Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
Learn how to write correct sentences.
Know the use of appropriate words.
Learn to punctuate sentences for clarity.
Know foreign words and phrases.
Use correct tone for better communication.
To ensure that a piece of writing is understood by the target audience, it is essential to use language that is commonly understood. The tone used should also reflect the appropriate level of formality for a particular context.
Develop an effective tone in written communication.
“Standard English” includes the most commonly used and accepted words. It is considered “standard” because it follows the norms laid down by the rules of grammar, sentence construction, punctuation, spelling, paragraph construction, and so on. It is the language used in formal writing, such as books, magazines, newspapers, letters, memos, reports, and other forms of academic writing. For example, ain't, a contraction of “I am not”, “is not” or “has not”, is usually considered unacceptable in written (and also spoken) English. It can, however, appear as slang or in informal writing.
After determining the purpose and audience of a piece of writing, one has to then choose the appropriate tone in terms of formality. Tone refers to feelings created by words used to communicate a message. The tone of a piece of writing basically depends on the relationship between the writer and those who receive the message. As discussed earlier, communications in an organization can be classified as upward, downward, or horizontal. It requires skill and competence on the part of the writer to use the appropriate tone based on the status of the reader or receiver. It is obvious that something written for one's superiors will have a formal tone, whereas something written for one's peers will be more informal.
Tone refers to feelings created by words used to communicate a message.
According to Muriel Harris, “The level of formality is the tone in writing and reflects the attitude of the writer toward the subject and audience”.1
The tone can be:
Informal Tone A writer uses an informal tone for social or personal communication and for informal writing. Deviations from standard English change the tone of writing from formal to informal or very formal. The informal tone includes the use of slang, colloquialisms, and regional words. The writer may also include contractions and incomplete sentences. An example of informal tone is: “The guy was damn annoyed because he couldn't get a hang of the mumbo-jumbo.”
Use appropriate words and language for writing correctly and effectively.
Slang | Meaning |
---|---|
Pot | Marijuana |
Get one's act together | Prepare/properly organize |
Hip | Trendy/stylish |
Pie-eyed | Drunk |
Pig | Derogatory use for a police officer |
Pig out | Eat (food) greedily |
Brass | Money |
Brass tacks | Essential details |
Hype | Extravagant or intensive promotion of a product |
Ad | Advertisement (contraction) |
Slang consists of informal words, phrases, or meanings that are not regarded as standard and are often used by a specific profession, class, and so on.
The richness of English lies in its openness to words from other areas and countries.
Words such as hype and ad are gaining wider acceptability among professionals and writers.
Slang and regional words constitute the texture of language and give colour and tone to communication. In the world of business, the main concern is to communicate with sincerity, courtesy, and a sense of mutual respect. The aim is to write or speak in simple and clear English using the language of everyday speech. The aim of business writing is to earn the goodwill of the reader. The writing should sound friendly and cooperative. For this purpose, special care should be taken to create a friendly and pleasant tone in business writing (letters/memos) by avoiding harsh and rude words.
Semi-formal Tone The semi-formal tone lies somewhere between informal and academic. It is expressed mostly through standard English and is written according to the accepted rules of grammar, punctuation, sentence construction, and spelling, with a few contractions that add a sense of informality. The following sentence also has a semi-formal tone: “Much to their embarrassment and Mammachi's dismay, Chacko forced the pretty women to sit at the table with him and drink tea.”
The strictly formal tone is scholarly and uses words that are long and not frequently spoken in everyday conversation.
Strictly Formal Tone The strictly formal tone is scholarly and uses words that are long and not frequently spoken in everyday conversation. The construction of the sentence and paragraph is also academic and literary in its tone.
Business letters and memos should accentuate positive thoughts and expressions while stemming negative ones. Some tips to do so are:
The following are examples of how, by substituting positive-sounding words and phrases for negative ones, the general tone (effect/impact) of each sentence can be changed without changing the message.
Negative: We have received your complaint.
Positive: We have received your letter.
(We receive letters. No one can mail a complaint.)
Negative: Your faulty fan motor will be replaced.
Positive: We are sending you a new fan motor with a one-year guarantee.
Negative: The delay in dispatching your order because of our oversight will not be longer than a week.
Positive: Your complete order will reach you by July 24.
To eliminate the accusing and insulting tone of the original sentence, substitute neutral words for words that are insulting or make the reader feel dishonest or unintelligent.
Insulting: Don't allow your carelessness to cause accidents in the blast furnace.
Neutral: Be careful when you are working in the blast furnace.
Insulting: Because you failed to inform the members of the board about the agenda in time, the meeting had to be postponed.
Neutral: The meeting had to be postponed as the board members did not receive the agenda in time.
Remember that negative language regarding the situation is bound to distance the reader. To win the reader's cooperation, one must emphasize solutions instead of criticizing the situation.
In all writing, the author has a point of view. You-attitude is the reader's point of view. In good business writing, especially letters, the author should write from the reader's point of view, by viewing things as readers would. He or she should be able to see and present the situation as the reader would see it. Writers should try to convey an understanding of the reader's position and present the information by visualizing how it will affect the feelings of readers.
In all writing, the author has a point of view. You-attitude refers to the reader's point of view.
In the following examples, the focus is shifted from the author's point of view to the reader's point of view by emphasizing the benefits and interests of the reader in the given situation.
Author's emphasis: I congratulate you on successfully completing the task.
Reader's emphasis: Congratulations on successfully completing the task.
Author's emphasis: To reduce office work and save time, we are introducing a new system of registration for you.
Reader's emphasis: To facilitate the registration process, we are changing our system of registration.
Author's emphasis: We are sending out interview calls next Monday.
Receiver's emphasis: You should receive the interview letter by Thursday, August 12.
The change of emphasis in these examples is psychological. By giving importance to the reader's concerns (his or her point of view) and benefits, one can develop a friendly tone.
Some guidelines for reflecting the “you” point of view in business correspondence are:
Letters and memos should be written in the language of everyday speech. They should avoid using clichés and hackneyed expressions. Archaic expressions will make the message dull and uninteresting for the reader. Exhibit 9.2 lists some examples of phrases that should be rewritten.
Hackneyed Language | Natural Language |
---|---|
The undersigned | I/We |
We beg to advise | We can say |
Prior to receipt of | Before we/I received |
As per your request | As you requested |
Attached herewith | Attached is |
Pursuant to | In accordance with |
Hoping for the favour of your kind reply | We/I hope to |
Yours to hand of 20th | Received your letter of July 20 |
Exhibit 9.2 Old-fashioned Expressions
Consider the naturalness of the following sentence. Do we normally talk like this?
As per your request, we beg to inform you that we have booked a single room for you at our lodge for 4 days from 18 July to 21 July, 2003.
This sentence lacks the spontaneity and liveliness of a natural response. It should be revised as:
As you desired, we have booked a room for you from 18 July to 21 July, 2003.
The message should be brief. The specification of the room, single or double, need not be given here. Simply confirming the dates is sufficient.
Choose the active voice to help the reader understand the main message at the very beginning of the sentence.
There are two parts of a sentence—the subject and the predicate. The subject is that about which something is said; the predicate is whatever is said about the subject. In a sentence, the subject is the main focus, the doer of an action. It is frequently positioned at the opening of a sentence.
Choose the active voice to help the reader understand the main message at the very beginning of the sentence. Passive voice is long-drawn because the “to be” form of verb is used with the preposition “by” and is then followed by the doer of the action. In passive voice, the main focus of the sentence, the subject (in the writer's mind), is mentioned at the end of the sentence—by then the reader may become impatient and lose focus. For example, read the following sentences closely:
Active: Packaging often describes the product's look and feel to the buyer.
Passive: The product's look and feel are often described to the buyer by its packaging.
Read both the forms of the sentence together. You will find that the passive sentence reads slowly and moves heavily. It tells you about “packaging” only at the end of the sentence. It first speaks about the product's look and feel. Technically, the two sentences are talking about two different things. The passive-voice sentence tells the reader about a product's look and feel and how they are described for the buyer through packaging. It indirectly talks about packaging. The active-voice sentence speaks more directly about packaging and its functions of describing a product's look and feel to the buyer. The sentence is short and it grips the reader's attention. Readers therefore, usually prefer active voice for its directness, faster pace, and clarity.
Here are a few problems readers often face because of the use of passive voice:
Unclear: The strike should be called off. [By whom? Not stated]
Clear: The strike should be called off by the union.
Incomplete: To make these allocations, marketing managers use sales response functions that show how sales and profits would be affected.
Complete: To make these allocations, marketing managers use sales response functions that show how sales and profits would be affected by the amount of money spent in each application.
Unclear: Besides saving on mailing expenses, a double-digit response will be achieved by a customer database system.
Clear: Besides saving on mailing expenses, a customer database system will achieve a double-digit response.
Sexist expressions and ideas should be avoided in business communication. Sexist language consists of words or phrases that show bias against the competence or importance of women. In today's gender-sensitive age, business writing should scrupulously leave out all words that question women's dignity, competence, or status.
Often the use of sexist language is unconscious—one may fail to realize that a certain phrase or word is an unfavourable reference to the abilities of women.
Often the use of sexist language is unconscious—one may fail to realize that a certain phrase or word is an unfavourable reference to the abilities of women. However, such expressions are not acceptable to modern readers.
Consider the following guidelines to avoid sexist words and phrases:
Do not use words that lower the dignity and status of women. Also never use slang words to refer to women.
Sexist: A manager writes to his peers in an informal or semi-formal tone.
Revised: Managers write to their peers in an informal or semi-formal tone.
In this example, the number of the subject has been changed from singular to plural, and “their” has been used as the pronoun, thus avoiding any hint of sexism.
Sexist: An experienced professor is needed. He should…
Revised: An experienced professor is needed. He or she should…
Or
An experienced professor is needed. The person should be…
Sexist: The policeman should listen to the common man's complaints.
Revised: The police officer should listen to the common man's complaints.
Sexist: The stewardess explained the safety measures before take-off.
Revised: The flight attendant explained the safety measures before take-off.
Sexist: The girls in the central office will endorse these papers.
Revised: The office assistants in the central office will endorse these papers.
Sexist: Do bring the little woman (slang for one's wife) to the party.
Revised: Do bring your spouse to the party.
Sexist: Denise Samrat, Dr Ian Campbell, and Dr Philip Kotler were members of the CRM panel.
Revised: Ms Denise Samrat, Dr Ian Campbell, and Dr Philip Kotler were members of the CRM panel.
Sexist: Women of this sector were represented by two doctors and one lady lawyer.
Revised: Women of this sector were represented by two doctors and one lawyer.
Finally, writing business letters clearly and accurately requires that the following points be kept in mind:
For instance, consider this sentence: “This activity makes no attempt to be a comprehensive test of accurate writing, but Offers a valuable chance for you to test your own skill and identify areas of weakness.” This sentence talks about only one topic—“a test of accurate writing”. Other ideas are related to the main subject.
In contrast, examine the following sentence: “I hasten to inform you that your complete order has been shipped on April 10, the invoice will reach you with the goods.” This sentence is not correctly constructed. It has two separate thoughts, which should be expressed in separate sentences. A better version would be: “I hasten to inform you that your complete order has been shipped on 10 April. The invoice will reach you with the goods.”
In this section, we shall discuss some common pitfalls that need to be avoided in order to write correct and complete sentences.
Incorrect: Expecting a large crowd, extra chairs were provided by the management. (This is a dangling modifier because the modifier does not logically and sensibly refer to the subject of the main clause. It is not the “extra chairs” (subject) that are “expecting a large crowd”.)
Correct: Expecting a large crowd, the management provided extra chairs.
Correct: Since a large crowd was expected, extra chairs were provided by the management.
Incorrect: He wants to begin immediately and to make his first sale before the end of the year. As a result of this, he will probably become a successful salesman.
Correct: He wants to begin immediately and to make his first sale before the end of the year. As a result of this attitude, he will probably become a successful salesman. (This must not refer to a cause, sentence, or idea; it must refer to one specific word.)
Incorrect: The man liked meeting and to talk to people. (And joins one gerund and one infinitive construction here.)
Correct: The man liked to meet and talk to people. (And joins parallel infinitive constructions here.)
Correct: The man liked meeting and talking to people. (And joins parallel gerund constructions that express ideas of equal importance.)
Note that parallel construction is equally important in the enumeration of points in lists, as shown by the following example:
Incorrect:
Correct:
The company should:
The verb tense should be consistent within the sentence (as in the example below) and from sentence to sentence within the paragraph.
Incorrect: He usually makes sensible decisions although he frequently changed his mind. (Tense shifts from present tense in the main clause to past tense in the subordinate clause.)
Correct: He usually makes sensible decisions although he frequently changes his mind.
Generally speaking, the imperative mood should be avoided in report writing. The imperative expresses a command or a strong request; a report should suggest or recommend rather than command.
Incorrect: Do this work carefully; you should also do it slowly. (Verb shifts from imperative to indicative mood.)
Correct: You should do this carefully; you should also do it slowly.
Correct: Do this work carefully; also, do it slowly.
Incorrect: I, hoping very much to find Mrs Singh at home and to sell her one of our new products, knocked at the door. (Separation of subject, I, and verb, knocked, is not necessary.)
Correct: Hoping very much to find Mrs Singh at home and to sell her one of our new products, I knocked at the door.
Incorrect: I only telephoned those men. (Separation of adverb only and those men, which only modifies, is not necessary.)
Correct: I telephoned only those men.
Incorrect: The price of the new products were reasonable.
Correct: The price of the new products was reasonable. (A singular verb is used to agree with the singular subject, even though a plural word intervenes.)
Incorrect: The advantage of Product A and Product B are the profits.
Correct: The advantage of Product A and Product B is the profits.
Incorrect: There are a man and some women waiting to see me.
Correct: There is a man and some women waiting to see me. (When a sentence begins with ‘there’, the verb agrees with the subject that immediately follows it.)
Incorrect: Everyone on the top three floors work for one company.
Correct: Everyone on the top three floors works for one company (A singular verb is used to agree with a singular subject, especially when the subject is “everyone” or “each”.)
Incorrect: Only one of the girls who play the sitar came today.
Correct: Only one of the girls who plays the sitar came today. (A singular verb is used to agree with one, the singular word to which the subject who refers. This is important when the subject of the verb is who, which, or that.)
Incorrect: Neither the report nor its appendix were published.
Correct: Neither the report nor its appendix was published. (A singular verb is used to agree with singular subjects joined by or or nor.)
Note that if one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb agrees with the nearest subject. For example, it is correct to say, “Neither the report nor the books were published”. Also, note that the plural subject is kept after or or nor, near the verb.
Incorrect: Everyone brought lunch to work.
Correct: Everyone brought his lunch to work. (One must use a singular pronoun to agree with everyone, the singular word to which the pronoun refers.)
Incorrect: He does not usually make those kind of errors.
Correct: He does not usually make that kind of error. (Singular pronoun is used to agree with kind, the singular noun that the pronoun modifies. This is important when this, that, these, or those modify kind or sort.)
Correct: He does not usually make these kinds or errors. (Here, a plural pronoun modifies the plural noun.)
Incorrect: Neither the manager nor his favourite employee could do their work alone.
Correct: Neither the manager nor his favourite employee could do his work alone. (A singular pronoun is used to agree with the singular words, which are joined by nor and to which the pronoun refers.)
If or or nor joins one singular word and one plural word, the pronoun agrees with the one nearest to it. Neither the manager nor the workers were aware of their error.
The words hard, hardly, late, lately, most, and mostly need to be used carefully. As adjectives, hard, late, and most have two adverb forms, which should be clearly understood.
Hard, when used as an adverb means “strenuously” or “diligently”. It is normally placed after the verb and is an adverb of manner.
I worked hard yesterday. (not hardly)
She worked hard to pass the examination. (not hardly)
Sometimes, for emphasis, hard can be used at the beginning of a sentence. However, this usage is relatively rare.
Hard as she tried, she could not get through.
Hardly, an adverb, means “not much” or “scarcely”. It is an adverb of degree and is used before the verb. If the verb is used with an auxiliary, the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the next part of the verb.
He sang so softly that the audience could hardly hear him.
He was so shrunken that I hardly recognized him.
This pen has hardly been used.
Hardly had he gone when his wife reached here.
The adverb late means two things:
Every Sunday morning they wake up late.
Three times this week he has come to office late.
Doctors refuse to visit patients late at night.
I called her late in the afternoon.
She did not have a child until quite late in life.
Have you seen any good movies lately?
Have you met your brother lately?
Most, as an adverb, means “to the greatest extent”.
The thing that I admire most is simplicity. (not mostly)
He who boasts most is often one who does least. Mostly means “for the most part”.
Mostly means “for the most part”.
The lecture mostly covered recent trends in politics.
The paper consisted mostly of old questions.
Complete the following sentences with one of the words given in parentheses:
The student could ______ get passing marks. (hardly, hard)
She could ______ raise her arms. (hard, hardly)
The child can ______ lift the school bag. (hardly, hard)
It has rained ______ this year. (hardly, hard)
He had ______ entered the road when he was injured. (hard, hardly)
She studies ______ into the night. (lately, late)
The train arrived ten minutes ______. (late, lately)
The examinations will be held ______ in April this time. (late, lately)
I reached home very ______ last night. (late, lately)
We have not heard anything from them ______. (late, lately)
The great singers have been ______ women. (mostly, most)
Join the course that will help you ______. (mostly most)
I have books that are ______ novels. (mostly, most)
It was ______ my elder brother who guided me to this position. (most, mostly)
In this computer course, the students are ______ girls from a renowned school. (mostly, most)
Exercise E.1 Usage of Adverbs
Consider the adverbs formed by adding ly to an adjective: gladly, slowly, foolishly, wisely, nicely.
If an adjective itself ends with ly, it cannot normally be changed into an adverb. Such words can act both as adjectives and/or adverbs.
These adverbs are usually adverbs of manner. But, if an adjective itself ends with ly, it cannot normally be changed into an adverb. Such words can act as both adjectives and/or adverbs.
She has arrived via an early flight. (adjective)
She has come early. (adverb)
There is an hourly change of classes. (adjective)
The classes change hourly. (adverb)
The Statesman is a daily newspaper. (adjective)
The Statesman is published daily. (adverb)
He is a very friendly boss. (adjective)
She received us in a very friendly manner. (adverb)
Note that the word kind (an adjective) has kindly as its adverb. But, kindly is also an adjective.
My father had a kindly nature. (adjective)
My father always talked to us in a very kindly manner. (adjective)
In each of the following pairs of sentences, complete the second sentence by using an adverb or an adverbial phrase having the same meaning as the adjective in the first sentence:
She is an early bird. She rises _______.
From here, there is an hourly bus service to Delhi. The buses to Delhi run _______.
That was a cowardly action. That was acting _______.
I have hired this car on a monthly basis. I pay the car charges _______.
The tutor held daily classes. The tutor holds classes _______.
Most magazines are monthly publications. Most magazines are published _______.
She is a very gentle person. She always behaves _______.
He gave us friendly advice. He advised us _______.
My friend noticed my fatherly smile at the child. My friend noticed my smiling at the child _______.
He is a very gentlemanly person. He always behaves _______.
Exercise E.2 Words Used as Both Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectival complements
The sky became bright. (not brightly)
This year good apples are rare. (not rarely)
She got angry. (not angrily)
The tea became bitter. (not bitterly)
The job is difficult though it appears easy. (not easily)
The price seems to be low. (not lowly)
In these sentences, the verbs to be, to seem, to become, and so on (appear, feel, look, grow, turn) need an adjective and not an adverb to act as a complement that qualifies the subject to complete the meaning of the sentence. No adverb is required to modify the verb. Note that when the verbs turn, grow, and appear are used in a different sense, they are followed by an adverb, not an adjective.
The ship appeared suddenly on the horizon.
These plants have grown quickly.
She turned and left unexpectedly.
In these sentences, appear means “come into sight”, grow means “increase in size”, and turn means “move in a particular direction”.
On the other hand, an adjective, not an adverb, is used after verbs, such as feel, sound, taste, and smell, to show a quality experienced by one of the physical senses.
This cloth feels smooth.
These pipes sound nice.
This orange tastes sour.
That rose smells sweet.
Fill in the sentences below using the adjective or adverb given in parentheses.
It feels very in this room. (cold, coldly)
The weather has turned. (hot, hotly)
At her call, I turned around. (sudden, suddenly)
He seems very at this result. (sad, sadly)
Some trees grow very. (slow, slowly)
She looks in this dress. (pretty, prettily)
His story is to appear very. (short, shortly)
Her signature does not appear to be. (genuinely, genuine)
If you feel, remove the shirt. (warm, warmly)
The director congratulated the award winners. (warm, warmly)
The girl was very to catch the robber by herself. (brave, bravely)
The audience became when the winners of the Best Film award came on stage. (excited, excitedly)
Her room smells of sandalwood. (strong, strongly)
Our new teacher seems very. (strict, strictly)
This food smells very. (appetizing, appetizingly)
Exercise E.3 Usage of Adverbs and Adjectives
Of all punctuation symbols, the four discussed below are the ones most commonly misused.
A comma is used to:
The first alternative certainly offered the company many advantages, but the second was probably more economical.
However, if the clauses are short, the comma separation is unnecessary.
She bought him a nice shirt but lost it.
When all the proposals had been fully investigated and discussed, we were able to make the final decision.
However, when the introductory element is particularly short, a comma is not required.
On Friday we were able to make the final decision.
The controller of accounts, vice-president and president took part in the investigation.
The last comma in the series may be required in some cases, for clarity.
The controller of accounts, vice-president and general manager, and the president took part in the investigation. (The second comma in this sentence indicates that one person holds the dual position of vice-president and general manager.)
A parenthetical expression is one that is inserted into a sentence; therefore, the latter must be grammatically complete without it. Unless it begins or ends a sentence, a parenthetical expression should be set off by two commas.
Ram, unlike his brother, was a good salesman.
Sometimes, if the expression does not cause an abrupt interruption, the comma separation is unnecessary (especially with the words also, too, indeed, at least, perhaps, and likewise).
Ram's personality was indeed more pleasing than his brother's.
When a parenthetical expression (particularly a lengthy one) causes an abrupt interruption, dashes or parentheses may be used instead of commas. Like the comma, dashes and parentheses must be used in pairs. However, they should be used much less frequently than commas.
Ram was a good salesman—he sold more than anyone else in the company—and had a pleasing personality. (emphatic.)
Ram was a good salesman (he sold more than anyone else in the company) and had a pleasing personality. (less emphatic.)
Non-restrictive elements are parenthetical (see iv above) and are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They must be set off by two commas.
Ram, who sold more than anyone else in the company, was awarded the salesmen's trophy.
The foreman replied, “I have done all I can” and left the room.
A comma is not used to:
Incorrect: The company with the best reputation in this area, was awarded the contract. (subject–verb separation)
Correct: The company with the best reputation in this area was awarded the contract.
Incorrect: The company knew last week, that it had been awarded the contract. (verb–object separation)
Correct: The company knew last week that it had been awarded the contract.
If words requiring punctuation (see points (d) and (e) above) intervene between the subject and the verb or between the verb and the object, the comma is then necessary.
ABC Company, which has a good reputation in this area, was awarded the contract.
(Non-restrictive phrase intervenes between the verb and object.)
The company knew last week, probably by Wednesday, that it had been awarded the contract. (Non-restrictive phrase intervenes between the verb and the object.)
Incorrect: The salesman displayed his goods, then he talked about the newest product.
Correct: The salesman displayed his goods. Then he talked about the newest product.
Correct: The salesman displayed his goods, and then he talked about the newest product.
Incorrect: I cannot remember whether the head office is in Calcutta, or in Bombay.
Correct: I cannot remember whether the head office is in Calcutta or in Bombay.
Incorrect: We should choose an economical, flexible, plan.
Correct: We should choose an economical, flexible plan.
Incorrect: Several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense.
Correct: Several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense.
Incorrect: Although several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense, they are not important.
Correct: Although several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense (see Exhibit 1), they are not important. (Second comma is necessary to set off the introductory element.)
A colon is used to:
The following men were nominated for the top honour: Singh, Jain, Basu, and Jha.
The purpose of his speech was obvious: he wanted to present a concise outline of company policy.
A semi-colon is used to:
At this time last year, Mr Singh was the company's general manager; he is now the president. (A full stop could be substituted for the semi-colon, but the latter is preferable when the clauses are short and closely related in thought).
We thought that Ram would be the new president; however, his brother was chosen instead.
We do not like the attitude of the new manager; that is, we resent his air of superiority.
We called on Mr Singh, the president; Mr Jain, the vice-president and general manager; Mr Basu, the controller of accounts; and Mr Jha, the secretary.
We chose these people because they held responsible positions, both within the company and in organizations outside; because they had valuable experience; because they had the ability to work well with others; and because they all had the time for outside work.
A semi-colon should not be used to separate a main clause from a subordinate clause.
Incorrect: Mr Singh was named honorary president; because of his long association with the firm.
Correct: Mr Singh was named honorary president because of his long association with the firm.
Except in cases where it separates items in a series, the semi-colon always separates one main clause from another main clause.
The apostrophe is used to show possession in the following instances:
An apostrophe should not be used for the pronouns his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, or whose because they are already possessive.
Incorrect: It's meaning was clear (“It's” means “it is”)
Correct: Its meaning was clear
Accept, Except. Accept, a verb, means to agree to something, to believe, or to receive. Except means “not including” or “other than”.
Advice, Advise. Advice is a noun, and advise is a verb.
Affect, Effect. Most frequently, affect, which means to influence, is used as a verb, and effect, which means a result is used as a noun.
Ain't. This is a non-standard way of saying “am not”, “has not”, “have not”, and so on.
All Right, Alright. The phrase all right has two words, not one. Alright is an incorrect form.
All Together, Altogether. All together means in a group, and altogether means entirely or totally.
Alot, A lot. Alot is an incorrect form of a lot.
Among, Between. Among is used to refer to three or more nouns and between is used for two nouns.
Amount, Number. Amount is used for things or ideas that are general or abstract and cannot be counted. Number is used for things that can be counted.
Anyone, Any One. Anyone means any person at all. Any one refers to a specific person or things in a group.
As, As If, Like. As is used in a comparison when there is an equality intended; as if is used when a supposed situation is there; and like is used when similarity is intended. Assure, Ensure, Insure. Assure means to declare or promise; ensure means to make safe or certain; and insure means to protect with a contract of insurance.
Awful, Awfully. Awful is an adjective meaning “extremely unpleasant”. Awfully is an adverb used in informal writing to say “very”. It should be avoided in formal writing.
Beside, Besides. Beside is a preposition meaning “at the side of”, “compared with”, or “having nothing to do with”. Besides is a preposition meaning “in addition to” or “other than”.
Breath, Breathe. Breath is a noun, and breathe is a verb.
Choose, Chose. Choose is the present tense of the verb, and chose is the past tense.
Compared to, Compared with. Use compared to to point out similarities between dissimilar items. Use compared with to show similarities and differences between similar items.
Data. This is the plural form of datum. In informal usage, data is used as a singular noun.
Different from, Different than. Different from is always correct, but some writers also use different than when a clause following this phrase. (For example, “This book is different from the others.” and “That is a different outcome than they expected.”)
Farther, Further. While some writers use these words interchangeably, dictionary definitions differentiate between them. Farther is used when actual distance is involved, and further is used to mean “to a greater extent” or “more”.
Fewer, Less. Fewer is used for things that are countable (for example: fewer trains, fewer trees, fewer students). Less is used for ideas, abstractions, or things that are thought of collectively, not separately (for example: less gain, less furniture), and things that are measured by amount not number (for example: less tea, less money).
Good, Well. Good is an adjective and therefore, describes only nouns. Well is an adverb and describes adjectives, other adverbs, and verbs.
Got, Have. Got is the past tense of “get” and should not be used in place of have. Similarly, “got to” should not be used as a substitute for “must”. “Have got to” is an informal substitute for must.
Imply, Infer. Sometimes these two words are used interchangeably. However, imply means to suggest without stating directly. Infer means to reach an opinion from facts or reasoning.
Its, It's. Its is a personal pronoun in the possessive case. It's is a contraction for “it is”.
Kind, Sort. These two forms are singular and should be used with the words “this” or “that”. Their plurals, kinds and sorts should be used with the words “these” or “those”.
Lay, Lie. Lay is a verb that needs an object and should not be used in place of lie, a verb that takes no direct object.
OK, Okay. These can be used interchangeably in informal writing, but should not be used in formal or academic writing.
Such. This is an often overused word in place of “very” or “extremely”. It should be avoided.
Sure. The use of sure as an adverb is informal. In formal writing, the adverb “surely” is used.
That, Which. Use that for essential clauses and which for non-essential clauses.
Their, There, They're. Their is a possessive pronoun; there means “in”, “at”, or “at that place”; they're is the contraction for “they are”.
Theirself, Theirselves. These are incorrect forms that are sometimes used in place of “themselves”.
Use to. This is incorrect; “used to” should be used instead.
Who, Whom. Who is used for the subject case; whom is used for the object case.
Who's, Whose. Who's is a contraction for “who is”; whose is a possessive pronoun.
Your, You're. Your is a possessive pronoun; You're is a contraction for “you are”. (Your feet are cold. You're a great writer.)
Yours, Your's. Yours is the correct possessive form; your's is an incorrect version of “yours”.
Oxford dictionary defines an idiom as a group of words whose implied meaning is different from the meaning of the individual words. We can see that an apple of one's eye is a group of words whose meaning has nothing to do with that of the individual words. Idioms are an indispensable part of English. An idiomatic language is always better equipped to communicate as it lends charm and expression to a routine language. Idioms and phrases are language specific and also vary from culture to culture. However, excessive use of idioms may not be advisable as it makes the language showy and may give an impression that the speaker wants to impress the listener.
adieu: farewell; good-bye
aide-de-camp: an army officer acting as assistant to a general
aide-mémoire: an aid to memory
à la: after the fashion of. We use it colloquially in such contexts as: “If you think you can dictate to me, à la Hitler, You're very much mistaken!”
à la carte: by the bill of fare, with a stated price for each dish, the customer pays for such dishes as he chooses. See table d’hàte below.
à la mode: in the fashion; fashionable
amour: love; amours, love affairs
amour-propre: self-esteem; conceit
ancien régime: the old order of things
à propos: to the purpose
arrière-pensée: not an After thought, but a mental reservation, a thought not put into words
attaché: a member of the staff of an ambassador. An attaché case is a small leather case
au fait: well acquainted with a matter
au revoir: until we meet again
à votre santé: to your health
beau monde: the people of fashion
belles-lettres: polite literature
bête noire: “black beast”; a bugbear; a pet aversion
bêtise: stupidity; a stupid thing; a silly act
billet-doux: a love-letter
blasé: bored; sick of pleasure
bonhomie: good nature
bon mot: a clever remark
bonne bouche: a tasty morsel; a titbit
bon ton: good taste; good style
bon vivant: one fond of luxury and good food
bon voyage: a good voyage or journey, e.g. “I went down to the docks to wish him bon voyage when he left for the Far East.”
bric-à-brac: odds and ends
café: coffee; a coffee-house or tea-shop; café au lait: coffee with milk; café noir: black coffee (i.e. without milk)
carte blanche: full power; a free hand, e.g. “I gave the builder carte blanche to do whatever repairs he thought necessary.”
chaperon: a married or elderly woman who accompanies a girl on social occasions
chargé d’affaires: an official who acts as deputy to an ambassador; an ambassador at a minor court
chauffeur: a fireman or stoker. In modern usage a driver of a car who is paid for his services
chef-d’æuvre: a masterpiece. Michelangelo's chef-d’æuvre is the painting on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Rome
chic: literally, a knack (Il a du chic, “He is skilful, a dab hand”), but used today in the sense of “stylish”, e.g.“She wore a chic little hat”,
cliché: hackneyed phrase
comme il faut: as it should be
confrere: a fellow member; a colleague
contretemps: an unfortunate happening
coup de grâce: the finishing stroke; merciful killing, e.g. “The poor creature had broken its back, so I gave it the coup de grâce with a bullet from my rife.” The phrase is used figuratively in such contexts as: “In the third game Mr Jones administered the coup de grâce with the ace of trumps.”
coup d’état: a change of government by sudden and violent means, e.g. “By this swift coup d’état, the army gained control of the whole country.”
crème de la crème: “cream of the cream”; the very best
cuisine: Literarlly “kitchen”, but also used in the sense of the style in which food is cooked or prepared, e.g. “This little restaurant is famous for its cuisine.”
cul-de-sac: “bottom of the bag”; a blind alley, open at one end only
débris (usually without the accent in English). scattered fragments; piles of rubbish, e.g. “The mass of debris resulting from the collision greatly hampered rescue work.”
début: a first appearance, e.g. “Sir John Gielgud made his début at the Old Vic in 1921, when he played the part of the herald in Henry V.” The accent is sometimes omitted in English
déjeuner: breakfast; sometimes also luncheon
demi-monde: “half world”; a class of women on the outskirts of society and of doubtful respectability
dénouement: “unknotting” the final solution of a play, novel, etc., e.g. “In the exciting dénouement, the most unlikely character turns out to be the murderer.” The accent is sometimes omitted in English.
de rigueur: required by etiquette or custom, e.g. “White flannels are de rigueur in cricket and tennis.”
de trop: too much; not wanted; in the way, e.g. “Feeling that I was de trop I quietly withdrew and left the young couple alone in the room.”
Dieu et mon droit: “God and my right”, the motto of Richard I, meaning that he held his right from God alone. Since then, it has been inscribed on the royal standard of English kings and queens.
double entendre: a double meaning; words that can be taken two ways, one of them indelicate or vulgar; the kind of remark that caused the child at the pantomime to ask: “Mummy, what's Daddy laughing at?”
doyen: senior; oldest member, e.g. “With the death of Mr Wallace, the doyen of the association is now Mr Green, who is eighty-six.”
éclair: a finger-shaped puff of pastry filled with cream
élite (or elite): the best people; the crème de la crème
embarras de choix: embarrassment of choice; too many from which to choose
embarras de richesse: embarrassment of wealth; having so much money that one does not know what to do with it
en bloc: in a lump; in bulk; wholesale, e.g. “The ship's cargo was bought en bloc by a trading company as soon as she reached port.”
encore: again, once more; a demand for the repetition of a song, dance, etc., e.g. “After deafening shouts of‘Encore!’ from all parts of the theatre, the final chorus was repeated by the whole company.” Oddly enough, the French themselves do not cry “Encore!” but “Bis!”, which means “Twice!”
en famille: at home; with one's own family, e.g. “After a week of public engagements, he delighted in spending Sunday en famille.”
enfant terrible: a terrible child, one who asks awkward questions at the wrong moment, or repeats remarks he has overheard, e.g.: “What's a wolf in sheep's clothing, Mr Johnson?” “Why do you ask, Tommy?” “Because that's what Dad says you are.”
en masse: in a mass; all together, e.g. “On the approach of the enemy, the inhabitants fled from the city en masse.”
en passant: in passing; by the way
en rapport: in sympathy with
en route: on the way; bound for
entente cordiale: a friendly understanding or agreement
entourage: a retinue; a group of advisers, attendants, friends, etc., e.g. “The crown prince and his entourage went riding in the royal park.”
entrée: right of admittance; freedom of entry; also a dish served between the fish course and the main course at dinner
entre nous: between ourselves, e.g. “I don't think she will make him a good wife, but that's entre nous: Don't tell them I said so!”
esprit de corps: the spirit of loyalty and comradeship among the members of a group, regiment, etc.
etiquette: the rules of behaviour in polite society. Professional etiquette governs the conduct of those in certain walks of life—medical, legal, etc.
fait accompli: an accomplished fact; a thing done and no longer worth making a fuss about
faute de mieux: for want of better
faux pas: a false step; an indiscretion; an error of judgment
fiancé (feminine fiancée): one who is engaged to be married
force majeure: superior force; greater strength, e.g. ‘It's no use reasoning with those people. The only argument they understand is force majeure.’
gourmand. gourmet: The first eats greedily; the second with discrimination
habitué: a frequenter; a regular customer
Honi soit qui mal y pense: This is the Old French for “Shame be to him who thinks evil”. It is the motto of the Order of the Garter
hors de combat: Once translated by an English schoolboy as “war-horse”, this means literally ‘out of the flight’, disabled
hors-d’æuvre: a side dish served as a relish at the beginning of a meal
idée fixe, a fixed idea. one that no persuasion or argument can alter
impasse: a blind alley; a deadlock
laisser-faire: the principle of non-interference, especially by the Government in commercial matters
mal à propos (Anglicized malapropos). out of place; inopportune. See under malapropism
matinée: an afternoon performance, either theatrical or musical
mauvais quart d’heure: “a bad quarter of an hour”; a short but unpleasant experience or interview
mauvais sujet: a worthless fellow; a scoundrel; a black sheep
menu: a bill of fare in a restaurant
messieurs: gentlemen, the plural of monsieur: Used in English in the abbreviated form Messrs (no full stop) when addressing a letter to more than one person, e.g. “Messrs Taylor & Lawson”.
mise en scène: the scenery and general setting of a play. Figuratively, the surroundings of an event
naïve (usually without the diaeresis in English), artless, natural, ingenuous
née: born
négligé (sometimes spelt negligee in English). informal dress; a woman's loose gown
noblesse oblige, meaning that if one is of noble rank, one is obliged to behave accordingly
nom de guerre, literally a “war-name”, but used figuratively for an assumed name under which one follows a calling or profession, e.g. “When George Edward Wade began his long career as a music-hall comedian he adopted George Robey as his nom de guerre.”
nom de plume: a pen name. See under pseudonym
nonpareil: without equal; matchless
outré: exaggerated; extravagant
panache: literally a tuft or plume worn in a helmet; figuratively it means “display; swagger; bounce”
papier mâché: “chewed paper”; paper pulp moulded into shape and used for various purposes, such as egg boxes
par excellence: pre-eminently; above all
parole: a military word meaning a promise not to escape
parvenu: a newcomer; an upstart
pâté de foie gras: a paste or a patty made with the livers of geese fattened for that purpose
patois: dialect
pièce de résistance: the main dish of a meal. It is also used figuratively in such contexts as: “The pike de résistance of the evening was a magnificent firework display.”
pied-à-terre: a temporary lodging
poste restante: till called for
pourboire: “drink money”; a tip
précis: an abstract or summary
protégé: a person under the protection of another
purée: a thick soup made by pressing peas, beans, etc. through a sieve
qui s’ excuse s’ accuse: he who excuses himself accuses himself
qui vive: To be on the qui vive is to keep a sharp look-out
Répondez, s’il vous plaît (abbreviated R.S.V.P.). “Reply, if you please”, printed on invitations to dinners, parties, etc.
résumé: a summary
Revenons à nos moutons: “Let us return to our sheep.” Figuratively, “Let us return to our subject”, said when the conversation has drifted away from the main topic. The quotation is from Patelin, by the French dramatist, Pierre Blanchet (c. 1459-1519)
riposte: a smart retort
roué: a rake; a profligate
sabotage: deliberate damage to railways, factories, machinery, etc. by discontented employees. In World War II it was used extensively to impede the enemy in the occupied countries
sang-froid: “cold blood”; coolness; composure
sauve-qui-peut: “save who can”; “every man for himself”; a general panic; a headlong flight
savoir-faire: tact; knowing the right thing to do; presence of mind
soupçon: suspicion; a taste; a small quantity, e.g. “Pink gin requires only a soupçon of angostura bitters.”
souvenir: a keepsake
table d’hàte: “the host's table”; a set meal served at a set time and at a fixed price, unlike à la carte (see above), where the customer chooses his meal from the menu and pays for each dish
tête-à-tête: “head to head”; a private conversation or interview between two persons, e.g. “I waited outside the office while my wife had a tête-à-tête with the manageress.”
tour de force: a feat of strength; a striking exhibition of power or skill
tout ensemble: “all together”; in costume and the arts, the general effect of anything considered as a whole, without regard to details
trousseau: a bride's outfit of clothing, etc.
voilà tout: that is all
vol-au-vent: “flight on the wind”; a pastry case of light puff paste with a filling of chicken, prawn, lobster, mushroom, etc.
volte-face: a turning round; a change of front in an argument or in politics
Hundreds of these are in common use in English. Below is a selected list. Those asterisked are treated more fully under their own headings in the body of the book.
ad hoc: for this
ad infinitum: to infinity; endless
ad libitum: at pleasure
ad nauseam: to a disgusting extent, e.g. “He repeated ad nauseam all the details of his many ailments.”
ad valorem: according to value
a fortiori: all the more; for a still stronger reason
Alma Mater: “the bounteous mother”, a name used by ex-students for their school or university
Anno Domini: the year of our Lord. Abbreviated A.D. (q.v.)
ante meridiem: before noon. Abbreviated a.m., e.g. 10.30 a.m. =half past ten in the morning
bona fides: good faith, sincerity, genuineness, e.g. “Assured of his bona fides, I handed him the keys of the house.”
caveat emptor: let the buyer beware
circa: about. Abbreviated c. (q.v.)
compos mentis: sound mind, e.g. “The lawyer pleaded that his client had not been in compos mentis at the time of the accident.”
contra: against. It is found in words such as contradict (speak against), contravene (come against), also in compound words such as contra-regulations (against regulations), and from it derives counter, e.g. counteract, to act against
cum: with. It is found in place names, e.g. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, and in such combinations as gar-dener-cum-chauffeur, a man who performs the double duties of gardener and chauffeur, and shop-cum-garage, where one can buy a pound of butter or a gallon of petrol
cum grano salis: with a grain of salt, used figuratively in the sense of not entirely believing a thing, e.g. ‘I take all he says cum grano salis.’
de facto: in fact; existing, whether legal or not; the opposite of de jure
Dei gratia: by God's grace
de jure: by right; according to law. For example, a de jure government is one that has legal standing, whilst a de facto government is one that is in control, whether legally or not
Deo volente: God willing. Abbreviated D.V. “I shall see you again next year, D.V”.
deus ex machina: a god from the machine
dramatis personae: a list of the characters in a play, often with the names of the actors taking the parts
Eheu fugaces… labuntur anni: This is a quotation from the Roman poet, Horace. It means “Alas, the fleeting years glide past.” It is our custom to use only the first two words, implying the rest, as if with a shrug of our shoulders
errare est humanum: to err is human
et cetera: and the rest
et sequitur: and the following. Abbreviated et seq.
exempli gratia: for example. Abbreviated e.g. and treated under that heading
exit (plural exeunt): a stage direction meaning “he goes off”. The word is also used as a noun, e.g. “They have their exits and their entrances.”
ex libris: from the library (of); printed at the head of a slip pasted inside the cover of a book and giving the owner's name
ex officio: because of one's office. The chairman of a main committee is an ex-officio member of all sub-committees that may be formed
felo de se: “felon of self”, one who takes his own life, e.g. “The jury returned a verdict of felo de se.”
Festina lente: “Hasten slowly”, a paradox attributed to the Roman emperor Augustus
fidus Achates: a faithful follower
finis: the end, sometimes printed below the text on the last page of a book
flagrante delicto. in the very act. Its literal meaning is “while the crime is blazing”. “A policeman arrived suddenly and caught the thief in flagrante delicto.”
hic jacet: “here lies”, often found on tombstones
ibidem: in the same place
idem est: that is. Abbreviated i.e. (q.v.)
in camera: In Latin camera means “a vault”. The term in camera is a legal one, e.g. “The evidence was heard in camera.” That is to say, it was heard in the private chamber of the judge, not in open court
infra dignitatem: beneath one's dignity. Abbreviated infra dig {q.v.), usually without a full stop
inter alia: among other things, e.g. “This book contains, inter alia, a list of Latin words and phrases.”
lapsus linguae: a slip of the tongue
lapsus memoriae: a slip of memory
laudator temporis acti: one who praises past times—“the good old days”
locum tenens: “holding the place”; a deputy, especially for a clergyman or a doctor. It is often abbreviated, e.g. “Dr Harrison is acting as locum for Dr Brown, who is on holiday.”
magnum opus: great work; the chief production of an artist or a writer. See opus
mater: mother
mea culpa: by my own fault
mens sana in corpore sano: a healthy mind in a healthy body
meum et tuum: mine and thine (yours). We use the term euphemistically in “He doesn't know the difference between meum and tuum”, which is another way of saying that we think he is a thief
mirabile dictu: wonderful to relate, e.g. “Mirabile dictu, the weather was fine.”
modus operandi: a way of working, particularly doing the same thing in the same way every time, e.g. “The house had been entered through a skylight, which the police recognized as the modus operandi of a thief known to be in the neighbourhood.”
multum in parvo: much in little
mutatis mutandis: with any necessary change of detail, e.g. “The new agreement shall be on the same terms, mutatis mutandis, as the existing agreement.”
nemine contradicente: Usually abbreviated nem. con., this means “no one speaking against”, e.g. “Mr Jones's proposal that the clubhouse should be redecorated was carried nem. con.”
ne plus ultra: “not more beyond”; the utmost limit, e.g. “In dress and appearance he was the ne plus ultra of good taste.”
non sequitur: “it does not follow”
nota bene: “note well”. Abbreviated N.B., this is used to draw particular attention to what follows, e.g. “The annual general meeting will be held on 25th October next. N.B. Subscriptions are now due.”
obiit: “he died”. Abbreviated ob., this is used as follows: “Gilbert Harding (ob. 16th Nov. 1960) was the most controversial broadcaster of his day.”
opus: work
pater: father; hence paternoster (our father), the Lord's Prayer in Latin
paterfamilias: head of a family. Generally used facetiously or to end a letter published in a newspaper, e.g. “Dear Sir, Referring to recent correspondence in your columns, my belief is that school terms should be longer and holidays shorter. Yours faithfully, Paterfamilias.”
Peccavi: “I have sinned”
per annum: by the year
per aspera ad astra: “to the stars by rough ways”
per capita: per head, i.e. for each person
per centum: per hundred. Abbreviated per cent or %
per diem: per day
per mensem: per month
per procuriationem: by proxy; by the agency of. Abbreviated per pro or p.p. See per pro under abreviation
post meridiem: after noon. Abbreviated p.m., e.g. 4.15 p.m. - quarter past four in the afternoon
post mortem: after death. A post mortem examination of a body is made to find out the cause of death
post scriptum: written afterwards. See postscript
prima facie: first impression, e.g. “The prima facie evidence suggested that he had met with a fatal accident, but further investigations proved that he had committed suicide.”
pro patria: for one's country. It is to be found in Horace's Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, “It is sweet and glorious to die for one's country”
pro rata: in proportion; proportionately
pro tempore: for the time being. Abbreviated pro tern, it is used in such contexts as: “We hope to move into our new house at the end of the month and are living in a caravan pro tern.”
Quod erat demonstrandum: that which was to be proved. In its abbreviated form Q.E.D. it is used at the end of Euclid's theorems. Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum, that which was to be done) is used at the end of his problems
quod vide: which see
rara avis: rare bird. It is used figuratively in such contexts as: “The visitor to this little secluded village is a rara avis indeed.”
sic: thus
sine die: “without a day”; put off until some unspecified date in the future, e.g. “It was considered too early to make a final decision, so the matter was deferred sine die.”
sine qua non: “without which not”; an indispensable condition or qualification; something essential, e.g. “In the art of public speaking, clear diction is a sine qua non.”
sotto voce: in an undertone
status quo: the existing state of affairs; the way things are now. To maintain the status quo is to ensure that things remain unchanged. To restore the status quo is to re-establish a former state of affairs
stet: let it stand
terra fama: “firm earth”; dry land, e.g. “After a rough crossing of the Straits of Dover, we were relieved to be back on terra fama.”
ubique: everywhere. From it derives the adjective ubiquitous, e.g. “All over the world the ubiquitous Englishman is to be found.”
ultima Thule: the utmost limit. Thule was the name given by the Romans to the most northerly country known to them, which may have been Iceland, Norway or the Shetland islands. We use it in such contexts as: “During my convalescence, when walking quickly tired me, my ultima Thule was the tobacconist's at the end of the road.”
ultra vires: beyond one's power or authority, e.g. “The magistrates decided that the local council had acted ultra vires by closing this footpath to the public.”
vade mecum: “go with me”. We use the term for anything we carry about with us because we may need it at any time, particularly a handbook for ready reference, e.g. a tourist's vade mecum, an angler's vade mecum, a typist's vade mecum.
Vae victis: “Woe to the conquered!”
vale (plural valete): farewell. The plural form is often used in school magazines to head a list of those leaving at the end of the term
verbum sapienti: The full phrase is verbum sat sapienti, meaning “a word to the wise is enough”, but we usually omit sat (enough) and abbreviate the rest to Verb. sap. in such contexts as: “Verb. sap.,” he said when she tried to explain. “I can guess the rest.”
versus: against. It is frequently abbreviated v. in sporting fixtures, e.g. England v. Scotland, Man-chester City v. Tottenham Hotspurs, and in legal cases, e.g. Andrews v. Director of Public Prosecutions
via: “way; road”. We use it in the sense of by way of, e.g. “He flew from London to Australia via Singapore.”
via media: sometimes media via, a middle way or road. We use it figuratively with the meaning of “a middle course”, which is safer than venturing too far to one side or the other, e.g. “My doctor recommended me to take a month's holiday. I could not afford to be away so long from my business, so chose the via media and spent a fortnight at the seaside.”
vice: in the place of. A vice-president takes over the duties of the president when the latter is unable to attend. Also vice-admiral, vice-chairman, vice-captain (in cricket, football, etc.) and others. A viceroy is one who rules territory as the deputy of the sovereign. Lord Curzon was Viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905
vice versa: conversely; the other way round, e.g. “After the collision the motorist blamed the driver of the lorry, and vice versa.” That is, they blamed each other
videlicet: “one may see”. It is abbreviated viz and is treated under that heading
Vita brevis, ars longa: “Life is short, art is long”. An alternative version is Ars longa, vita brevis
viva voce: “with the living voice”; oral or orally, e.g. “In the French examination, I passed the written test, but failed in the viva voce because my accent wasn't good enough.”
Phrasal verbs are verbal compounds with a grammatical structure of verb + preposition and/or adverbs. They form a fixed group of words with an idiomatic meaning. They are expressions (also known as verbal idioms) whose real meaning cannot be detected from that of the constituent words. Like idioms, phrasal verbs are widely used in English and they make our expression rich and fresh. Phrasal verbs are better suited to informal speech. You would complain about your friend who has not kept his/her promise by saying, “He has backed out at the last moment.” On the other hand if you are a buyer, you would better express the similar idea formally to a supplier who has not supplied the ordered goods by writing, “we are sorry to say that you have not fulfilled your commitment.”
In the following sentences, point out the error in simple terms, e.g., meaning not clear, spelling mistake, grammatical error of concord, change of tense, incorrect punctuation mark or any other kind of error. Also, rewrite them correctly.
3.147.68.159