) and then asking how the candidate would react to it.

Sometimes interviewers may deliberately ask stressful questions, such as “what would you do if you are not selected for this position?”. The actual responses to such questions are not as important as how the candidate handles them.

Handling Difficult Questions

When an interviewee does not know the answer to a question, there are several ways to approach it:

• Admit it. He or she can say, “Sorry, I do not know the answer to that.”
• Make an educated guess. The candidate can guess and preface the answer with, “I guess/I think/Perhaps it could mean…”.
• The interviewee should not get flustered. Instead, he or should continue to communicate a positive state of mind by making eye contact and using positive facial expressions, tone, and volume of speech.

Interviewees should continuously reflect upon various aspects of their personality and goals in order to respond to different questions at job interviews with clarity and confidence. Since one's style of thinking determines behaviour and personality to a great extent, it helps to consider, in some detail, how one thinks.

Strategies for Success at Interviews

A candidate's success in converting an interview opportunity into a job offer depends on how well he or she has prepared for the interview. Most candidates falter during an interview only because they do not know enough about themselves, the company they are applying for, or the job profile. The secret of clearing the interview stage lies in preparing a game plan and developing a strategy to target what the specific organization is seeking. First, the candidate's personality traits matter: is he or she motivated, mature, ambitious, and trustworthy? Second, the candidate's level of competence and realism regarding job expectations matter: a candidate can impress prospective employers only when he or she demonstrates solid knowledge of the industry and the job.

As a practical step, job applicants can equip themselves with the following information and knowledge before an interview:

1. Know yourself
2. Know the company
3. Know the job profile

Know Yourself

The candidate should ask himself or herself: “Who am I? What are my achievements? What are my skills and strengths? What do I plan to do five years from now?” He or she must be clear about his or her goals and consistent regarding past achievements and future career plans. In addition, he or she should be realistic—if his or her skills, career plans, and objectives align closely with the job's requirements, chances are that he or she will be offered the job. Most interviews begin with a question like “Can you tell us something about yourself?” so it is important to have a clear response ready.

Some ways to know yourself better are to:

• Identify your skills—concentrate on what you can do well.
• Determine what you value—things that are important to you and influence your behaviour.
• Be clear about what motivates you and what you are looking for—whether it is status, security, power, expertise, material rewards, creativity, autonomy.
• Describe your personality—your behaviour and mental characteristics.
• Find out how you think—if you are especially logical, intuitive, or creative, for instance.

An employer does not look for a set of ready-made answers to a volley of questions. Answers do count. But, there is something else that matters a great deal: the personality that accompanies the answers. Employers want to hire a good person, a competent worker, and someone with a well-informed and well-rounded personality.

 

Know the Company

Job applicants must gather information and research the company they are applying to before the interview. They can learn about the work culture and norms of the company and read up on the company's products and other details through the company's reports and Web site. If possible, they should try to interact with company employees to learn more about the work environment. Then, they should assess the size and systems of the company in accordance with their own ambitions and career plan, and consider how far the company will offer growth opportunities. Reflecting on these aspects of the company prior to the interview will prepare a candidate for the employer's questions.

Know the Job Profile

At the interview, one should never be carried away by the salary or designation of the job; rather, the job should be considered in terms of its profile, scope for growth, and one's professional goals and ambitions. This also means that one should not accept a job, however lucrative, in a company that does not suit one's personal goals.

 

Answers to Some Common Interview Questions

Usually, the interviewers move from simple, personal questions to general and then technical questions. The questions put to new graduates focus more on their education and work experiences, current issues, and hobbies. The focus is on education and personality. In the case of candidates with more experience, the focus is on their recent projects, achievements, and what new thing they can do for the organization.

Exhibit 8.1 provides some common questions faced in interviews and explains how a candidate can tackle these questions.

 

 

Exhibit 8.1 Model Questions and Answers

The questions given here are representative of the types of questions you can expect at an interview, though of course the list is not exhaustive. The secret of facing interviews successfully lies in thorough preparation so that one can display a full understanding of content and a well-rounded personality in the interview. Aim at making a good first impression and remember that one has just three to five seconds to do so. Ninety per cent of people form a judgment regarding someone at a job interview in just that time. In 70 per cent of cases, these first impressions prove to be right. Decisive factors in making an impression are body language, clothes, status symbols, scent, and the person's voice.

GROUP DISCUSSION

The group discussion (GD) tests inter-personal skills. It is most popular with public/private sector undertakings, government departments, commercial firms, and universities and other educational organizations, which use it to screen candidates after a written test. What does a group discussion evaluate? A group discussion primarily evaluates participants’ ability to interact in a group that is discussing a given topic. An individual's behaviour in a group means much for his or her success as a manager or an executive responsible for coordinating and organizing activities. The evaluators, therefore, focus on group dynamics rather than the content of each participant's views.

The group usually consists of 8 to 10 candidates. No one is nominated as a leader, coordinator, or chairman. Normally, 20 to 30 minutes are given to complete the discussion. Each candidate has a roll number by which he or she is to be addressed. For easy recognition, the roll number is prominently displayed on a tag worn by each candidate. The candidates are seated in ascending order of roll numbers, usually in a circle.

 

Leadership

As group discussions start without an official leader, the atmosphere allows all participants free and equal opportunity to express their views. During the course of the discussion, a leader often emerges. No candidate should try to dominate the group to become the leader. Such an attempt is self-defeating, because in a group discussion all participants are supposed to be equal. However, a candidate, by his or her initiative, ability to direct the discussion, maturity, clarity of ideas, and understanding of group dynamics, might gradually begin to direct the course of the discussion and mediate between opposing views to evolve a comprehensive view. Such a candidate is implicitly recognized by all other candidates as the leader of the discussion group.

GD Protocol

Group discussions are “formally informal”. There are rules of conduct to be observed by the participants. Some of these rules are discussed in Exhibit 8.2.

 

 

Exhibit 8.2 GD Protocol

Discussion Techniques

A group discussion is not a debate in which each participant either opposes or supports the topic. There are no clearcut positions or stands required. A group discussion is a continuous discussion, an ongoing interaction in which participants examine a subject or problem from different angles and viewpoints. Participants may disagree with or support others’ points of view, or bring up a new point of view. But, it is essential for all participants to always show respect for others, even if they disagree with each other. Courtesy in discussions indicates a level of politeness and maturity.

 

Good analytical abilities, critical assessment of arguments, and strong verbal and non-verbal skills of communication can give one a competitive edge over others. Exhibit 8.3 presents some guidelines for GD participants.

 

 

Exhibit 8.3 Guidelines for GD Participants

Listening

In a group discussion, listening too is a participative act. Participants should listen thoughtfully to what others have to say, with the goal of assimilating and analysing rather than contradicting or refuting others. Instead of interrupting others, it is better to try to join the discussion tactfully and use words that demonstrate that you have been listening to others.

NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Negotiation is a process of bargaining in which two parties, each of which has something that the other wants, try to reach an agreement on mutually accepted terms. Everyday examples of negotiation are:

• A brother and a sister debating which movie to watch
• Two friends trying to settle the amount for which one wants to sell his old car to the other
• Two sisters fighting over how a box of chocolates should be divided between them
• An employee making a suggestion to her manager regarding her salary
• A salesperson trying to arrange a meeting with a prospective wholesaler/dealer

The Oxford Dictionary of Business English defines negotiation as:

1. “a process of trying to reach an agreement through discussion”,
2. “a meeting where this discussion takes place”.

The Winston Simplified Dictionary defines negotiation as, “the discussion and bargaining that goes on between parties before a contract is settled or a deal is definitely agreed upon”. Alan Fowler defines negotiation as “a process of intervention by which two or more parties who consider that they need to be jointly involved in any outcome, but who initially have different objectives, seek by the use of argument and persuasion to resolve their differences in order to achieve a mutually acceptable solution”1. According to Bill Scott, “A negotiation is a form of meeting between two parties: our party and the other party”¹. The objective of most negotiations is to reach an agreement in which both parties together move towards an outcome that is mutually beneficial.

The Nature of Negotiation

The following points make the nature of negotiation quite clear:

1. Negotiation takes place between two parties. Both the parties are equally interested in finding a satisfactory result.
2. Negotiation leads to agreement through discussion, not instructions, orders, or power/influence/authority.

When a manager deals with other managers or customers and suppliers over whom he or she has no authority, he or she tries to reach an agreement through discussion, persuasion, and argument. In other words, the manager must negotiate with the other party.

Suppose you are a manager in the marketing department of a company. You need the help of an analyst from another department to complete an urgent project report. The other department may not be willing to spare the services of the analyst you badly need. You would need to discuss the matter with your colleagues and make your case using convincing arguments, by negotiating with the analyst and the other department. Reaching an agreement is the objective of negotiation.

 

Consider the following situation, which shows how negotiations work.

Mr and Mrs Rai wanted to sell their house. They had approached many property dealers in their area. Several agents had seen their property and knew their intentions, including the minimum price they would be willing to accept. The Rais quickly realized that in their area, nearly every property agent had come to know of their desire to sell the house as early as possible. This worked against them, and every time they were made an offer, it was lower than the previous one. They became desperate and began to believe that it would not be possible to sell their house for a reasonable price because they made the mistake of disclosing their keenness to sell. One day, they happened to mention this to one of their friends. He gave them the contact information of a very prominent builder, Mr Devraj, from another part of the city. Mr Devraj answered the Rais’ call and immediately enquired about the location of the plot and the built-up area. Next, he asked them their asking price. He paused, and then said, “Think about the price again”. This made the Rais feel a bit shaky. They had told him the price they wanted, not the prices the property dealers had offered them thus far. Not wanting to lose the chance of selling their house, they reduced their asking price by Rs 5 lakh. Mr Devraj promptly asked, “Is that final?” With some trepidation, they said, “Yes”. In a businesslike tone, he said, “Done” and promised to send them Rs 10 lakh as an advance the next day. He also remarked that he would have the remaining amount sent within a week. The Rais wanted him to see the house, but he said, “There is no need for that; I am familiar with the sector”.

At the time of the full and final payment, the Rais learnt that they were not able to get the desired price for the house from other, smaller property dealers because the house had an old-fashioned design and would need to be demolished. What these property dealers were offering was the price of the land only. However, Mr Devraj, being a builder, would be able to use the basic architecture and give the house a new look.

The Need for Negotiation

The need to negotiate is defined by the situation. Some situations require negotiating, others don't.

Situations Requiring Negotiation

Negotiation is necessary when an issue involves more than one person and the problem cannot be resolved by a single person. Whenever two or more persons or parties are involved, they are bound to have different views or aims regarding the outcome. The way to overcome disagreement is by negotiating.

Negotiation can take place only when both concerned parties are willing to meet and discuss the issue at hand. That is, they both must want to reach a decision by discussion, not force or authority.

There are formal and informal situations in negotiation.

Formal Negotiations

• There is a prearranged meeting of the two parties.
• The agenda is already fixed, and both parties know what is going to be discussed.
• Generally, more than two persons are involved in the discussion.
• In formal negotiations, there is time to prepare and assign roles for each person in each party. For instance, one person can put forth their side's reasons and suggestions, another can explain the side's points more thoroughly, and the third can closely follow the flow of the discussion and point out anything that has been missed.

   

  A formal negotiation is simpler to handle than unannounced meetings.

• A formal negotiation is simpler to handle than unannounced meetings. There is time to study the entire situation and find out the strengths and weaknesses of the other party.

Generally, a formal negotiation is for settling a dispute or a conflict between two warring parties, such as for a labour or workers’ strike. Negotiations in such situations are formal; the meeting between the two parties is fixed beforehand and both parties have time to prepare their bargaining points.

Informal Negotiations   Informal negotiations are unannounced and casual meetings, such as when a staff member drops by a colleague's office and discusses a problem, which they attempt to resolve. This is an informal negotiation because:

• It is unannounced.
• It involves just two persons.
• It appears casual (although the colleague who initiated the discussion might have planned this approach deliberately).
• It does not give one time to prepare for the discussion, so one cannot study the strengths or weaknesses of the other side.
• Its friendly and informal approach is meant to influence the outcome.

Situations Not Requiring Negotiation

The following types of situations will not require negotiation:

• When one of the two parties/persons immediately accepts or agrees to what the other is suggesting. In such a situation, there is no need for negotiating. The desired result is already achieved.
• Whenever one of the two parties refuses even to consider or discuss the suggestion or proposal. For example, suppose a supplier or a dealer completely refuses to reduce the price or consider any suggestion of partial payments, there is no possibility for negotiation.

However, people often encounter situations in which there is neither direct acceptance nor complete refusal at the outset. In such cases, the two persons deal with each other by discussing the possibility of reaching a mutually acceptable end.

Factors Affecting Negotiation

The factors discussed in this section usually affect the outcomes of negotiations.

Location

The location of a negotiation can influence the level of confidence of one party. When the location is one party's office, for instance, that party has several advantages. They are on home ground, an area of strength. They can access whatever information or material is needed during the course of the negotiation. They can also extend social courtesies as a token of goodwill; this could move the negotiation towards agreement.

Timing

• The choice of time for holding discussions and the length of the discussion should be fixed according to mutual convenience.
• There should be adequate time for the smooth exchange of ideas through different stages of negotiation. The preparation time and the timeframe for implementing the agreement afterwards should also be carefully fixed.
• To be effective, negotiations should be timely. That means they should be carried out before it is too late to reach an agreement.

Subjective Factors

Often the outcome of a discussion does not depend wholly on objective factors, such as logic and the facts of the matter under consideration. The final outcome may also be determined by subjective factors relating to influence and persuasion.

1. Individual relationships: The conduct of negotiations is influenced not only by the real situation of the matter, but also by the relationship and rapport between the two persons/parties involved in the process of discussion.
2. Fear of authority: Often one side's bargaining power is conditioned by fear of authority, higher connections, and the other party's capacity to hurt their professional future.
3. Future and practical considerations: When personal relationships are at stake, the negotiators may not wish to win the argument at the cost of the relationship. Moreover, the fear of losing business in the future is a strong factor in bargaining/negotiation positions, as is the effect on the participants’ reputations.
4. Mutual obligations: The memories of past favours by the other party may also influence the negotiation.
5. Personal considerations: Self-questioning helps the negotiator identify the factors influencing his or her bargaining position and strengths. Both, formal and informal negotiations, are influenced by questions, such as:
   • “How does my position on this proposal/issue take into account the likely effect on our future working relationship?”
   • “Am I allowing myself to be unduly influenced by a sense of obligation? Am I hoping to achieve too much by emphasizing past obligations?”
   • “What are my goals for this negotiation?”

Persuasive Skills and the Use of You-attitude

Persuasion includes a range of skills for convincing other people of the need to accept or agree to a course of action. It is an essential element of effective business communication. It helps in resolving issues on which there is a difference of opinion, but that need solutions that are in the interest of all. In negotiations, people are gradually persuaded to accept the other party's view to some extent.

 

As you must have seen yourself, persuasion is not one single thing. It is a mixture of skills—attitude, psychology, language, tone, body language, and so on—used to convince the other party to accept one's view despite their objections or alternate proposals.

“You attitude” is an essential aspect of negotiations. Nothing convinces more than facts. But, in order to persuade people, the facts should be discussed from the other party's point of view. A skilled negotiator should be able to highlight how the other person stands to gain from his or her suggestions. He or she must understand the other party's needs and be able to reconcile what would be a good result for him or her with the needs of the other party. This allows persuasion to end negotiations and discussions with a satisfying conclusion for both sides (creating a win–win situation).

 

The range of persuasive skills can be classified under the following broad headings:

• Style: Being collaborative rather than confrontational
• You attitude: considering the other person's viewpoint
• Talking and listening
• Probing and questioning
• Taking breaks when necessary
• Concessions and compromises
• Summarizing
• Reaching an agreement

 

At the end of the discussion, both sides should be sure that the final agreement covers all necessary points and they are clearly expressed and understood.

Stages in the Negotiation Process

Generally, the process of negotiation moves from the stage of “offer” to that of “agreement” via the stages of “counter-offer”, “concession”, and “compromise”. All discussions that progress successfully from opening differences to a final, mutually acceptable outcome/conclusion usually move through the same general sequence. During informal discussions, this sequence may not always be obvious, yet it is there with respect to the most important aspects of negotiations.

According to Alan Fowler, the stages of an effective discussion are:

• Preparing and planning
• Exchanging initial views
• Exploring possible compromises
• Searching for common ground
• Securing an agreement
• Implementing the agreement

These six stages can be grouped into three basic phases:

• A preparation phase before the negotiation begins
• The actual negotiating process—the interaction that leads to the final agreement and an outcome
• The implementation of the agreement

 

Negotiation implies that both parties accept that an agreement between them is needed (required or desirable) before any decision is to be implemented. The direction of the discussion is towards that desired agreement. Hence, it requires careful preparation and handling.

The Preparation Phase

Like all effective communication/discussion, negotiations have to be planned. Tim Hindle, in his book Negotiating Skills, says, “Bear in mind that it is almost impossible for a negotiator to do too much preparation”.²

There are two respects in which the negotiator has to be prepared before the negotiation:

• Assessing the relative strength of the two parties
• Setting negotiating objectives. At this stage, the negotiator should try to answer the following two questions:
  • What are the real issues?
  • Which parties should be involved?

Knowing the real issues at hand helps the negotiator feel confident and fully prepared about two things:

• That he/she knows the subject matter well and is not likely to be surprised by the other party introducing unexpected facts or figures
• That he/she is clear about the desired goal of the discussion

Negotiators should be realistic about their objectives. If they fail to persuade the other side to accept their ideal solution, they should be prepared to lower their expectations. If the ideal is not achievable, they should be very clear and firm about the lowest outcome acceptable to them. It is important for the negotiators to know what points they are willing to concede and what their limits are.

In the preparation stage, negotiators should also plan the best way of arguing their case, considering particularly the other person's likely viewpoint and objectives. They should assess the strength of each party's bargaining position. To be well prepared before the actual negotiating process begins, negotiators should:

• Be sure that they know enough about the subject matter to be discussed
• Decide their objectives and limits
• Plan how best to argue their case

The Negotiation Phase

Most effective negotiations follow a set sequence:

• The parties begin by defining the issues at hand. They ascertain the scope of the negotiation.
• Each side then puts forward what it is seeking. First, the party that is making a claim presents its case, and then the other party gives an initial response—thus, both the parties define their initial positions.
• After that comes a more open phase in which the initial positions are tested through argument.
• The parties then move to discussing a possible solution that could result in a resolution.
• Firm proposals in more specific terms are then discussed and modified before both parties accept them.
• Finally, an agreement is spelled out and a conclusion is reached.

The Implementation Phase

Some scholars do not consider the stages of preparation and implementation to be parts of negotiation. But, they constitute two basic phases of the actual process of negotiation—one before initiating the negotiation process and the other after concluding discussions.

 

• The purpose of negotiation is to achieve a decision; the purpose of an agreement is to implement the agreed-upon decision/outcome.
• If due attention is not paid to the implementation of a negotiation, then the negotiation fails.

Three steps to prevent failure of implementation are:

• In all formal negotiations, confirm in writing all that has been agreed upon.
• As far as possible, mention an implementation programme in the agreement. This includes mentioning who is supposed to do what and by when. This matter, if left undefined, may become the subject of disagreement later.
• Ensure that every concerned person, not only those involved in the discussion, is told about the agreement, its implications, and the actions that are to follow.

Negotiation Strategies

Some of the elements listed as part of the negotiation process are strategic in nature. They are discussed here as strategies to be used at different stages of negotiation.

Initial Strategies

Before the negotiation, the negotiators must plan their strategies.

• A successful negotiation should plan the discussion according to the psychological needs of the other party and use appropriate strategies to maximize his or her advantage and gain information about the objectives of the other party.
• He or she should focus on the need to reach a mutually satisfactory conclusion by joint problem-solving.
• The negotiator should sell “sunny-side up”. He or she should think about how the other person will see the proposal and should try to identify and “sell” the benefits of his or her case.
• The negotiator should be able to alter his or her position (within planned limits) if needed to achieve this approach.
• Instead of talking compulsively, a good negotiator allows the other party to say what they wish and develops a dialogue with them.

 

One can start the discussion with language such as: “The general point of our discussion is…, which I think has come up because of…. But, before I go into details, it would be helpful if you first outline your view”.

During the Discussion

The following are some strategies that should be used during the course of the negotiation:

• Neither side should state its entire case in the beginning of the discussion; this should develop as the discussion proceeds. If one side puts forth everything at the beginning, it leaves itself no chance to change position in light of the other side's arguments.
• It is important to listen carefully to the other speakers’ arguments and notice their facial expressions, gestures, and body movements, in addition to the words. Non-verbal clues and cues will tell the listener how the other side feels—confident or nervous, irritated or calm.
• Neither side should interrupt the other. Interruptions annoy instead of encouraging cooperation.
• Good negotiators put forth searching questions to verify the correctness of facts offered by the other party, such as dates, figures, and so on, or of their logic. If a negotiator doubts the accuracy of the other side's information, he or she should not directly challenge them by saying, “You are wrong”. Instead, the negotiator may ask further, probing questions, such as “Could you explain the connection between that point and what you said earlier about X?” or “I have not understood the logic of that. Could you put it in a different way?”
• One should not take on a confrontational tone. The strategy should be to allow the discussion to move towards agreement. To do this, one must psychologically encourage cooperation throughout the discussion.

   

  The strategy should be to allow the discussion to move towards agreement. To do this, one must psychologically encourage cooperation throughout the discussion.

• Both parties should use impersonal terminology to point out corrections, rather than making personal criticisms.

   

  Both parties should use impersonal terminology to point out corrections, rather than making personal criticisms.

• It can be useful to take breaks. During the discussion, a short break of 10 minutes can be useful for two purposes: to have a chance to consider new points or proposals before deciding on final commitments and to change the mood of the discussion, if it has become too emotionally charged.
• Both sides must use concessions and compromises. At times, it may be impossible to move further without making some concessions. Strategy is concerned partly with timing and partly with the way possible concessions are introduced into the discussion. When the participants realize that attitudes are hardening and the same points are being repeated without a resolution, the discussion could be changed to an exploratory phase.
• Participants can use conditional compromises, such as by saying things like, “Since we now know each other's initial views, could you tell me what your response would be if I accepted this part of X, which you have suggested?”, “Would you do X if I agreed to do Y?”, and “Would you be able to agree to X if I am able to postpone taking action on Y?”
• It helps to emphasize what the other person stands to benefit from the compromise. The other side should not feel that he/she is losing by accepting the concession or compromise. Some tips include:
  • Commending and thanking the other party for a good suggestion.
  • Not allowing the discussion to go on for too long without bringing in concessions/compromises necessary for reaching agreement.
  • Introducing concessions/compromises on a non-commitment basis.
  • Seeing that the concessions made by each side match.

Reaching an Agreement

Tips for reaching a final agreement are:

• After a long and difficult discussion, “final” should be taken as final. No further concessions or compromises should be allowed.
• Negotiators should be tactful and persuasive to ensure that the final outcome is seen as beneficial by the other party.

   

  Be tactful and persuasive to ensure that the final outcome, which is of advantage to you, is also seen by the other party as a benefit to them.

• The key strategy in any negotiation is persuasion.
• Negotiators should emphasize the other party's benefits and should be enthusiastic about the other party's cooperation and suggestions.

Summarizing

It helps to summarize the agreements and conclusions at the end of the discussion.

• The negotiators can suggest something, such as, “I think it would be helpful if we could summarize all that we have discussed to reach this agreement”.
• Alternatively, one party might suggest: “Let's note it down so that no point is later missed by anyone”. It is a good strategy to use written summaries at the end of discussions. This leaves no scope for disagreement later about what has or has not been agreed upon.

Deadlocks

Reaching a mutually satisfactory end is the basic objective of any negotiation. If there is no final agreement reached, even after a prolonged discussion, the strategy should be to:

• Instead of going round in circles on a contentious point, move on to the next point on the agenda.
• Point out that no further concessions can be made regarding the point of contention, as they would be of no benefit to either party.
• Explain and emphasize the consequences that would result from a deadlock, such as the need to refer the matter to those with greater authority or eventually to external arbitration or third-party mediation.
• Use the ethical aspect of agreement, such as upholding the organization's values, the greatest good of the largest number of people, and so on.
• Even in the situation of a deadlock, remain positive and hopeful of reaching a mutually agreeable solution.
• Finally, point out that third-party intervention in the form of legal arbitration or conciliation may not benefit either of the parties, for whom it is best to decide the matter through mutual understanding.

BUSINESS ETIQUETTE

Etiquette refers to conventional rules of social behaviour or professional conduct. These rules are unwritten and act as norms to be observed by all professionals who work as a team in a particular company or department. They help individuals identify what sort of behaviour is appropriate or inappropriate in a business environment.

Professional etiquette affects business deals. An intelligent business executive knows that visitors assess the status of a company not just from its balance sheets and inventory books, but also from the manner in which they are received, addressed, taken around, and briefed in the boardroom. In business, as in life, etiquette is a self-rewarding trait. Successful professionals know how to conduct themselves at company meetings, parties, and dinners. They are aware of their company's culture and etiquette. Further, business etiquette means more than just being nice. It is fundamental to conducting business successfully. Those who ignore norms run the risk of being labelled as “unfriendly” or “inflexible”. This may disrupt the smooth working of the team by causing misunderstandings or tension among fellow workers.

 

Choosing to be habitually late for meetings, ignoring deadlines, indulging in character assassination during coffee breaks, or demanding (as a right) instead of requesting (as a favour) help are examples of ignoring, knowingly or unknowingly, the rules of good professional conduct, behaviour, and etiquette.

Every workplace evolves its own norms of behaviour and attitude. For example, if one were to undertake a survey of banks or hospitals during lunch breaks, one would notice that in some companies everyone resumes working without even a minute's delay after lunch, while in others taking an extra 10 to 15 minutes for lunch may be a general practice. In such cases, the etiquette is not governed by rules written down anywhere.

The business etiquette rules discussed in this chapter relate to the following:

• Introductions
• Telephone/cell phone calls
• Business dining
• Interaction with foreign clients
• Business-to-business etiquette

This chapter describes the behaviour and customs that would be considered appropriate and acceptable in most business organizations in modern, mostly westernized workplaces.

This approach to business etiquette assumes that each business setting has its own business protocols that an employee learns by working in that environment and observing others. But, there are general rules of business etiquette that are based on the fundamental principles of organizational behaviour. In an organization, the basic concern is to create a comfortable and effective work environment where each person helps others work with ease. This is made possible by empathizing with others’ concerns and priorities. Identifying with others is the best form of business etiquette.

 

Learning the rules of business etiquette helps professionals be comfortable in any business setting. Let us, therefore, consider some common situations in business and find out how to act appropriately.

Introductions

First impressions and meetings play a significant role in facilitating a business relationship. It is important, therefore, to make a positive impression when meeting someone for the first time.

Self-introductions

A confident self-introduction always makes a positive first impression, but many people are reluctant to introduce themselves. This may be because they think it too bold an act or they feel too shy to do so. But, when two people meet for the first time, they are bound to want to know each other's identity, affiliation, and purpose. Even when people meet the second or third time after a gap of some weeks, there is no harm in repeating introductions by saying something simple, like, “Good morning, I'm Smita Sharma”.

 

Suppose two applicants are waiting for an interview with the general manager of marketing of a company. They are sitting in the waiting lounge across the corridor leading to the general manager's office. A smart-looking middle-aged executive walks into the corridor moving towards the general manager's office. The candidates are not sure whether he is the person for whom they have been waiting. Now, suppose one of them stands up, walks up to him, and says, “Good morning, I am Reena Seth. I am here for an interview with Mr S. K. Nair”. Hopefully, the person would respond, “Good morning! I am Mr Nair. Pleased to meet you. We shall have the interview shortly”. Reena Seth's bold introduction to Mr Nair would give her an edge over the other candidate, who remained silent. Most likely, Mr Nair would have a positive and favourable impression of Reena Seth as a confident, assertive, and enterprising young individual.

If there is an advantage in introducing oneself at the first opportunity, why do people shy away from doing so? Some cultures, such as British culture, have a sense of reserve. Americans are more outgoing in general. Indians are traditionally more shy and, generally, would still consider it impolite to go up to someone and say “Hi, I am Amit Misra” (though this is now changing).

Introductions are standard protocol when two or more persons meet formally. Each person should introduce himself or herself in a clear manner, pronouncing their first names and surnames as well as stating their positions, which helps establish the purpose and direction of the conversation. For instance, one should say something like “Prafulla Misra, CEO, Sterling Gold Informatics”, instead of just “Misra” or “Prafulla”. Americans prefer to introduce themselves by their first names only, like “John” or “William”. But, the British use the first name and surname: “WB Yeats” or “Tony Blair”. Names, specially foreign or unfamiliar ones, are generally only partially understood unless spoken distinctly. For instance, the name “Kanwal Jeet Singh Sidhu” has to be uttered slowly, so that the other person follows it fully.

During a conversation, one party may have forgotten the other's name or may not remember how to pronounce it. At such moments the other person should help them immediately by politely repeating their name — “I am Irfan Mohammad, I am sorry, I should have told you”. Business etiquette seeks to make all concerned parties comfortable. This is why it is polite to apologize for forgetting to introduce oneself. If one simply says, “I am Irfan Mohammad”, it suggests that the other person is at fault for forgetting the name.

Here are some rules for making introductions correctly:

1. In the case of a pre-arranged business meeting, if you are an expected visitor, you should introduce yourself by stating your name and the purpose of the visit: “I am Ramesh Bose and I have come here to meet Ms Divya Lahari in the marketing department”. Only after introducing yourself should you ask for the name and position of the other party.
2. Do not use honorifics, such as Sri, Mrs, Mr, Ms, or any other titles before your name while introducing or referring to yourself. Others can call you “Mr Chandra”, but you should refer to yourself as just “Rajan Chandra”, or “Chandra”, or “Rajan”. If you have a PhD, you may use “doctor” before your name and refer to yourself as “Dr Sharma”. Surgeons and physicians usually do not add the salutation before their names when introducing themselves. Saying something like “I am Roopa Salwan, cardiologist from Escorts Heart Institute in New Delhi, India, I am here to attend the International Summit of Cardiologists as an Indian delegate” is a universally appropriate self-announcement. The point is that others may add titles or professional descriptions (such as “professor”), but the individuals themselves should not.
3. Speak your name slowly and clearly. As mentioned earlier, the listener may not catch an unusual or unfamiliar name. Therefore, articulate your name as distinctly as possible, and if required, help others by spelling it.

    

   Speak your name slowly and clearly. The listener may not catch an unusual or unfamiliar name. Therefore, articulate your name as distinctly as possible, and if required, help others by spelling it.

In business, one encounters a variety of people, and it may be difficult to recognize or place someone one has previously met in a different context, such as a seminar or conference. Before the other person detects this, you should ask for his or her business card by simply saying, “Could I have your latest business card for your telephone number and e-mail address?”

To be tactful in such situations is also good business etiquette. If you let the other person know that you have forgotten his or her name, it may make the person feel that he or she is not important enough to be remembered. Try to act as if you know the name, but wish to have more details about the person.

Introducing Others

It is common to have to introduce others at business meetings. A clear and complete introduction of each person, both members of the visiting party and the host party, makes everyone feel relaxed and creates a congenial atmosphere for the meeting. In such situations, the person who is making the introductions should know the names and professional statuses of both parties before the meeting. The professional status refers to the role the person plays in the business transaction.

 

Normally, the senior-most person among the visitors or the host team introduces the other members of his or her group. The practice is that visitors are first introduced to the hosts. Then members of the host group are introduced. Usually a senior is not introduced to a junior, but instead, the lowest-ranked person is introduced to the highest-ranked person. Accordingly, avoid saying to the CEO of a company: “Mr Chopra, may I introduce you to Payal Muttoo? Payal is this year's first position holder and a gold medalist, working in our placement department”. Instead, say “Mr Chopra, may I introduce Payal Muttoo to you? Payal is this year's university topper and gold medalist, working in our placement department”.

Notice two things here. One, the polite form “May I introduce…” is appropriate and formal when speaking to a superior. But, when introducing someone to others it is okay to just say, “This is Neelam Gulati. Neelam is a senior lecturer in finance”. Also note that this introduction repeats the name so that it is duly received and remembered by the other person. To repeat the name naturally, the person who is making the introductions has to create a context by mentioning a significant detail about the person concerned—such as what work they do.

After introducing the junior person to the senior, introduce the senior person to the junior, for instance by saying something like: “Payal, as you know, Mr Chopra is our President. Mr Chopra will discuss our placement status and strategies with you”.

Here, it may be important to point out that in India, and perhaps in other Asian countries, it is a usual practice to use President or Chairman as a title before the name, such as “President G. P. Chopra” or “Chairman Chopra-ji”, or even “Chairman Mr Chopra”. In the United States and other western cultures, this may sound a little odd. Americans refer to one another just by using “first name, last name”, even in the case of very senior persons. However, in Asian countries, people observe social courtesies out of respect for age and position, even in the context of business.

Handshakes and Non-verbal Gestures

Most business meetings begin and end with a handshake. Shake hands after the introduction by extending your right hand and firmly holding the other person's right hand very briefly. In modern business, a handshake is a non-verbal clue of friendliness.

The handshake is so spontaneous that usually both parties simultaneously put forward their right hands to make the gesture. Nowadays, in business, as in society, there is no gender distinction and women shake hands in business situations too. Sometimes, while parting, people shake hands again or put their arm on the back or shoulder of the other person to communicate warmth.

As a winning form of non-verbal communication, handshakes must be accompanied by eye contact and a gentle smile. In some situations, you may express your feelings by saying, “Pleased to meet you”. The other party would generally respond by saying, “my pleasure”. These words are just pleasantries. They do not mean much as verbal communication.

 

As already indicated while discussing non-verbal forms of communication, there are, besides handshakes, other gestures that are culture-specific. For instance, even in business situations, Arabs often shake hands, embrace, and also kiss to communicate their warmth and respect for the other person. East Asians often bow to one another.

If you are not sure of the cultural and personal sensitivities of your visitor or host, it is best to shake hands, as this is the general norm across the world. However, in some culture-specific countries, such as India, many senior business heads, executives, and officers still prefer to receive or bid adieu to highly placed guests in the traditional form—with folded hands, slightly bowed head, and eye contact. As a visitor, follow your host's cue and greet accordingly.

PUBLIC SPEAKING

The Art of Public Speaking

Speaking in public effectively is an art worth developing. People consider this form of communication to be most effective in spreading one's ideas and influencing other people. Consider how great thinkers, political leaders and social wouliers, such as Swami Vivekanand, Martin Luther king Jr., Winston Churchill, Mahatma Gandhi, made a difference in the life of the people and the destiny of the nations by spreading their ideas and influencing people with the power of their spoken words.

Goals of Public Speaking

There are three main goals of public speaking: to persuade, to inform, and to delight. These are the very goals of communication as such. As a public speaker you want to persuade people to accept to do or believe what you think is right, or you wish to make them feel better placed by informing them of things you consider important to know. And finally you seek to entertain people with your unit and interesting anecdotes.

Speech Styles

Speaking has various styles. Some of these are formal, informal, polite, normal, blunt, tentative, and direct.

It is important to choose appropriate ways of saying things according to the situation you are in. In many situations it will be appropriate to use normal or neutral language. In other situations, it is necessary to use language forms that are appropriate to special situations.

• We use tentative language when we are sincerely unsure of our facts or of how we feel. E.g. It's very kind of you to invite me, but I'm not sure if I can come.

We also use tentative language when we want to give the impression of being unsure in order to be tactful and diplomatic. For example, if we want to disagree with a superior, it would probably be too strong to say “I can't agree with you” and it would be more appropriate to be tentative and say I'm not sure if I'd agree with you.”

• Direct language is the opposite of tentative language; it gives the impression that the speaker is very sure. This impression is appropriate if, for example, we want to agree with someone. But, it can sound rude and inappropriate in many situations like inviting a superior to a party.

  For Example

  1. No. You are mistaken the statistics just cannot be this high.
  2. I see your point. But, we’ll have to go ahead with our previous plan.
• We use polite language when we want to sound particularly polite without being tentative.

  For Example

  1. I'm sorry. But, I feel there is a mistake somewhere. According to my calculations, the statistics should not be so high.
  2. You definitely have a point. But, I'm afraid this time we’ll have to go ahead. Next time onwards, we’ll definitely consider these points.
• Formal language creates the impression of social distance between people. It occurs mostly in official situations e.g. business meetings, official receptions.

  For Example

  1. I'd be delighted if you could make it to the party. We’ll all look forward to it.
  2. Forgive me if I sound curious. But, isn't this the same girl we saw him with yesterday?
• Informal language is used basically between friends. It is generally inappropriate to use it with anyone else.

  For Example

  1. Cut it out’ Will you? I've had enough of this.
  2. You‘re coming to the party tonight, aren't you? I just wont take “no” for an answer.
• Strong language carries with it a strong sense of conviction. It usually sounds very direct.

  For Example

  1. This is impossible! How could you ever promise without consulting me?
  2. I'm gone without this project. I must get it, come what may.
• Blunt language is extremely frank. It should be used with extreme care, as in most cases it will simply sound rude.

  For Example

  1. I know You're lying. You can't fool me!
  2. I must tell you. Your work was not up to the mark and we’ll have to review your extension.

In most cases we use normal and neutral language, but sometimes, depending on the situations we are in and also on the basis of our co-speakers, we use special language. The type of language we use shows our attitude.

Style of public speech: Public speaking requires formal language, jargon, slang and incorrect language have no place in public speeches. The speakers have to raise the level of their language and polish their expressions for creating a favorable impression on the audience. Public speaking requires a forceful and passionate delivery.

The Public Speaking Process

If you are speaking to inform or to persuade a group of people (regardless of whether in a stand-up presentation, a seated deck-presentation, a videoconference, or a webcast), use these techniques to structure what you say. Since, unlike readers, your listeners can't glance back or skip ahead, You'll need to be repetitive and exceptionally clear by including (1) an opening, (2) a preview of the main points, (3) clearly demarcated main points, and (4) a closing.

Use an Effective Opening

Openings are important in all forms of communication, when you make an oral presentation, however, your opening is even more crucial than it is when you write. Therefore, always use the first minute or so of your presentation for your opening, what many experts call a “grabber” or a “hook.”

To decide what to say during your opening, think about the audience: Are they interested? Do they know how the topic relates to them? Do they know you well or not? Given your audience, choose from among the following techniques:

• Tell them why You're speaking. What they will learn in a tell presentation or what you hope they will do as a result of a sell presentation—so they can listen with these ideas in mind.
• Grab their attention. Why should they listen? Often, your audience will have other things on their minds or will not be especially interested in your topic, so you may need to open with a provocative question, a problem definition, a promise of what your presentation will deliver, a personal story that makes a business point, a vivid image, or a striking example or statistics.
• Show them “what's in it for them (WIIFT).” Why should they care? Why should they bother?
• Build your credibility, if necessary. If your audience doesn't know about you, introduce yourself and use any of the persuasion techniques to enhance your credibility by establishing a “common ground.”
• Use humor with caution. Humor can be an effective grabber; however, use it only if it fits your personality and style, if it is appropriate and inoffensive for every member of the audience, and if it relates to the topic or occasion. Never use humor that might make anyone feel, put down, or trivialized.

Give a Preview

Without a doubt, the most important part of your presentation is a preview (also known as an agenda, an outline, or a table of contents) of what you will be covering. Always give an explicit preview at the beginning of your presentation.

Previews help your audience understand and remember what you say. Think again about the contrast between listeners and readers. Your readers can skim a document and read your headings and subheadings before they start reading. Your listeners, in contrast, have no idea what you will be covering unless you tell them.

Typical previews include a list of key points (such as reasons, examples, or recommendations), key questions, or a problem followed by a solution.

Examples of Previews

Longer and more formal: I will discuss sales in each of our four European regions: the Northern, Southern, Western, and Central.

Shorter and less formal: Let's take a look at the sales figures in our four European regions.

State Your Points Clearly

Your main points need to be organized and easy to follow, much more so than in writing. Readers can look over, slow down, and reread when they wish; listeners, of course, cannot. Therefore, remember these three guidelines when You're speaking.

Limit Your Main Points Experiments in cognitive psychology show that people cannot easily comprehend more than five to seven main points, so do not exceed that number when You're speaking. That means grouping all of your points in any section or subsection into no more than seven major areas.

Use Strong Transitions When you are speaking, you need longer, more explicit transitions between major sections and subsections than you do when you are writing. Listeners do not stay oriented as easily as readers do; they may not even remember what it is that you are listing unless you use these longer transitions.

Ineffective short transition

   Second,…

Effective longer transitions

   The second recommendation is…

   Let's move on to the second recommendation.

Use Repetitive Transitions In addition to stronger, more explicit transitions, you also need to use more repetitive transitions when You're speaking, because listeners may not remember information they hear only once. Although you may feel as if You're being too repetitive, your listeners will appreciate detailed reminders that reinforce your structure. Therefore, between each major section and subsection, use a backward look/forward look transition. The backward look refers to recapping what you just covered, and the-forward look provides a smooth transition to the upcoming part of your talk.

Effective backward look/forward look transition

Example: Now that we have looked at the three elements of the marketing plan (backward look), let's turn to the financial implications of the plan (forward look).

Keep the Audience's Interest High Remember that your listeners’ attention will decrease in the middle of your speech. Hence, consider the following techniques to keep up their interest, involve them, add variety, and wake them up:

• Include stories, case illustrations, analogies, and examples—not just numbers.
• Incorporate their names (e.g., “Pat in accounting and Wahid in human resources” instead of “people from different departments”).
• Change your personal energy (e.g., your tone, pauses, or nonverbal dynamism),
• Ask rhetorical questions that relate to audience benefits (e.g., “So what does this mean for your business?”).
• Ask for a show of hands (e.g., “How many of you think our current policy is effective?”).
• Tell them You'll be asking for their input after the presentation.

Close Effectively

The Audience Memory Curve also shows that your listeners are likely to remember your last words. Therefore, your closing should be more than a mere “thank you” or the all-too-common “dribble” closing like “I guess that's about it.”

Instead, use a strong, obvious transitional phrase—such as “to summarize” or “in conclusion”—to introduce your closing remarks. Here are some options for effective closings:

• Give a summary. Summarize your main points. Your audience will appreciate the wrap up.
• End with the action steps. Based on your communication objective. You might remind the audience “what's in it for them”, if they take these action steps.
• Refer to the opening. A third kind of closing is to refer to the rhetorical question, promise, image, or story you used in your opening.
• If you end with Q and A, add a second closing, similar to your first one, so you get the last word.

Guidelines for Developing Public Speaking Skills

Nervousness and stage fright is natural for all beginners before a large audience. However, this feeling is gradually overcome by knowing that everyone who stands before an audiance feels like you. Remember the techniques discussed by Stephen E Lucas in his book, “the art of public speaking” (1989) to develop self confidence and skills of public speaking.

1. The importance of developing Courage and Self-Confidence.

   Courage to speak is the first requisite for a public speaker. One who has stage-fright cannot face the public. He cannot have confidence in himself/herself. And one who has no confidence is bound to fumble. But, the fact is that at the beginning every renowned speaker had stage-fright. Born speakers are rare. George Bernard Shaw was a spell-binder. But, at the beginning his legs trembled and his voice faltered when he rose to speak. Stage-fright can be conquered. One can acquire perfect self confidence. Only one must do certain things.

   1. Desire: One who wants to become a good public speaker must have a strong desire to speak well and must have enthusiasm for speaking. And he can get desire and enthusiasm only if he remembers the benefits he can reap by becoming a good speaker. A good speaker can do well in interviews, selling his goods, influenceing the people and their leader. If one remembers all this, their desire will be whetted, their fear will gradually vanish, and they will acquire confidence.
   2. Mastery of the subject: One cannot have confidence unless one knows one's subject well. Hence, one must prepare the topic thoroughly, one must read some books, analyse the ideas, and take down points.
   3. Act confidently: A speaker must put on the appearance of boldness. He/she must dress well. He/she must not have any feelings of inferiority. He/she must always think that they are masters of their subject. And this will surely be able to impress the audience. This auto-suggestion will remove their nervousness and give them self-confidence.
   4. Practice: Practice is most important in overcoming stage-fright and getting self- confidence. A speaker must prepare his speech beforehand. He must read it several times. Then he must stand before a mirror and speak, as if before an audience.
2. Develop self-confidence through preparation.

   There are very few who can speak extempore. Most of the famous speakers of the world prepared their speeches in advance. Unless you go prepared, you can't have confidence in youself. And without self-confidence you are sure to feel nervous. And ultimately you may cut a sorry figure. Hence, one must prepare one's speech thoroughly. But, how to prepare a speech? A few points for preparing a speech are briefly given below.

   1. Thinking over the speech: In preparing a speech external help is not enough. The speaker must think over the topic day and night. He must even dream of the speech. Gradually many points will evolve automatically. Gradually the logical order of speech will emerge. At this stage the speaker should make necessary changes in the rough draft. Then he should prepare a final draft.
   2. Discussion with friends: Reading the speech again and again helps to memorize it. But, a quicker method to memorize the speech is to discuss it with friends. So discuss the points of your speech whenever you get an opportunity. Make the speech a topic of conversation with friends. All this will help you to remember what you are going to speak.
   3. Taking down points: A speaker must take down the important points of his speech on a piece of paper. He can carry it in his pocket. If need be, he may consult it while speaking.
   4. Rehearsal: Before going to speak, one must confine himself in a room and deliver this speech, as if before an audience. He must practise it until all the falterings disappear.
3. Improvement of memory.

   To deliver a speech one has to remember a lot of things. Hence, for a speaker, good memory is an asset. But, very few possess good memory. And even those who have good memory cannot always depend on it. Memory is treacherous. It often plays tricks on its possessors. But, memory can be cultivated. By following certain methods, memory can be improved. There are three natural laws of remembering-impression, repetition, and association.

   1. Impression: You must have a deep impression of the thing you want to remember. And you can have a deep impression by concentrating on the thing, by observing it closely, and by associating it with something similar. Also, if possible get the impression through more than one sensory organ. For example, you can see and picture and hear about it.
   2. Repetition: Repetition of a thing helps to remember it. It engraves the thing on the memory. But, do not repeat the thing continuously for hours together. Repeat at intervals. And before leaving home for delivering the speech go through it,
   3. Association: Associate the thing you want to remember with something similar. Create a picture of the thing in your mind. For example, if you want to remember the name of a person, associate it with the special features of his face or associate the name with his business or profession.

   One more thing, besides these three natural laws, is to be done. Arrange the points of the address in the logical order so that one point naturally leads to the next.

4. Hold the audience attention.

   The aim of the speaker is to leave a deep impression on the minds of the audience. The audience must go deeply impressed and highly satisfied, but it is very difficult to achieve this end. The speaker must be able to captivate the attention of the audience. But, very few are born with this capacity. It has to be developed by following certain methods. Some of the methods are pointed out here.

   1. Enthusiasm: The response of the audience largely depends on the enthusiasm with which the speaker speaks. If the speaker is lukewarm, the response of the audience will be lukewarm. If he is mild and dull, the audience will remain unaffected. A gloomy speech can never get en enthusiastic applause. On the other hand, an enhusiastic speaker catches the attention of the audience at once. Enthusiasm is one of the most important factors in delivery. A speaker must speak from conviction. Every word must have the warmth of the heart. He must be sincere in what he says. He must say what he really wants to say. No beating about the bush. Say earnestly what you believe to be right. Be frank, honest, and straightforward, and the audience is captivated by you. Whatever you say, must be said with intensity. Enthusiasm, sincerity, frankness, conviction, and intensity go together. If you possess these qualities, you are sure to exercise a magnetic influence over the audience.
   2. Physical movements: The speaker must be at ease. He must be calm and quiet and appear undisturbed. He must stand erect and look the audience in the face. Occasionally, he must use emphatic gestures. He must speak vigorously. His voice must be loud enough to reach the Iast row of audience. All this will deeply influence the audience. They will feel that the speaker has a good command of the subject. And they will listen to him attentively.
   3. Avoidance of “weasel” word: A speaker must speak with conviction. He must use emphatic words. And he must avoid using “weasal words”, such as “I think”, “it seems to me”, “in my humble opinion”, “perhaps”. For such expressions give the impre ssion that the speaker lacks conviction. And the audience pays no attention to a man with no convictions.
   4. Love of the audience: The speaker must have keen interest in the audience He must love them. He must have sympathy for them. Then only the audience will take interest in what he says. Abraham Lincoln won the heart of the audience by his sympathy and goodness to a great extent. One famous actress rightly said, “The secret of my success is absolute devotion to the audience. I love my audience.”
5. Essential elements of public speaking.

   Public speaking is an art. But, very few are born with this art. Like other arts, it has to be acquired by following certain essentials. There are many methods to acquire it. A few of them are pointed out here,

   1. Patience and perseverance: Almost every speaker has stage-fear at the beginning. He often cuts a sorry figure. He feels that he can never become a public speaker. And he wants to give up speaking in public. This attitude is wrong. He must have patience. However great his failure, he must not lose heart. He must try again and again. And he is sure to win at last. Indeed, failures are the pillars of success. Success does not come at once. It has many obstacles to overcome. Nervousness, fear, shock are some of the obstacles. But, do not give up hope. Have patience and Perseverance. Keep on practising. And you are sure to progress. And at last you are sure to become a good speaker. John Brig at Gladstone, Wilier-force had such experiences of failure. But, they had patience. They persevered. And they became world famous speakers. Do not give up even if you cut a sorry figure a hundred times.
   2. Will and determination: Will and determination play a very important role in making one a good public speaker. You must will, and will strongly to become a speaker. You must have determination to become a speaker. A man becomes what he wills to become, if you are resolutely determined you are sure to become a good speaker. Will and determination can overcome all difficulties. Nepoleon rightly said. “Victory is will.” An army's will enables it to win a war. A speaker's will and determination are sure to crown him with success. Fight and fight even when hope is out of sight.

      It is easy to give up, but the glory is in keeping on. You need dogged determination. Those who keep on arrive at destination.

   3. Picturing success: If you want to become a good public speaker, you must picture yourself to be one. You must visualize that you are on the platform. You must visualize that you are applauded by the audience. This visualization will work miracle psychologically. It will give you confidence and fill your mind with hope.
   4. Enthusiasm: Deliver your speech with enthusiasm. The applause of the audience will be in proportion to the enthusiasm with which you speak. You must speak with confidence. Every word you utter must have the spark of enthusiasm.
   5. Four Gs: In art of public speaking and influencing in business, Dale Carnegie says that essentials for success in public speaking are four Gs. He means four words beginning with “G”—grace, gumption, grit, and guts. Grace is the quality of being pleasing and attractive in your appearance, movement, and delivery. Gumption means common sense and initiative. Grit is the quality of courage and endurance. And guts is courage and determination.
6. The Element of Delivery. In public speaking delivery matters most. A speaker, therefore, must take care of his delivery. He must know the qualities of a good delivery. Some of these qualities are:

   Three things matter in a speech—the speaker, manner of delivery, and matter. Of these, the manner of delivery is the most important. Edmund Burke's speeches contained admirable logic and reasoning. But, as an orator he was a failure, because he did not know how to deliver his gems.

   1. A sense of communication: When you speak the audience must feel that you are delivering a message to them. That is the first essential of good talking. To give the audience a sense of communication, you must speak to them intimately. You must look at the audience and talk as if they are familiar to you. You must not look over them at the wall and utter the words mechanically. That is soliloquy, not talk. Talk to the audience directly as if you are engaged in a conversation with them. Your tone must be natural, enlarged a bit. You must not imitate others. You must be your natural self. You must have individuality. As a speaker that is your most precious possession. Thus only, a sense of communication can be established. And once the sense of communication is established, you gain the confidence of the audience and you make a deep impression on them.
   2. Sincerity and enthusiasm: Enthusiasm is one of the most important features of good delivery. The speaker must be honest, sincere, and straightforward. He must speak with conviction. In other words, he must put his heart in his talks. Every word must have the warmth of the heart. If his heart is in his work, his delivery is sure to be effective. A thing said with conviction and said enthusiastically is sure to deeply impress one and all.
   3. Stressing important words: The speaker must put more stress on some significant words and hurry over the others. This is what we do in our daily conversation. Emphasis on the important words will convey your ideas vividly to the audience.
   4. Change of pitch: The speaker's voice must not be monotonous. The pitch of his voice should flow up and down, Then only the effect will be pleasing. On the other hand, if the speaker's voice is always on the same level, it will become monotonous. And monotony will bore and even disgust the audience.
   5. Variation of the rate of speaking: The speaker must vary his rate of speaking This is a good method of driving a point home. Speak several words with great rapidity, and when you come to the words you wish to emphasize, let the voice linger. And then again rush to the end of the sentence like lightning. This method arrests the attention. It is natural. It is emphatic. Above all, it is pleasing.
   6. Pause before and after important ideas: Pausing before and after an important idea attracts the attention of the audience.

   This was Lincoln's method. He often paused in his speaking. This sudden silence has the same effect as a sudden noise. But, the speaker must practise this method. He must pause naturally. If pauses are judiciously used, they produce a tremendous effect on the audience. Silence becomes more eloquent than eloquence itself.

7. The importance of personality. Personality of the speaker has a lot to do with his success. But, personality is an intangible and elusive thing. It cannot be clearly defined. And it is difficult to say how it can be developed. But, by following some suggestions the speaker can appear at his best. His dress and his behaviour on the platform etc count. By paying proper attention to this, one can favourably impress the audience.
   1. Rest and food: Before going to talk, you must take sufficient rest. Take light food. For, a heavy meal makes one uneasy. Do not do anything that dulls your energy. You must look fresh and energetic. Vitality has a magnetic power. It impresses the people around.
   2. Dress: Dress neatly and attractively. You must appear cheerful. Never look gloomy. Good dress has a great psychological effect on the mind. It heightens one's, self-respect and increases self-confidence. Such is the effect of dress on the wearer. It also leaves a good impression on the audience. Shabby dress, on the other hand, makes one feel ill at ease. And the audience generally forms an unfavourable impression about a shabbily dressed person.
   3. Arrangements in the hall: Surroundings count. The hall where you are going to speak should be spacious, well ventilated and well lighted. The audience should sit together, it is difficult to influence an audience that is scattered. Empty chairs between the audience dampen and have a chilling effect on the enthusiasm of the speaker.
   4. How to stand: Stand erect. Do not hide yourself behind a table. Let the light fall on your face. Let there be no useless things on the table. Let there be no attractive things behind or on either side of you. There should be as few people on the stage as possible. The speaker's hands should not play with his clothes. Nor should they make any nervous movements. For, all these distract the attention of the audience. The speaker should stand still and control himself physically.
   5. Gestures: For gestures, no fixed rules can be laid down. For, if you follow rules for making gestures, the gestures become mechanical and repulsive. Gestures must be born on the spur of the moment. They must be the spontaneous results of your enthusiasm and impulses. Imitated gestures are like imitated smiles, which are not smites but grimaces. Gestures should be as pleasing as a spontaneous smile. In short, make only those gestures that come natural.
8. How to open a talk to capture the audience?

   The manner of opening a talk is of great importance. The audience forms the first impression from it. And the first impression counts very much. But, the opening of a talk is difficult. It has to be carefully worked out in advance. Some hints as to how to open a talk are given here:

   1. Introduction: The introduction should be short and precise—a sentence or two. Go straight to the heart of the subject. Do not waste much time on introduction.
   2. Apology: It is unwise to begin a talk with apologies. Do not be too modest. Do not emphasize that you are unprepared or that you are not a fit person to speak on the subject. Do not praise the chairman and other dignitaries too much.
   3. Humorous story: It is bad to begin a talk with a humorous story. Very few can tell a humorous story interestingly. Such a story at the beginning of a talk embarrasses instead of entertaining the audience. It is difficult to excite laughter. If your story fails to generate laughter, the effect is tragic rather than comic.
   4. Curiosity: You should begin your talk in such a manner that it can arouse curiosity. You can begin with a personal experience, a specfic illustration, or by asking a question.
   5. Exhibit: The easiest way to arouse curiosity is to show an exhibit. By holding up an exhibit you can at once draw the attention of the audience towards it.
   6. Question: You can begin your talk by asking a question. By a question you make the audience co-operate with you. You take them into confidence. And they form a good impression about you.
   7. Quotation: You can begin with a quotation from a famous man. It draws the attention of the audience at once to you. For, everybody is interested in what famous people say.
   8. Shocking facts: Shocking facts easily capture the atten tion of the audience. Hence, it is good to open a talk with them. But, you must telI them the sources of these secrets. Otherwise they may not believe your statement.
   9. On-the-spot remark: One can open a talk with an on-the-spot remark. That is to say, begin with a casual remark that is relevant in the circumstances. For example, you may refer to what the earlier speaker said. Or, you may refer to an incident that happened in the course of the function.
   10. Capture the audience: You aim is to capture the audience. Hence, open a talk with a statement with which everyone will agree. If you can do so, you get the audience on your side at the very outset.
9. How should one close a talk?

   The manner of closing a speech is as important as the manner of opening a speech. Perhaps the close is more important. For, it is likely to be remembered longer! Hence, it must be planned, prepared, and carefully mastered in advance. Rehearse it, learn it by heart so that you can deliver it enthusiastically and convincingly. Famous orators like Webster, Bright, and Gladstone did it.

   1. No sudden ending: Do not end your talk abruptly. It should be natural. It should be closely connected with what you have discussed. You can end by summarizing the points you have talked about.
   2. Appeal for action: If you want the audience to do some thing, end your talk with an appeal. The appeal should be emotional. You must touch the very depth of their feelings.
   3. Compliments to the audience: You must pay sincere compliments to the audience. You want the audience to admire you. Naturally, you should please them. But, you must guard yourself against flattery and extravagance. Your compliment must be sincere. Then only they will be effective. If the audience think that you are false, the effect will be just the reverse.
   4. Quotation: You can close your talk with a quotation from some authority. Quotations from religious books or poets have great appeal.
   5. Climax: A popular way of closing a talk is the climax. It is difficult to construct a climax, But, when well done, it produces a tremendous effect on the audience.
10. How to make your meaning clear?

    Whatever you say must be clearly understood by the audience. Every word, every sentence must convey what you intend to say. Otherwise your talks will fall flat on the ears of the audience. Your efforts to win their hearts will be futile. Therefore, take care of the language you use. Also take care of the ideas you want to convey to the audience. Some hints as to how you can make the meaning clear are given here

    1. Simple language: The audience is generally composed of all kinds of people. Take care that your talk does not go over their heads. Always use simple language. In speech simple and direct language has great impact on the audience. The language of the Bible is simple, emotional and emphatic. Read the Bible as often as you can. Famous creators like, John Bright often read the Bible. Avoid technical language when you are addressing a lay audience. Abraham Lincoln always put his ideas into a language which could be understood even by a boy,
    2. Appeal to the sense of sight: One can understand a thing more clearly by seeing it than by hearing about it. Eyes are better carriers of ideas than ears. Hence, you can use charts, maps, diagrams, etc.
    3. Repetition: Important ideas can be repeated. But, do not repeat the ideas in the same language. Vary the sentences. Repetition in different language will make the ideas clear.
    4. Illustrations: It is very difficult for the common people to grasp abstract ideas. So, whenever you deal with abstract ideas, give illustrations. Better refer to specific instances and concrete cases.

       Limited points: Do not try to cover many points. Refer to only a few points. But, develop each point fully.

    5. Summary: Give a brief summary of what you have dealt with.
11. How can the speaker create interest in the audience?

    To impress and convince the audience is your aim. But, how to do it? It is an uphill task. But, if you cannot do it, you are a failure as a speaker. Follow the suggestions given here. You are sure to succeed.

    1. Convince yourself: If you want to convince others, you yourself must be convinced first. You must have a mastery of the ideas you are dealing with. And then deliver them with enthusiasm. The audience is bound to be convinced of what you say. And they will be interested in your talk.
    2. Common ground: If you have something new to say, do not attack the beliefs and ideas of the audience. If you attack, the audience will become antagonistic. On the contrary, you should say that your ideas are similar to something they already believe. This will disarm their opposition. They will be impressed. And they will be interested in the talk.
    3. Restatement: If the audience is not impressed by your ideas, repeat them several times. Daniel O'Conneil said that a political truth is taken up and adopted by the audience only if it is repeated again and again. Incessant repetition is required to impress truths upon the minds of the people. But, for repetition of the same thing one must have a command of the language. Language of restatement must vary,
    4. General illustrations and concrete instances: General illustrations and concrete instances can impress the audience. They help to prevent the audience from putting forth opposite ideas. General illustrations and concrete instances make the ideas clear. Hence, they impress the people.
    5. Quote authorities: If you quote from any author, you must quote the exact words. Also you must tell from whom you are quoting. The sources should be authoritative. Quote a popular man. Quote a local man. Quote one who is accepted as authority by all.
    6. Extraordinary facts: People are always interested in extraordinary facts about ordinary things. So consult as many books as you can and dig out some unusual facts about the things you are dealing with. The audience will at once be impressed and take interest in your talk.
    7. Audience's interests: Talk about things in which the audience are interested. Refer to the local people and local incidents. The audience will be keenly interested in such a talk.
    8. Mental pictures: Use words which conjure pictures before your mind's eye. Such pictures are deeply impressed on the mind. Sprinkle them through your talks.
    9. Contrast: Use of balanced contrasts creates interest. Good contrasts are the brick and mortar of a good speech. Macaulay used them often. One example—“The rules are meant to be observed in the spirit, not in the letter-for the comfort, not the discomfort of the passengers”.
12. How can the speaker improve his diction?

    Language is the medium through which we express our ideas. As the vehicle of ideas, it is the most Important element in public speaking. Without having a good degree of command of the language, one cannot hope to have success as a public speaker. On the other hand, one who is master of the language can command the audience. The manner is more important than the matter. But, how to acquire command over the language. There are several methods.

    1. Company of great masters: Your language will be largely a reflection of the company you keep. Therefore, keep company with the masters of literature. Devote several hours every day to reading Shakespeare and other poets and prose-writes. Gradually and unconsciously your mind will be enriched and your diction will have the stamp of these masters. This is what Lincoln did. This is what Jefferson did. Read the newspapers hurriedly. And devote the time thus saved to reading enduring books the Holy Bible is an excellent book. John Bright read it daily. Read it whenever you get time.
    2. Dictionary: Make a dictionary your constant companion. Look up the familiar word: Find out its real significance. Find out how it is used.
    3. Derivation: Study the derivation of the words you use. The histories and developments of words are not at all dull and dry; they are very interesting. Indeed, they are replete with romance. Enjoy the romance of words.
    4. Worn out words: Do not use threadbare words. Take care to use words which express the meaning precisely. Do not beat about the bush. Say firmly what you want to say by using the appropriate words. If need be consult a dictionary or Roger's “Treasury of Words”. Do not use the words that have become hackneyed by constant use. For example, use ‘elegant’ for ‘beautiful’. Use adjectives sparingly and appropriately. An adjective is the enemy of a noun.
    5. Trite comparisons: Do not use trite comparisons, such as “cool as cucumber’’. Use fresh comparisons. Use the language boldly. Have the courage to create similes of your own.

PRESENTATION SKILLS

A presentation is a live mode of sharing information with a select audience. It is a form of oral communication in which a person shares factual information with a particular audience. To get a clear idea of presenting as a distinct communicative activity—different from lecturing or training—it is possible to define a presentation as an oral activity that uses a visual medium (such as, LCD projectors or PowerPoint slides) to discuss new ideas and information with a specific audience in a persuasive and convincing manner.

Preparing a Presentation

Presentations have three major elements:

• The presenter
• The audience
• The specific content and definite objective to be achieved

A trained presenter approaches a presentation with an awareness of all its elements and a fully planned strategy. He or she knows that just standing up and speaking to an audience for a given amount of time to show how much he or she knows on the topic does not imply that the presentation is good. A presentation is a particular mode of communicating with a group of people and conveying a message. It involves prior preparation and planning.

A presenter should undertake the following steps to prepare for the presentation:

• Identify the purpose and goal of the presentation
• Analyze the audience and their needs
• Collate the relevant information
• Design and organize the information
• Time the presentation
• Decide on the medium of presentation and visual aids
• Become familiar with the location of the presentation

Identify the Purpose of the Presentation

The presenter should ask himself or herself: Why am I giving this presentation? He or she may be giving the presentation to:

• Sell something or persuade people to follow a course of action that they may not be inclined towards.
• Inform people about an idea or describe a business opportunity to gain support for some course of action or to suggest a likely course of action for the future.
• Gather people's views on new plans, products, or proposals to introduce changes.
• Put across a problem to seek a solution or to minimize people's reaction to it.
• Create awareness by sharing information, without requiring any action or response.
• Motivate, educate, or impart training to promote a more productive work culture.

After identifying his or her objective, the presenter should outline it in a single sentence. For example, assume the dean of the BITS Distance Learning Programme (DLP) has to put forward a proposal to the board of governors to expand the institute's Distance Learning Programme by creating off-campus centres in Gulf cities, such as Dubai or Muscat. He is required to make a presentation before the board members to justify the proposal. He knows exactly why he is giving the presentation; the purpose can be written in a single sentence that outlines the structure of his ideas: “To convince the board members of the viability and desirability of creating overseas (off-campus) learning centres in Gulf countries, in view of the growing demand for BITS courses abroad”. This precise formulation of the objective will help him organize his ideas in a logical manner that will convince the board.

Analyze the Audience and Identify Their Needs

Before making a presentation, the presenter must know the audience he or she is going to address. The presenter should have an idea of the number, nature, needs, level of knowledge, and likely attitude of those who are going to receive the message. These factors will determine the language of delivery and selection of inputs. Understanding the audience's needs will help the presenter focus the presentation on issues that would be of interest to his or her listeners. In addition, knowing about the likely attitude of the audience in advance would make the presenter feel more confident. All members of a group will not have a similar attitude and as individuals they are bound to respond differently. Also, presenters should keep in mind that different persons attending the presentation may be looking for different information based on their own interests or needs. Therefore, the presenter must define the focus and scope of the presentation at the very outset. Most importantly, the speaker must never consider the audience to be a hostile group. They may be opposed to one's ideas or message, but they are not the speaker's enemies.

 

Guidelines for analyzing an audience include finding answers for the following questions:

• Who is the audience?
• Why are they attending the presentation? What are their needs?
• What is their background and level of knowledge, in relation to the subject of presentation?
• How many persons will there be?
• What is their attitude towards the subject and the speaker expected to be?
• What does the audience expect will be the outcome of the presentation?

The last question is the most important and needs to be clearly understood and answered. The answer to it will clarify and define the speaker's purpose. It will help the presenter understand the audience's expectations. For instance, in the presentation on creating overseas BITS DLP centres in the Gulf, the expected outcome will be: “After listening to the presentation, the board members will agree to approve, in principle, initiating overseas DLP centres and setting up a committee to work out the feasibility of opening two centres, one each in Dubai and Muscat”. The presenter can visualize the audience's response as if the presentation has already happened. Positive expectations will give the speaker added confidence. In addition, if the speaker has too many ideas or too much information on the topic at hand, knowing the audience's needs and expectations will help him or her determine what information is most relevant and interesting.

The needs of the audience vary from category to category. For example, a student's content will change depending on whether he or she is making a presentation before fellow students, professors, local business people, or friends. In some cases, one would expect that the audience already has a high level of information, while in other cases, there will be little information known. The speaker should consider the audience's needs and tell them what they need to know without talking about everything.

Design and Organize the Information

By this point, the speaker has done two essential things to give shape to the presentation: he or she is aware of the purpose of the presentation and the audience's needs. These will guide him or her in gathering and systematically arranging the information to be presented. The speaker should structure and design the delivery to be effective, with the goal that the audience will ultimately accept his or her ideas.

Considerable thought should be given to how to start the presentation. What should be said first? This does not refer to how to greet the audience but, rather, to what main point the speaker should begin with. The normal order of any exposition is to first list the main ideas and then elaborate on each of them. This is the pattern that all written reports follow too. The sequence and timing of each part in a 30-minute presentation should be:

• Introduction: 3 minutes
• Main body: 15 minutes
• Conclusion: 2 minutes
• Question–answer session: 10 minutes

The presentation should be designed in such a way that it is logical, clear, and complete in the 30 minutes allotted to it. Let's use the BITS DLP proposal example to see how this can be done.

Introduction (3 minutes)   The introduction indicates the main idea of the presentation. It does only that, without giving details of what is to follow. This helps the audience know the subject and focus of the presentation. For instance, the objective in this situation is: “We propose that BITS should open Distance Learning Centres in two Gulf cities, Dubai and Muscat”. Next, the presentation should explain why it is proposing overseas BITS centres by speaking about how popular BITS’ educational programmes are nationally and internationally. This background provides the launching pad for more detailed information, which is covered in the main body of the presentation.

Main Body (15 minutes)   The main part of the presentation is devoted to informing the audience about the advantages of the proposal, both for BITS and the concerned countries in the Gulf (see Exhibit 8.4). This section would include findings of a survey and analysis of the data. This section of the presentation should generally be divided into sub-sections. As a general rule, the speaker should avoid having more than three sub-sections under the main point.

 

 

Exhibit 8.4 The Main body of the Presentation

Generally, a presentation is delivered in an analytical and logical manner: the introduction leads to the main content, which in turn leads to the conclusions and recommendations. To integrate these parts into a continuous whole, there should be proper transitions from one section to the next and from one stage to another. The speaker should summarize what has been said in the previous section or stage before explaining how the next point is related. An example is: “So, you have seen how BITS overseas centres are feasible and viable. Now let's discuss some of the potential problems that we may face”.

Conclusion (2 minutes)   The conclusion (see Exhibit 8.5) summarizes the speaker's main arguments and connects them to the objectives stated in the introduction and the larger picture.

 

 

Exhibit 8.5 The Conclusion

To end the presentation, the speaker should do the following:

• Repeat the main idea of the presentation.
• Restate the most important points with supporting information.
• Thank the audience and invite questions.

Question–Answer Session (10 minutes) This is an important opportunity for audience interaction. The speaker should encourage questions and answer each question seriously and with honesty. The speaker should not try to bluff; if he or she does not know the answer to a question, it is best to be frank and admit this.

VISUAL AIDS AND ELEMENTS

A presentation can be made more vivid by the use of statistical data, figures, diagrams, and so on, which can be displayed via transparencies or PowerPoint slides. Through visual display of ideas, the presenter can make the audience see what they hear. Graphics tend to garner and hold attention more easily than spoken words, so they also help keep the audience fully absorbed. Having visual projection of the message also enables the speaker to keep to the structure of the presentation. Moreover, often a greater amount of information can be communicated with a visual than lengthy verbal explanations. This saves time.

When to Use Visual Aids

Visual aids should be used to:

• Present numerical and statistical data.
• Present topics related to art, design, or any subject that is visual in nature.
• Present comparative statements of facts and figures, specially graphic and diagrammatic forms. Visual presentation of comparisons always helps comprehension. For instance, if the presenter wants to demonstrate the comparison of two structures, the point of comparison can be better appreciated when shown rather than described.

   

  Often, a greater amount of information can be communicated with a visual than lengthy verbal explanations. This saves time.

• Present new interpretations of old data. If the speaker has discovered or noticed something new as a fresh interpretation of an existing phenomenon, showing it makes the information look more concrete. By projecting the old information side-by-side with the new, the speaker can demonstrate how he or she has gone beyond the old data.

How to Use Visual Aids

Here are some guidelines regarding how to use visual aids:

• One should not use too many images as this will lessen their impact.
• The speaker should plan the graphics according to the main points and make one graphic for each point.
• It is best to use bold, clear letters that can be seen from the other end of the room.
• The speaker should not fill a slide with too many words. As far as possible, one should write single words or short phrases to summarize concepts. See Exhibit 8.6 for an example.

   

  

   

  Exhibit 8.6 An Effective and an ineffective Slide

• Different colours can help to distinguish different points.
• The presenter should reveal only one point at a time. This can be done by progressively exposing the hidden portion of the slide.
• The slides should be numbered and the presentation should be rehearsed with the slides. This ensures that the words match the visuals.
• The speaker should explain the purpose and content of each slide when it is shown. It should be displayed for sufficient time to allow the audience to read it and, if required, make notes from it.

Different Mediums of Presentation

Some common mediums of presentation are boards (black or white), flip charts, overhead projectors and transparencies, and Microsoft PowerPoint slides.

Boards

A board is a primary aid used in classrooms and can be black or white. The use of a board helps listeners concentrate, as it is used to note important words and concepts, or to do calculations. It is better to divide the board into different parts for noting down points, doing calculations, and drawing figures. Bold, clear letters should be used so that words are visible at a distance.

Flip charts

A flip chart is a large pad of paper set on a stand. It is used for presenting information to a small group of 15 to 20 persons. The advantage of using flip charts is that they can be readily generated and added to during the talk. They can also be prepared in advance for presenting complex diagrams, bar charts, and graphs. The speaker can sketch outlines of a diagram in the presence of the audience. He or she can also use them for prompting and for creating and presenting the audience's feedback, suggestions, comments, or any other observations at the end of the talk. Flip charts that can be written over in water-soluble ink can be reused.

Overhead projectors and transparencies

A frequently used medium of presentation is an overhead projector (OHP). Overhead projectors allow the presenter to speak while looking at the audience and also have a prepared transparency projected on the screen. An OHP can have typed or handwritten matter, but the best impact is made when the content is neatly and clearly typed. Tips on preparing transparencies and using OHPs are given in Exhibit 8.7.

 

 

Exhibit 8.7 Tips for Preparing Transparencies and PowerPoint Slides

PowerPoint presentations

Computer-based Microsoft PowerPoint presentations have now become more widespread than transparencies and slides. These are projected with the help of multimedia projectors. Usually, a computer screen displays the information to a large audience. Pictures and photographs are all displayed as part of the presentation. The entire presentation is saved on a laptop (with a backup on CD, if possible). The laptop is then connected to the projection equipment so that the laptop screen is cloned on the projector. The whole operation is automatic and simple. The visual impact is impressive and absorbing.

Time the Presentation

The total presentation, including the question–answer session at the end, should be covered within the time allotted to it. In actual practice, while speaking, many people tend to ignore the fact that the audience's interest and attention are affected by the time factor. An effective presentation is one that has a smart beginning and logically arrives at a conclusion without wandering off-topic or rambling, while providing sufficient explanation for tricky or controversial points. The speaker should not repeat his or her points excessively. In addition, he or should learn to change the pacing of the presentation in response to the non-verbal cues received from the audience's body language.

 

Become Familiar with the Location of the Presentation

Before presenting, the speaker should check the size, ventilation, and seating arrangement of the room. This helps position the screen according to the number of persons and the size of the room, ensuring it will be visible to everyone. The presenter should keep enough space between himself or herself and the screen so that he or she can refer to points on the screen with a pointer.

REVIEW YOUR LEARNING

1. Discuss at least three characteristics of a good CV.
2. What qualities are evaluated by the interviewers for the job of a management trainee?
3. Comment on the importance of body language for success in an interview.
4. How does someone become a natural leader in a group discussion?
5. Why are good manners necessary for a good business? Discuss.
6. “In telephonic conversations, the way we listen, respond, speak or hang up is often as important as what is communicated”. Discuss.
7. Describe the factors affecting the success of negotiations.
8. Discuss public speaking as an effective form of persuasive communication with an appeal for action.
9. Discuss the importance of visual aids in presentations.
10. “Video conferencing is more complex than talking on the phone”. Elaborate.

REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING

1. List your strengths and discuss one main strength that can be used as your “selling strength”.
2. It is said that to convert an interview into a job opportunity you need to do only one thing: prepare, prepare, and prepare. What is that preparation you should do before interview?
3. What does the group discussion test?
4. Like individuals, companies too have business etiquette and organizational culture. Elaborate with examples of international business interactions.
5. Public speaking requires honesty of beliefs and character for building your credibility as a speaker to be listened to. Explain the statement in the sense that “acts speak louder than words”.