CHAPTER 10

Employee Training

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Understand employee training
2. Assess training needs
3. Learn the steps in an employee training process
4. Evaluate employee training programmes
5. Discover the issues in employee training
6. Explain an effective training programme
7. Present an overview of e-learning

Reliance Industries Limited is one of the largest private sector companies in India with a 24,000-strong workforce. This Fortune 500 company has won several awards for its training polices and programmes. For example, in 2007, it won the Golden Peacock National Training Award, the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) Excellence in Practice Award and the CNBC–TV18-instituted Jobstreet.com’s Jobseekers’ Employer of Choice Award. The company believes in people empowerment through five scalable approaches—greater knowledge, opportunity, responsibility, accountability and reward.

Reliance Industries has spent almost a total of 160,253 man-days over the years to train its employees. Its training objective is to groom people both in the personal as well as professional capabilities. The company believes in achieving competitive advantage through consistently efficient human capital. It has a wide range of varied customized training programmes to cater to the specific needs of the assorted workforce and meet its strategic goals. For instance, it has several target-oriented training programmes for its employees like the ones for competency development and soft skills learning. It also conducts 360 other programmes to meet the diverse skills needs of its employees. One such unique training programme for new recruits is called the Dronacharya Scheme. Under this programme, senior personnel (Dronacharyas) take charge of two to three new employees (the Arjunas) and train them intensively for independent positions in three to six months. Through its different training programmes, the company seeks to develop competitive advantage through its human capital.

The example of Reliance showcases the significance of training programmes in the accomplishment of corporate goals. We shall now discuss the relevant aspects of employee training in this chapter.

Introduction

Training is, essentially, a value-addition activity undertaken by an organization to enrich the value of its core assets, namely, its people. It plays a vital role in enhancing the efficiency, productivity and performance of the employees. It is a learning process that helps employees acquire new knowledge and the skills required to perform their present jobs efficiently. Rapid technological developments and the resultant changes in the production process have compelled the management of various companies to treat training as a continuous process of the organization. In fact, the strategic goals of an organization usually form the basis for its training programmes. Training typically comprises predetermined programmes to achieve the desired performance efficiency at various levels—individual, group and organizational. In simple terms, training is all about making a difference between where the worker stands at present and where he will be after some point of time.

Training is usually a short-term skill-development exercise meant for non-managerial employees either to learn a job or to overcome their deficiency in the performance of the present job. The success of any training programme lies in recognizing the training needs within the organization and then designing and implementing training programmes based on those needs in order to carry out a continuous upgradation of knowledge, skills and employee attitudes. In fact, sustained training efforts by an organization usually lead to the creation of a highly competent and motivated workforce that is all set to take on the challenges of performance and productivity. Undeniably, organizations can think of achieving success in the globalized market only when they can ensure that their employees perform to their fullest potential.

Although training is defined variously by experts, the core element of any training is the skills acquisition by workers at the non-managerial levels (see Box 10.1).

To sum up, we can say that training is the process by which an employee acquires the necessary knowledge and skills to perform the job.

Significance of Employee Training

Today, Indian organizations have realized the importance of training as a tool to achieve their strategic goals. It is not viewed by the organization as a cost any longer but as an investment on one of its most dynamic assets, namely, employees. Many organizations consider training as a strategic employee retention tool. It helps the organization create a smarter force capable of meeting any situation and challenges. We shall now discuss the significance of training in detail.

Enlargement of Skills and Competency

Training helps in enhancing the technical knowledge and skills of the employees at every level of the organization. It enables them to learn new skills and knowledge continuously so that they remain up to date. In fact, the improvement of skills is no longer optional for the organization but a matter of compulsion, due to the growth in technology and improved processes.

Effective Utilization of the Existing Human Resources

Training results in improved performance, which, in turn, facilitates optimum utilization of the available human resources. It also enables the employees to accomplish the organizational goals as well as their personal goals effectively. In fact, improved performance, being a bottom-line purpose of training, is a strategic goal for organizations.⁶

Enhancement of Customer Satisfaction

Almost everywhere, organizations are compelled to ensure superior quality, lower costs, and better services to their customers. To meet these challenges, they must enhance their overall performance continuously. The training of employees helps in improving upon the quality of work and in controlling costs.

Enhancing Competitive Advantage

One of the important competitive advantages of an organization in a competitive environment is its workforce. It can retain its core workforce competency and skills through continuous and systematic training of its labour force.

Enrichment of Team Spirit

Generally, training helps in the promotion of team spirit and inter-team cooperation among the employees. In fact, it enhances the spirit of a group and makes the members work harder to succeed as a group.

Ensuring Personal Growth

Training is an investment in people. It is emerging as an important technique to retain people. The process of skills acquisition helps not only the organization in achieving its goal but also the employees in ensuring their personal growth. Obviously, employees prefer those organizations that expose them to modern technologies and help them upgrade their skills and knowledge.

Enabling a Learning Culture

Training helps in creating a learning culture within the organization. Successful organizations recognize that well-structured and significant employee learning programmes connect well with their long-term strategic success.

Establishing a Positive Organizational Climate

Training enhances the interaction and understanding between the employers and the employees. It helps build a good labour–management relationship and ensures that the individual’s goals align well with the organizational goal. Thus, it aids in creating a positive perception and feeling about the organization. The collective feeling of the employees about their organization is called the organizational climate.

Encouraging Better Health and Safety Measures

Training helps in improving the health and safety of the employees. Safety training teaches the employees about the safety measures to be followed and also the best and secure way of performing a job. It minimizes the problems of industrial accidents and sickness. Thus, it assists in the development of a healthy working environment.

Ensuring Organizational Growth and Development

Training aids in organizational development since it helps in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty, communication and other aspects required for successful employees. It facilitates the establishment of effective decision-making and problem-solving processes. It also helps in understanding and carrying out organizational policies. Box 10.2 outlines the significance of training as a long-term investment.

Assessing Training Needs

The assessment of training needs is an important job for the HR department. It is usually done at two levels. At the first level, the training needs of the individual employees are assessed. At the second, training needs are assessed for different groups in the organization. The training needs assessed at group levels are usually referred to as the organizational-need assessment. Normally, the employee skills inventory is prepared to identify the likely skills shortage in the organization. Skills inventory is an estimation of the kind of skills possessed by the employees while skills shortage is the situation where the required skills are more than the available skills. In fact, skills shortage is an indication of the need for training at the organizational level.

The individual employee’s training needs can be assessed by comparing the actual performance of the employee with the standard performance. The deficit in performance will indicate the nature and extent of the need for his/her training programmes. The individual employee may also require training at the time of transfer and/or promotion in order to learn the new job.

To determine the training needs of its employees, an organization should involve as many sources as possible and then decide on the best one that can provide reliable information. We shall now discuss each of these sources.

Performance Evaluation

Performance evaluation reports help in assessing the training needs at the individual levels. The current performance of an employee is an important indicator of his training requirements. Normally, those employees who perform poorly in the performance evaluation are identified for training.

In addition, an organization may review productivity reports, performance scores, absenteeism records and attrition reports to assess the actual performance of the employees. This information can provide vital inputs to determine the nature, type and extent of training for each of the employees. Box 10.3 shows the role of performance management in training needs assessment.

Job Analysis

Job description report and job specification report can be examined to decide the skills, abilities and knowledge required to perform the job effectively. They may form the basis for determining the training requirements of the job holders.

Attitude Survey

Attitude survey is a process of gathering information from the employees about the various aspects of the organization. The information about the attitude of workers towards their work environment, their level of awareness, and their views on the relevance of the existing training programmes and the future training requirements can be ascertained. The findings of these surveys can form the basis for assessing the training needs.

Advisory Panel

An organization may constitute panels comprising the representatives of the management and those of the employees to decide on the training needs. The panel has to assess the existing skills requirement before deciding on the number and nature of the training programmes required for a specific period. Based on its reports, the organization may take appropriate measures.

Ability Test Score

An organization can give ability tests to its employees to identify their existing levels of skills and abilities. The results can then be compared with the standard skills requirements to determine the need for and extent of the training programmes.

Feedback

The feedback from the customers, the employees and all others who are important to the business can help in determining the training needs. For example, customers can provide feedback about the product flaws, the performance deficit, and the employees’ behavioural problems. Similarly, the employees who quit can provide vital clues to the weaknesses of the organization in general and its training programmes in particular at the time of exit interview.

Scope of Training

The reach-out of training programmes is far and wide. Depending upon the nature, duration and purpose of the training programmes, the trainees may acquire attributes like skills, knowledge, analytical acumen, concepts, attitudes, and ethical values. Let us see these attributes briefly.

Knowledge

The basic purpose of any training programme is to provide the participants with the requisite knowledge to achieve the goals of the job. Knowledge is generally developed through the processes of perception, learning and reasoning. The employees may require the knowledge of the machines to be operated, of the materials or equipment to be handled, of the procedures to be adopted, of the customers, the co-employees and their behavioural patterns. For instance, when the organization finds the existing skills and knowledge of the staff inadequate to achieve the strategic goals and objectives, training is considered.⁷ Training imparts job-related knowledge to the participants and enables them to understand what they must do in their job and how they should do it.

Skills Acquisition

Skill is defined as an ability to produce solutions in some problem domain. It is developed progressively by persistent training and other practices. Employees may require one or more skills like intellectual skills, management skills, social skills, motor skills, mental skills, technical skills and perceptual skills. In general training, employees learn those skills that are necessary to do the jobs on hand effectively and to apply their knowledge productively.

Attitude Formation

Attitude is the mental state of an individual concerning his beliefs, feelings, values and tendencies that influence him to behave in one way or the other. In an organization, the employees may have a positive or negative attitude towards the job, organization and people. A negative attitude may cause suspicion and mistrust in the actions of the organization and make the employees resist changes with all their might. Employee training programmes can bring about the desired changes in their attitude and instil in them a sense of cooperation, motivation, commitment and satisfaction.

Ethical Values

Ethics are the principles of right and wrong that are accepted by an individual or a social group. The management of human resources often calls for decisions involving ethics, fair treatment and justice. The presence of ethics policies and codes alone is not sufficient to ensure ethical behaviour among the employees. Organizations should supplement those policies with the necessary training on ethical practices. These trainings can help employees understand the presence of ethical dilemmas in situations requiring decision making, learn the techniques of using ethical codes to settle problems involving ethical dilemmas in a fair and just manner and, lastly, ensure the adoption of ethical values in every aspect of their dealing with the people.

Analytical Reasoning

Analytical reasoning refers to the systematic way of thinking to comprehend the problems, develop alternative plans of action, choose the best course of action and implement the selected plan to successfully resolve the problems. Continuous training programmes provide the necessary impetus to sharpen the analytical reasoning and problem-solving skills of employees.

Steps in an Employee Training Process

Changes in the internal and external situations are inevitable and, thus, training becomes a continuous process. The general purpose of any training process is to train employees to be able to look for and respond to changes in a successful way. As illustrated in Figure 10.1, the training process usually involves six steps. These steps have been explained briefly as follows:

Determination of the Training Needs

The first step in a training process is to identify the specific operational skills to be developed for performing a job. A methodical approach to identify the real needs must be undertaken. In fact, there are several sources available to an organization to assess its training needs (discussed earlier under the Section, “Assessing Training Needs”). Generally, to recognize the training needs of the employees, an analysis at one or more of the following three levels is undertaken.

Organization Analysis This focuses on identifying areas in the organization where training is needed. The aim is to connect the training needs to the achievement of the organizational goals. At this level, the strategic mission and vision, corporate goals and plans of the organization are examined carefully and then compared with the existing manpower inventory to determine the training needs.

Operation Analysis This involves the proper examination of the work to be performed after training. It focuses on the tasks that are required to be performed to accomplish the organizational goals. It also involves the collection of information about the competencies required for effective job performance. An examination of the operating problems like customer grievances, downtime reports and quality issues along with the performance evaluation and the interview of the employees can offer information for the determination of the training needs.

Individual Analysis This focuses on deciding about the individual training needs. The difference between the actual performance and the standard performance of an individual indicates the training needs. Actually, individual analysis deals with questions like who should be trained and what should be taught. It involves asking pointed questions to find out exactly what job knowledge and skills the person must have in order to perform well.⁸

Development of the Training Objectives

Once the training goals have been established, the next step is to determine the specific objectives of the training programmes. Each training programme can have its own objectives. However, these objectives must be directly related to the assessed training needs and should also focus on satisfying those needs. In essence, training programmes must have clear and concise objectives and must be developed to achieve organizational goals.⁹ It is absolutely essential to have concrete and measurable goals; otherwise it would be difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of the training programmes. For instance, abstract goals stated in emotional terms like improving satisfaction and reducing anger are usually difficult to measure and, thus, render it almost impossible to measure the effect of the training programmes accurately.

Selection of the Training Techniques

The next step involves decisions regarding the training techniques to be used in the programme. Based on the training needs and goals, an appropriate training method should be chosen to achieve the desired results. Though there are several techniques available to train the participants, each technique is unique and there are definite differences existing among these techniques about how well each one serves the various objectives. Broadly, these techniques are classified into two categories. These are: on- the-job training methods and off-the-job training methods. On-the-job training means imparting real-time training at the work spot, even while doing the actual job. Off-the-job training means training at a place away from the work spot and in formal classrooms. (The methods of training have been discussed later in the chapter in detail.)

Identifying the Trainer

Once the training method has been decided, the next important step is selecting and training the trainers for the programme. This is a critical step because the success of the whole training effort relies greatly upon the competency and ability of the trainers. The tasks of designing, organizing, implementing and pre- and post-assessment of the training process are usually entrusted only to these trainers. They must be adequately competent, knowledgeable and mature people with effective communication skills. They must also be familiar with the company’s philosophy, objectives, structure, culture and the specific purposes of the training programme.

Implementing the Training Programme

Once the training methods and trainers have been decided, the next step is the actual implementation of the training programme. For successful implementation, some of the prerequisites are the convenience of location, the comfortableness of the training facilities, the quality and adequacy of the provided materials, and the timing and duration of the programme. Similarly, frequent interaction between the trainers and the trainees can also be encouraged to ensure their involvement in the training process.

However, the implementation stage is often fraught with a lot of practical difficulties. For instance, training is often viewed as a process to effect change and hence viewed with mistrust and suspicion by the employees. Besides, it frequently clashes with the full-time duties of the employees and this may pose problems in determining the training schedule along with the present work requirements. Obviously, the regular work schedule might be disturbed when the employees are away from work for training purpose. Another difficulty in the execution of the training programme is keeping appropriate records. Unless proper records of the performances of the employees are kept before and after the training programme respectively, it would be difficult to determine the net gains of the employees achieved through the programme.

Evaluation of the Training Programme

This is the final step in an employee training process. For an effective evaluation, it is essential to pre-assess the attributes to be emphasized in the training like the knowledge, skills and attitude of the employees ahead of the training programme. Understandably, an evaluation of these attributes after the training will facilitate a meaningful comparison to determine the effectiveness of the training programme. The absence of such facilities for comparison will make it difficult to evaluate the utility of the training programme for the trainees. Hence, it is imperative that the training efforts be documented to demonstrate that training provides a valuable service. (See the section on training evaluation.)

Methods of Training

A broad range of training methods is available to an organization to deliver training to its employees. Based on the training goals and need assessments, an appropriate method may be chosen. There are two options available to an organization while deciding on a training programme. It can either design its own programme or get an externally available package and make modifications in it to suit the purpose and requirements of its training programmes. As listed in Figure 10.2, training methods are broadly divided into two categories namely, on-the-job training and off-the-job training. We shall now discuss these training methods in detail.

On-the-job Training Methods

It is a method in which employees learn their job by actually doing it. This type of training is usually practised on a day-to-day basis along with or as part of the job. The basic idea behind the adoption of this kind of training is to transfer the skills and knowledge from a highly competent and experienced employee to a new one, while sustaining the productivity of both. Almost every new employee gets on-the-job training to become skilled at his job. In many organizations, on-the-job training may be the only one available.¹⁰ The various kinds of on-the-job training have been explained as follows.

Apprenticeship Training Several organizations practise this method to impart skills to their employees. It is commonly used to train people for various crafts jobs like those of an electrician, a fitter, a turner, a plumber, a carpenter, a machinist and a printer. In this method, the superior, who is usually a highly skilled employee, becomes the instructor and imparts knowledge to the trainee (called an apprentice) at the work spot. Apprenticeship programmes can last for a few months to several years, depending on the nature and complexity of the jobs. The main motivating factor for the trainees here is the awareness that they are acquiring the exact knowledge needed to perform their jobs. This is a combination of classroom instruction and on-the-job training.

Job Rotation The purpose of this method is to expose employees beyond the scope of their present knowledge. The employees are moved from one job to another just to widen their skill, knowledge and experience. Job rotation training programmes are frequently applied by organizations to promote effective teamwork.¹¹ Job rotation aids the employees in comprehending a variety of jobs and in acquiring multi-skills to manage these jobs comfortably. It also presents the organization with wide options to effect personnel changes to achieve the desired productivity and strategic goals. Organizations practise rotational programmes primarily for entry-level jobs to impart skills to the new employees that will enable them to perform multiple jobs.

Internship and Assistantship Internship is concerned with gaining supervised practical experience, especially by a medical graduate. Lately, it has been gaining acceptance in business organizations as well. As a training technique, it permits the participants to combine the theory learned in the classroom with the business practices. In fact, it is a unique kind of recruitment-cum-training that calls for positioning a student in a temporary job without any obligation for the company to hire him permanently after training. Similarly, there is no obligation for the student to agree to the job offers of the company after finishing his studies.

Internship is usually beneficial to both the parties. For instance, the interns help the organization do the needed tasks and, in turn, gain hands-on experience with the job and first-hand knowledge about the prevailing business practices. If the participant accepts the job offer of the company that provided internship, the company actually gets a trained person to perform the offered job. The best feature of an internship is that it lets the employers try out future employees prior to making a job offer.¹² Box 10.4 shows the relevance of internship as one of the training methods.

Job Instruction Training The step-wise process of imparting training to the employee is called job instruction training. In fact, the execution of any job involves a step-by-step performance of the various tasks of that job. Obviously, these jobs can be taught effectively in a step-by-step manner. Under this method, all the necessary steps in the job, together with brief write-ups about each step, are compiled sequentially. Each step would have a corresponding self-explanatory note. Each note would explain what needs to be done in that step, why it has to be done and how it has to be done. In this way, the job instruction training sheet for each job can be prepared and provided to the trainees. This method will enable the trainee to learn the job practically with the minimum guidance of the trainer.

Box 10.5 outlines the essence of a job induction training programme.

Off-the-job Training Methods

It is a method in which workers are imparted training at a place away from their usual workplace. This place could be a classroom or training centre. The purpose of off-the-job training methods is to minimize the distractions to the trainees. These methods are ideal for teaching the theoretical aspects of the jobs. Off-the-job training methods become critical when on-the-job training involves potential risk to the trainees and others. The following training methods are broadly regarded as instances of off-the-job training methods.

Programmed Learning This method is also known as scheduled learning or programmed instruction method. Under this method, the trainees are made to reply to the job-oriented questions, problems, concepts, cases and facts as part of learning job skills. As soon as this process is over, the trainees are provided with feedback that details the accuracy of their answers. The learning may be a conventional one, with textbooks, paper and pencil as tools of learning. It can also be a computer-enabled one, with the use of computer terminals, video discs, light pen, touch screens, mainframe, mini and micro computers.¹³

The basic purpose of this method is to give sufficient information to the learners and then test the trainees’ authority over the subject matter. The trainees’ progress towards the subsequent steps depends upon the quality of their response to the questions of the previous step. The essence of this method is that it emphasizes frequent questions, small steps, and specific, understandable, immediate and accurate feedback.¹⁴

The major benefits of this technique are: (i) It can shorten the training time. (ii) It allows the trainees to learn the subject matter at their own speed as they learn individually. (iii) The use of computers facilitates the storing and presentation of an extensive variety of learning situations to the trainees. The major argument against this method is that although this method reduces the duration of the training process, there is no conclusive evidence available to show that it enhances learning and retention rates among the trainees as compared to other methods.

Simulation Method This method is employed when it is impossible or risky to provide the trainees on-the-job training. Simulation is a technique that creates a situation which, as nearly as possible, replicates the real one. In fact, it refers to any equipment that attempts to provide a realistic decision-making environment for the trainees.¹⁵ In this method, the trainee gets trained either on the actual or on the simulated equipment that are employed in the job but only in an off-the-job mode. The trainers review the performance, prepare the reports and make them available to the trainees. The examples of simulation training are flight simulators used to train the pilots, simulated sales counters and automobiles. Computers are used extensively in the simulation technique, especially in sophisticated business simulations.

In recent times, Internet-based instruments like learning portals and computer-based training have emerged as popular modes of training. The merits of this method are: (i) The safety of the trainees is ensured as the dangers of on-the-job training are not there. (ii) The cost of training is reduced as only simulated environment and equipment are used. (iii) Learning effectiveness improves as repeat performances are possible without any disturbance to routine business activities. (iv) It is possible to create unusual or potentially dangerous and rare situations that are critical to the process of training and help prepare the trainees.

Laboratory Training This method is also called sensitivity training or T-group training. This training is typically organized for a small group of trainees who are normally not familiar with one another. It is organized under the supervision of seasoned trainers, who may play the role of careful observers, in a neutral venue away from the place of work. Sessions are organized to let trainees meet personally to share their feelings, opinions, attitude, perceptions and values.

The merits of this training are manifold. (i) It facilitates a better understanding among the members by breaking the rigidity in their relationships. (ii) It can improve the behaviour of the members by knowing more about themselves and others. (iii) It increases the trainees’ capability to resolve the conflicting situations by developing alternatives and problem-solving techniques instead of manipulation, intimidation and compromise.¹⁶ The limitation of this method is the absence of continuance of trained behaviour in the actual work conditions in many cases. This affects the endurance of the benefits of the training programme.

Case Study Method In this method, trainees are provided the necessary information in a case study format and they are expected to come up with decisions based on their understanding of the given cases. In fact, each case study presents elaborate information about a specific series of real or imaginary incidents. The case studies may deal with the activities of an organization or with the specific problems faced by it during the course of its operation or during the interactions among its members. The trainees should evaluate the cases carefully, understand the problems objectively, identify the causes appropriately, develop possible solutions optimally, and choose and implement the best solution finally. The merits of this method are: (i) It can improve the analytical, lateral and judgemental skills of the trainees. (ii) Since case studies mostly deal with real-life events, it enables the trainees to face the challenges of real-life difficulties confidently.

Lecture Method This method is also called the chalk-and-talk method. It is a traditional method of imparting knowledge to a large number of trainees at the same time. It is a verbal form of delivering information in a classroom environment. This method is appropriate when a large amount of information is to be provided within a limited span of time. A knowledgeable trainer can make the whole process effective by planning and preparing meticulously and delivering the lectures in a systematic and exciting manner. When the trainer is competent enough to capture the imagination of the class, he can excite the trainees who desire to learn.

The merits of this method are: (i) It is an easy, simple and quick method to share information with a large chunk of trainees. (ii) It is usually an economical method as the cost of training is distributed among several trainees, thereby reducing the cost per trainee.

However, this method also suffers from a few limitations: (i) It is predominantly a one-way mode of communication with little scope for interactions. (ii) Personalized and individual-specific flexible training is missing. (iii) It may not be ideal for highly technical and skill-oriented jobs. (iv) Problems like the trainers’ fatigue, the non-availability of experienced trainers, and the dissimilarity in the performances of the trainers can impact the quality and continuity of the programmes. In spite of all these criticisms, the lecture method remains the most commonly used technique in many organizations.¹⁷ Although there is no conclusive evidence to decide about the effectiveness of the lecture method, studies have shown that lectures can really be effective, even though some perceive them as boring and ineffective.¹⁸

Role-playing Role-playing refers to acting out a particular role. This method is simply the learning-by-doing technique. The trainee, instead of merely listening to the trainer’s instructions regarding the ways and means of solving a problematic situation or discussing them, responds to that particular problem by acting out real-life situations. Typically, a trainee assumes the role of a specific personality relevant to the given situation and responds to the problems of that situation in that role. The role may be that of a superior or a subordinate or any other.

The merit of this method is that (i) it is often used to impart the skills necessary for conducting interviews, handling grievances, performance evaluation and disciplinary proceedings. (ii) It helps enhance the interpersonal relations, problem-solving ability, motivational skills and leadership techniques of the trainees. (iii) It can vastly improve the empathetic quality of the employees. Along with films and case studies, role-playing is among the more commonly used techniques for both technical and management development.¹⁹

Video-conferencing This is one of the distance learning methods for training. It is best suited when the trainer and the trainees are separated geographically. It allows people in one location to communicate live via audio-visual aids with people in another city, country, or with groups in several cities.²⁰ It is mostly interactive in nature and offers enough flexibility. The merits of this method are: (i) It can bring down the cost of delivering training programmes as it cuts the cost of travelling of the trainers, especially from distant locations, and also as simultaneous training of many employees can be conducted. (ii) It facilitates the standardization of training materials and methods and improves accessibility to quality training. The limitation of this method is the high initial cost of installing the necessary equipment.

Audio-visual Aids in Training

Audio-visual aids such as television, audiotapes, videotapes, films, video-conferencing and presentations are effectively and extensively used in training to enhance the efficacy of the training process. These techniques make a wide variety of realistic illustrations of job conditions and situations available to the trainees within a short span of time. For instance, the Ford Company extensively uses audio-visual techniques while conducting dealer training sessions to simulate problems like customer complaints and sample reactions to such problems.²¹

The merits of technology-based training are: (i) It is more interesting and appealing to the trainees than the conventional training methods because of its multimedia effects. (ii) The quality and substance of the presentation will remain the same for all training groups. (iii) Such training is free from the problems of trainer fatigue or availability. (iv) The preparation of the subject matter and materials is usually a one-time affair. The limitations of this method are: (i) Audio-visuals are usually more costly than the traditional training methods. (ii) It may cause problems of one-way communication, monologue and listener boredom. (iii) It lacks the flexibility and personal relationship normally found in the training process.

Evaluation of a Training Programme

Evaluation is the last stage in the process of a training programme. It is an integrated part of training. Evaluation implies the comparison of training objectives with the learning outcomes of the trainees to determine the extent of the accomplishment of goals. It is necessary for any organization to assess the learning outcome of the training programme systematically. A provision must exist in the training process to evaluate its efficacy systematically. This is because the training process involves significant cost commitment on the part of the organization and requires financial evaluation in cost–benefit terms. Besides, training, being a continuous process, requires regular interventions for improvements and changes in order to achieve better efficiency. Finally, evaluation ensures better control over the whole process since it enables the organization to decide whether to continue the training programme in the future. The main purposes of the evaluation of training are listed as: (i) deciding if a programme should be continued, (ii) deciding if a programme should be modified, and (iii) determining the value of training.²²

The evaluation process is explained as “any attempt to obtain information (feedback) on the effects of a training programme and to assess the value of the training in the light of that information”.²³ A proper evaluation requires sufficient information to assess the trainees’ performance and progress in the course of training accurately. In the first stage, an organization should decide how it should gather the necessary information. It is also called designing of the evaluation process. Box 10.6 illustrates an example of training evaluation techniques in a company.

Design of Evaluation Studies

As far as the designing of evaluation study is concerned, an organization has two alternative designs. These are time series design and pre-test–post-test design. Both methods are explained briefly.

Time Series Design

In this design, the process of evaluation starts even before the beginning of the actual training programme. It involves a series of measures before and after the training programme. This process necessitates the conduct of pre-test and post-test of the skill and behaviour of the trainees to collect comparable information. Under this design, predetermined criteria of training like the skills and knowledge of the trainees are assessed before the training programme. After the training, the same criteria are assessed once again to evaluate the trainees’ skills acquisition during the training. This comparison can provide an initial reading of the effectiveness of the training programme.²⁴ The limitation of this design is that the influence of other events or changes occurring during the same time as that of training, on the performance of the trainees can not be ruled out.

Pre-test–post-test Control Group Design

This method is an extension of the previous one. In this method, the inter-period (before and after training) and the inter-group (between the experimental group and the control group not subjected to any training programme during the same period) comparisons of performance are done to assess the effectiveness of the training programme. The purpose of the inter-group comparison is to eliminate the possibility of the influence of some other events that occur at the same time as the training. This method assesses the pre- and post-training performance of not only the experimental group (that receives the training) but also the control group (that does not) for the same period, that is, exactly after the corresponding work periods. This design makes it possible to determine the extent to which any change in the performance of the experimental group resulted from the training rather than from some organization-wide change like a pay hike that would have affected employees in both groups equally.²⁵

An organization has to choose between any one of the designs to gather information about the performance of the trainees. However, the time series design is a more practical one to evaluate effect of the training programme.

Effects to be Measured in Evaluation

In evaluating training programmes, an acclaimed model for evaluation has been suggested by Jim Kirkpatrick. There are four levels in this model and these levels have been explained as follows.

Participants’ Impressions

At the first level, the training programme is evaluated by seeking the participants’ opinion about it. The opinion may be in the form of the trainee’s response to the various aspects of the training or of suggestion for improvements. This is the easiest and quickest way to evaluate the training efficacy with the least expense. However, there is a possibility of bias in the response of the trainees as they may be influenced by some other factors like the extent of freedom, the location and the timing.

Learning Level

At this level, tests are conducted for trainees to decide what they learned from the programme. The tests should measure the extent of knowledge, skills and concepts acquired by the trainees during the programme. Organizations may use time series design or the pre-test–post-test control group design as an evaluation procedure.

Behavioural Improvements

In the next level, training is assessed by finding out whether the training has made any impact on the trainees’ on-the-job behaviour. It evaluates the extent of transfer of the newly acquired skills and knowledge to the job. The best expression of value of training occurs when the learning translates into lasting behavioural change.²⁶ For example, a manager attending a training programme may appreciate the concept of participatory decision making, but after returning to the job, he may continue with unilateral decision-making practice. Performance appraisal techniques like the 360-degree feedback method are appropriate for measuring behavioural changes after training.

Accomplishment of Training and Development Objectives

In the final phase, training programmes are evaluated to determine the extent to which they have accomplished the specific training objectives and also to know the cost-related behavioural outcomes and their final impact on the performance. This phase also involves ascertaining the final results achieved in terms of training goals. For example, when the industrial safety of the employees becomes the objective of a training programme, the number of industrial accidents before and after training would indicate the extent of accomplishment of the training objectives.

Issues in Training

Although training is an effective tool to create a superior workforce, there are several challenges which impair the quality and outcome of the training programmes. These challenges have been listed as follows:

• The absence of corporate commitment towards training is a major problem. Many organizations do not spend anything at all on training. Even if they do, it is mostly for the managerial personnel only and there is hardly any concern for the training requirements of the workers.
• Many organizations, especially smaller business concerns, avoid training to upgrade the skills of the employees out of the fear that these trained employees will be lured by the competitors with promises of better pay jobs and scales.
• The cost and infrastructure requirements of training make it unaffordable for the small and medium-sized organizations to offer training programmes to their employees.
• Accounting rules generally treat training as expenses only and not as an investment. This also acts as a disincentive to the training efforts of the organizations.
• At the macro level, lack of adequate financial support from the government for undertaking the training and retraining of those workers who are ousted by downsizing, restructuring and other economic necessities also prevents the optimum utilization of training benefits.
• The low availability of employable graduates with adequate skills also strains the training efforts of the organizations as they have to undertake training even to teach basic skills.
• Lack of university and industry cooperation on a sustained basis creates a gap in the communication and exchange of mutual requirements. While the educational institutions remain indifferent to the needs of industry, the organizations do not communicate their labour and skill requirements properly to the academic institutions.

Conditions Necessary for an Effective Training Programme

There are several critical factors which positively influence the success of the outcome of the training programmes. These factors are explained briefly in this section.

Top-management Support

The training efforts require the support and understanding of the highest level of the management. Indeed, the top management must be committed to training and development.²⁷ It should treat training as an important segment of the corporate culture. It must commit itself to investing the necessary resources and time for the training programmes.

Receptive Mindset of Trainees

It is necessary for the organization to nurture a positive mindset among its trainees for its training programmes. Without an open and receptive mindset, it would be difficult for the trainees to learn the new ideas, skills and knowledge quickly and efficiently. To achieve the training goals completely, the organization must develop a confident and self-motivated mindset, an analytical mindset, an open, proactive and flexible mindset, and also a mindset for continual improvement among its employees.

Adoption of a Continuous Process

Organizations should adopt a comprehensive, continuous and systematic approach to meet the training needs of their employees. It is essential to develop training strategies that support the accomplishment of corporate strategies and goals on a sustained basis. Organizations should evolve a system to analyse and identify organizational and occupational training needs. An ad hoc approach to the training process may not enhance training effectiveness. Thus, in every organization, training and retraining must be done at all levels on a continuous, ongoing basis.²⁸

Technological Advances

Technology has a decisive influence on the planning, execution and delivery of training programmes. The mass entry of computer and the Internet has dramatically changed the way business functions are conducted today. These developments have necessitated changes in the training process too. Obviously, the advent of e-training and e-learning has re-shaped the way knowledge is delivered to trainees today.

Form and Timing of Training

An ideal time to learn is the time when the training is helpful to the employees. Increased global competition and technological advancements have forced the organizations to carry out the training programmes on a timely basis. The type of training is normally based on the assessment of training needs and the identification of training objectives. Organizations should constantly scan the external environment to look for opportunities and threats in order to decide the type and timing of training.

E-learning—An Overview

E-learning is generally related to the planned use of networked information and communications technology in learning. It is known by several names such as online learning, virtual learning, network Web-based learning and distributed learning. It is also called just-in-time training as training is provided anytime, anywhere in the world when it is needed.²⁹ E-learning is commonly referred to the intentional use of networked information and communications technology in teaching and learning.³⁰ It means the using of electronic applications and processes to learn. Its applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. E-learning content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM.³¹ A high-speed internet connection is an essential prerequisite for widespread e-learning.

E-learning is one of the successful training programme delivery systems. Since it is an Internet-based learning programme with online instruction, trainees in the e-learning mode are not constrained by the problems of space and distance. The features of animation and multimedia can make the demonstrations vibrant and attractive. Virtual reality is a distinct feature of e-learning that allows the trainees to see the objects from a perspective otherwise impossible or impracticable. Most of the e-learning is self-paced. It is the fastest growing medium of training as the workforce becomes more educated and versatile. In fact, the global market for e-learning must have reached U.S. $21 billion by 2008, according to a survey by International Data Group Inc.³² Although e-learning is not only inexpensive but also convenient, it remains only as a supplement for classroom lectures and demonstration in training programmes in India. Box 10.7 depicts the role of e-learning as a training delivery technique.

Types of E-learning

E-learning is not a stand-alone term. There are several related terms which are broadly referred to as e-learning. A brief description of these terms is given here.³³

Online Learning Online learning refers to the learning and other supportive resources that are available through a computer.

Web-based Training Web-based training is a training based on the learning resources available on the intranet, extranet or Internet.

Technology-based Training Technology-based training refers to any form of training based on technologies like computer, television, audio tape and print, i.e., training other than that given in conventional classrooms.

Computer-based Training Computer-based training means presenting courses on a computer. In this case, the computer is not linked to any network or to learning resources outside the course.

Further, depending upon the requirements and goals of the training programme, an organization can choose a style of e-learning appropriate for the situation. Som Naidu has identified four styles of e-learning.³⁴ These are as follows:

• Individualized self-paced e-learning online, where the learner gets access to the learning resources online via an intranet or the Internet.
• Individualized self-paced e-learning offline, where the learner is not connected to intranet or Internet but depends on a computer-assisted learning package like CD or DVD, while working offline.
• Group-based synchronous e-learning, where a team of learners works online in real time, using an intranet or the Internet through video-conferencing or real-time chat.
• Group-based asynchronous e-learning, where a team of learners works through an intranet or the Internet but not in real time, as information exchanges happen with a time delay like in the case of e-mailing or text-based conferencing.

Merits of E-learning

Although the organizations realize very well the need for continuous training to keep the employees well-informed and multi-skilled, they are often constrained by the non-availability of trainers, the absence of infrastructure, production schedule disturbances, the distance barriers between the trainer and the trainees, the cost of training, the inability to mobilize the adequate number of employees at the time for training, and so on. In this regard, e-learning comes in handy. It enables the employees to widen their knowledge and skills and also ensures learning on demand. The main advantages of e-learning are as follows:

Substitute for Instructor-based Learning E-learning, as a learner-based training, effectively replaces instructor-based learning as it can be changed according to the learner’s job requirements, career goals, existing knowledge and individual preferences.

Flexibility of Time and Place It ensures the flexibility of time and place of study as access to information and resources are as per the suitability and convenience of the individual learners instead of those of the instructor and the organization.

Storage of Information With the help of information technology, it ensures storage of information in the form of print-outs, recordings in CD/DVD, and so on. This enables the learner to choose the learning environment and time.

Application of Multimedia Tools E-learning systems can make use of multimedia to improve learning with audio, animation, graphics, and interactive video.

Simulated Real-Time Experience E-learning is based mostly on the concept of learning by doing and, as such, provides a simulated real-time experience. It introduces a creative style of simulating the learning experience with content and ideas provided in the e-learning material.

Personalized Learning Practices E-learning ensures personalized learning practices. It becomes the responsibility of the employees to plan and implement their career goals. E-learning also leads to enhanced employee empowerment and confidence. It is a cost-effective method as the organization will save the cost on the trainer’s travelling and on expensive arrangements for trainings. In fact, creating an e-learning module is three times less expensive than to create an instructor-led class.³⁵

Absence of Notional Cost Organizations can also save on the “opportunity cost” of the time spent on training since the training can happen after office hours or on holidays. In other words, the notional cost of production disturbance due to workers’ participation in the training programmes during working hours will be almost zero.

Better Measurement of Effectiveness Compared with the traditional training methods, it is easy to measure the results of Web-based e-learning effectively in terms of knowledge gain and behavioural changes and performance improvement.

Learning on Demand E-learning stresses sustained learning and supports “just-in-time training” and “just enough” learning, an advantage for active managers and professionals.

Limitations of E-learning

Even though e-learning has several strengths, it has a few significant limitations. These are:

• The complexities of technology make e-learning difficult for unskilled workers.
• E-learning is used more as a supplement for conventional instructor-led training than as its substitute.
• The application of training is somewhat limited as it may not be suitable for region-specific efforts like implementing cultural changes and attitudinal changes.
• There are no adequate research findings available on the learning effectiveness of e-learning as compared to that of traditional training methods.
• The introduction of e-learning entails an initial investment and an upfront cost, which may be high.

Summary

1. Training may be termed as the process by which an employee acquires the necessary knowledge and skills to perform the job.
2. Training is significant as it helps the organization in the form of enlargement of skills and competency, effective utilization of existing human resources, enhancement of customer satisfaction, enhancement of competitive advantage, enrichment of team spirit, ensuring personal growth, enabling a learning culture, establishing a positive organizational climate, encouraging better health and safety measures, and enduring organizational growth and development.
3. The sources of assessing the training needs are performance evaluation, job analysis, attitude survey, advisory panel, ability test score, and feedback.
4. The steps in a training process are the determination of training needs, the determination of training objectives, the selection of training techniques, identifying the trainer, implementing training programmes, and evaluation of the training programme.
5. The methods of training are broadly classified into on-the-job training and off-the-job training. On-the-job training methods include apprenticeship training, job rotation, internship and assistantship, and job instruction training.
6. Off-the-job training methods include programmed learning, simulation method, laboratory training, case study method, lecture method, role-playing and video-conferencing.
7. The challenges in training at the micro level are: the absence of corporate commitment, the risk of poaching, the unaffordable cost of training, and the treatment of training as expenses by the accounting rules; those at the macro level are: lack of adequate support from the government, the absence of candidates with adequate skills, and lack of cooperation between the university and the industry in research programmes.
8. The conditions necessary for an effective training programme are: top-management support, a continuous process, technological advances, and the form and timing of training.
9. E-learning means the using of electronic applications and processes to learn the relevant skills. The elements of e-learning are online learning, Web-based training, technology-based training and computer-based training.
10. The merits of e-learning are: a substitute for instructor-based learning, the flexibility of time and place, storage of information, application of multimedia tools, a simulated real-time experience, personalized learning practices, the absence of notional cost, a better measurement of effectiveness, and learning on demand.

Review Questions

Essay-type questions

1. Evaluate critically the different steps involved in an employee training process.
2. Discuss in detail the on-the-job training methods with relevant examples.
3. Enumerate the off-the-job training methods with suitable illustrations.
4. Identify and explain the training methods suitable for
   • IT companies
   • pharmaceutical companies
5. Explain the meaning, designs and levels of evaluation of training in an organization.
6. What are the challenges that affect the quality and outcome of training? How will you improve the effectiveness of training programmes?
7. Explain critically the merits and limitations of e-learning as a training programme.
8. “Training programmes are effective means to prevent workforce obsolescence.” Discuss.
9. If you were to be engaged as a consultant to advise an organization dealing in the production and marketing of durable goods, what steps would you adopt to prepare a training package and why?
10. Examine the importance and methods of training in a multinational corporation.
11. “Training is not an expense but a long-term investment on people.” Discuss.
12. Why is training important for improving employee motivation and organizational efficiency?
13. Develop a broad framework of a training package for the sales personnel of an FMCG company.
14. Explain the various metrics for evaluating a training programme.
15. Illustrate with examples how you would go about identifying training needs.
16. Describe how you will use any five training methods.

Skill-development Exercise

Objective – The objective of this exercise is to give you practice in developing a training package for a specific situation like the prevalence of high accident rates, and high reject rates.

Procedure Note – The class is divided into groups. Each group has: (1) an HR manager (overall in charge for the training), (2) a trainer (responsible for conducting the training programme), (3) a line manager (reporting about the problem), (4) two officers in the training department, and (5) an observer. The last role is important for the analysis and feedback aspects of the role-playing session.

Situation

A large cement company has its corporate office in a metro and plants in several parts of the country. The company has an aggregate workforce of 8,250 workers. In recent times, it has been experiencing problems in quality aspects as one of its plants reported unusually higher reject rates in the production process due to the poor quality of the products. The report from the line manager of the concerned plant made no reference to faulty machines or a flawed process. However, it made a mention about the deficit in the technical skills and knowledge of the workers involved in the production process. It also cited this as the most probable cause of the poor quality of the products and the resultant high reject rates.

Steps in the exercise

Step 1: The HR manager and the training department officials review the report of the line mangers along with the performance evaluation report of the workers concerned and plan to conduct an interview with the line manager.

Step 2: The HR manager along with the trainer conducts an interview with the line manager to determine the nature and type of training.

Step 3: The HR manager, the trainer and the training department officials go through the various reports and develop a requisite training package for the workers.

Step 4: The observer analyses the whole process involving the training package development and gives his feedback.

Case Study

Effectiveness of Well-timed Training in Fostering Employee Competency

Modern Textiles is in the business of producing garments and has an average annual turnover of Rs 3 billion. Since a large volume of its products is exported, the company has been very conscious of its quality commitment. It provides induction training to every new employee for two weeks and then on-the-job training by a supervisor for four months. This had been proving sufficient for the workers in meeting the clients’ quality expectations even while maintaining the high volume of production.

As part of its ambitious expansion programme, the company recently imported ultramodern machinery to double its production capacity. After the machinery was installed, the production volumes increased as expected, but the reject rates too rose dramatically. Consequently, the cost of production increased and the export deadlines too became very tight. The management discussed the issue at the different levels of the organization and held the machine operators’ inadequate knowledge and improper handling of the new machines as the primary reason for the unusual rejects. To remedy the situation, the HR department hurriedly organized the necessary training programmes for the employees’ handling this machine and the reject rates situation started to improve.

Meanwhile, the production manager found the HR department at fault for the crisis and blamed it for not undertaking training-needs assessment among the production department employees. However, the HR department retorted by saying that barely three months before the arrival of the new machine, a routine training-needs assessment had been made among those employees but it had revealed no pressing training requirements. On their part, the HR personnel held the production manager responsible for failing to inform them about the imminent arrival of the new machine at the time of the assessment of the training necessities. The blame game continued.

Questions for discussion

1. From your perception, who is responsible for the whole incident resulting in high reject rates and the other associated problems?
2. If you were the HR manager, what would you do to avert this crisis?
3. What should be the long-term strategy of this company in terms of the training policy and process?

Notes

1. Terry L. Leap and Michael D. Crino, Personnel/Human Resource Management (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 277.
2. Edwin B. Flippo, Personnel Management (New York: McGraw–Hill, 1984), p. 200.
3. Michael Armstrong, A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 8th ed. (London: Kogan Page, 2001), p. 543.
4. Michael J. Jucius, Personnel Management (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1980), p. 250.
5. Gary Dessler, Human Resource Management (Delhi: Pearson Education, 2005), p. 270.
6. “What to Do Now That Training Is Becoming a Major Force,” HR Focus, 82 (February 2005): 5–6.
7. Christine Ellis and Sarah Gale, “A Seat at the Table”, Training, March 2001, pp. 90–96.
8. Holly Ann Suzik, “Built from Scratch,” Quality, 38 (October 1999): 32–34.
9. “Why a Business Approach to Training Is Best,” HR Focus, 82 (July 2005): 5.
10. Kenneth N. Wexley and Gary P. Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002), pp. 78–79.
11. Julia Vowler, “Away Days Promote Team Working,” Computer Weekly (5 May 2005): 28.
12. “Plan for the Most Effective Internship Programs,” HR Focus, 82 (September 2005): 7–11.
13. David Hon, “The Videodisc Microcomputer and the Satellite,” Training and Development Journal (December 1980): 28–34.
14. James Hassett and Sheree Dukes Conrad, “The New Employee Trainer: A Floppy Disk,” Psychology Today (September 1986): 33.
15. Terry L. Leap and Michael D. Crino, Personnel/Human Resource Management (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 298.
16. E. H. Schein and W. G. Bennis, Personal and Organizational Changes Through Group Methods: The Laboratory Approach (New York: Wiley, 1965) referred by Edgar F. Huse, Organization Development and Change, 2nd ed. (New York: West Publishing, 1980), p. 367.
17. Terry L. Leap and Michael D. Crino, Personnel/Human Resource Management (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 300.
18. Winfred Arthur Jr, Winston Bennett Jr, Pamela Edens and Suzanne Bell, “Effectiveness of Training in Organizations: A Meta-Analysis of Design and Evaluation Features,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, no. 2 (2003): 234–245.
19. Terry L. Leap and Michael D. Crino, Personnel/Human Resource Management (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 300.
20. Craig Marion, “What Is the EPSS Movement and What Does It Mean to Information Designers?”, http:/www.chesco.com/emarion/ped/epssimliation.html.
21. Gary Dessler, Human Resource Management (Delhi: Pearson Education, 2005), p. 280.
22. Jim Kirkpatrick, “Transferring Learning to Behavior,” Fundamentals T+D, 59 (April 2005): 19–20.
23. A. C. Hamblin, Evaluation and Control of Training (Maidenhead: McGraw–Hill, 1974) referred by Michael Armstrong, A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 8th ed. (London: Kogan Page, 2001), pp. 570.
24. Kenneth N. Wexley and Gary P. Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002), p. 153.
25. Charles C. Morrow, M. Quintin Jarrett and Melvin T. Rupinski, “An Investigation of the Effect and Economic Utility of Corporate-wide Training,” Personnel Psychology, 50 (1997), pp. 91–119.
26. Jim Kirkpatrick, “Transferring Learning to Behavior,” Fundamentals T+D, 59 (April 2005): 19–20.
27. R. Rodgers, J. E. Hunter and D. L. Rogers, “Influence of Top Management Commitment on Management Programme Success,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (1993): 151–155.
28. Report to Respondents: Survey of Views Toward Corporate Education and Training Practices (New York: Sirota, Alper and Pfau, 1989).
29. David James Clarke IV, “The Nexus of Learning: The Intersection of Formal and Informal Education,” Chief Learning Officer, 5 (February 2006): 22–25.
30. Som Naidu, E-Learning: A Guidebook of Principles, Procedures and Practices, 2nd rev. ed. (New Delhi: Commonwealth Educational Media Center for Asia (CEMCA), 2006), pp. 1–3.
31. “Learnframe: e-Learning Management System,” http://www.learnframe.com.
32. Michael A. Tucker, “E-Learning Evolves,” HR Magazine, 50 (October 2005): 74–78.
33. E-Learning: A Research Note; www.namahn.com/resources/documents/note-e-learning.pdf.
34. Som Naidu, E-Learning: A Guidebook of Principles, Procedures and Practices, 2nd rev. ed. (New Delhi: Commonwealth Educational Media Center for Asia (CEMCA), 2006), pp. 2–5.
35. Doug Bartholomew, “Taking the E-Train,” Industry Week, 254 (June 2005): 34–37.