2.1.1 Anthropology

Anthropology is the field of study of humans historically, biologically, and socially with the purpose of understanding human behavior and how humans respond in various situations. A wide range of techniques can be used to carry out the requisite studies. Multifarious characteristics that describe a human being need to be precisely studied prior to drawing conclusions. For instance, archeology, which is a part of anthropology, is the study of the history of humans and how they behaved in the past by examining traces of the human body or the objects made by humans obtained from excavation sites. The genetic composition of humans and the way humans have evolved over time are also taken into account. Geographical parameters are also associated with the patterns exhibited in the evolution of humans over a period of time. Anthropology also deals with the similarities and differences of humans compared to other primates such as chimpanzees.

As we all know, the basic needs of survival for every human are similar, but the important thing to be considered is how different types of people go about fulfilling these needs. Therefore, it is the responsibility of anthropologists to investigate how people with sociocultural differences have different approaches to meeting their daily needs. The regular daily life behavior of humans and the religious and cultural practices carried out by people in different parts of the world are studied as a part of anthropology. The sets of beliefs prevailing in historical times in various parts of the world are also significantly important in the study of anthropology.

Based on the inferences gathered from such study, efforts are made to solve prevailing societal problems related to politics, health, education, and economics. This can only be done by studying humans and human behavior. For instance, it would be feasible to solve problems in healthcare if and only if we comprehend how the human body reacts in various situations. Similarly, the political problems existing in a particular society can only be solved if we understand how people in that particular society have reacted to such problems in the past and the set of beliefs among that group of people. So, basically, the study of anthropology is very much needed for the betterment of society as a whole.

2.1.2 Fields of Anthropology

Archeology deals with the study of human life in the past and is concerned with how humans have evolved over time. The remains of objects made by humans or used by them in a particular period are analyzed carefully in order to infer the kind of life they lived. This can lead to better understanding of how different types of people living in different parts of the globe have evolved. Archeologists often carry out their research at excavation sites, from which they retrieve various items used by humans, in order to understand the lifestyle of the people living in that period of time. Comparing this with the lifestyles of people in the modern era helps in deducing evolutionary patterns. A subfield of archeology, known as osteology, is concerned with the study of human bones, human teeth, and the human skeleton, which can be used to deduce the diet and diseases that humans may have suffered. Fossils of dead plants and animals are also retrieved from excavation sites; these are used to study how people made use of these plants and animals and also how they may have transitioned from one environment to another. These sites contain remains of people and animals that may have existed a million years ago, along with remains of nonliving things and living beings that existed just a few years back, giving a very fair idea about the evolution of life over a long interval of time. Such studies significantly help in comprehending how human society operated in different time periods and geographical locations.

Biological anthropology is concerned with the biological aspects of humankind as well as behavioral characteristics. There are many related subfields: paleoanthropology, primatology, evolutionary psychology, etc. Paleoanthropology deals with the study of the fossils of humans who existed long ago, which helps in understanding the morphological transition that has taken place in humans. Also, the morphological and biological characteristics of humans are compared with the nonhuman primates, which include chimpanzees and the primate ancestors of human beings, and the similarities and differences between them are deduced. The response of humans in different periods of time and different parts of the globe to various environmental conditions and adversities is also studied as a part of biological anthropology. Several biological processes, including reproduction, the working of the immune system against different diseases, and molecular biology, are also studied as a part of this field.

Cultural anthropology deals with how people living in different parts of the globe in different time periods have differing perspectives on the world and their surroundings. It is primarily concerned with the interactions of people with each other, also taking into account the sociocultural protocols followed by people living in different geographical areas and of different cultures. The basic practices of people, including eating, talking, drinking, and working, are investigated. This area of study allows assimilation of the distinctions between various human societies and enables understanding of divergent outlooks on the world and human life.

Linguistic anthropology studies the way diverse groups of people communicate with each other. The development of various modes of communication and the evolution of languages in different parts of the world are examined in this field. The classification of various fields of anthropology has been depicted in Fig. 2.1.

2.1.3 Applications of Anthropology

Each of the four fields of anthropology described here can play an integral role in tackling problems prevailing in the real world in our present era. Issues related to healthcare, politics, or education can be solved if there is a significant understanding of the characteristics of people living in the applicable region. Anthropology also has a considerable role in interpreting history, and anthropologists are employed in notable numbers in museums for the purpose of deciphering history. Moreover, anthropology plays a major role in businesses, for example in comprehending the types of products and software technologies that would be of utility to people living in a particular area. In fact, there has been a large increase in jobs for anthropologists in recent times. Recently, anthropologists from different sections of the world have been working together in global organizations in order to understand human life as a whole and decipher the similarities and differences in the attributes of people living around the world.

2.2.1 Computer Assistance in Archeology

In the modern era, computers have a major role to play in all the processes and methods used in archeology, ranging from data acquisition to data exhibition. Digital calipers are used to measure objects obtained from excavation sites. Other digital instruments are used for storing data and to carry out the requisite analysis. An optical instrument known as a total station is an electronic theodolite used in detecting angles combined with an electronic distance meter (EDM). It uses the phenomenon of reflection of a laser beam from a prism placed on the object to be accurately measured. This device measures the distance along with the relative direction of the object.

Much of the data obtained from archeological sites is fed into databases. Based on the data obtained, the required data analysis is carried out by analytics tools, as the data from various sites must be analyzed in order to decipher the history of the objects obtained. Appropriate hypotheses can be formed based on the analysis carried out. Various data visualization tools are in great demand for the purpose of exhibiting the data obtained in the form of graphs and charts, for easier comprehension and for grasping any trends in the data. These charts and graphs should have the ability to be rotated, to use different colors for different data sets, and to be customized as required for easier understanding of the data.

An important thing to be considered here is the integration of technologies being deployed for use in archeology. For example, a system from Apple is now used for the purpose of mapping archeological sites. The core of the system is MiniCAD +, which is an advanced drafting tool with significant database facilities. Some programming languages, like Pascal, can be effectively used for customizing to fit the requirements of archeologists. The data retrieved from a total station can be easily plotted, and the plotting process can be automated. The coordinates can then be fused with previous maps that have already been traced, and then the data can be effectively exhibited on other types of maps as well, including topographic maps and thematic maps. Such a system also allows representation of parts of the maps, including buildings and various sites in three-dimensional format. In addition, it can link the data dynamically to objects on the maps and exhibit the features of that particular object. Later, as and when required, any reports needed can be generated and the data can be analyzed.

Another important application of computers is to generate the codes of objects obtained from excavation sites, based on differences in their attributes and features. An efficient coding scheme is required for effectively distinguishing one object from another. Also, computers are required for interpreting writings from ancient times. For instance, the work of interpreting Mayan inscriptions is going on in Mexico, and the work of interpreting Minoan writings is being carried out in two major projects. Finding locations of sites where the requisite objects can be obtained is also supported by computers, using aerial view photographs of the landscapes. Based on the attributes, the photographs are analyzed and conclusions can be drawn as to whether efforts need to be made for exploring that site. Patterns and trends in the features of the geophysical data are noted and interpretations can then be made.

In general, the use of computers in archeology can be broadly categorized into two major functions [1]: the storage of massive amounts of data collected from the archeological site, and the requisite data analysis. Also, they are used for the purpose of pattern recognition of objects and drawing conclusions based on the observations. The field of computational archeology [2] deals with such analysis of archeological data using mainly software tools. Modeling of archeological data based on the features of the artifacts acquired is a part of computational archeology. Artificial intelligence is applied to develop algorithms for the purpose of computation of archeological data. Journals such as Archeologia e Calcolatori are totally devoted to computational methods used in archaeology. Very advanced statistical analysis is carried out on archeological data, both spatial and temporal in nature. Various probability models are applied to the data, and three-dimensional analysis of artifact distribution is also carried out. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a significant tool that includes storage and analysis of geographic data and is used frequently by archeologists.

2.2.2 Current Research in Digitizing Archeology

1. 1. Archeoguide [3]: The augmented reality-based cultural heritage on-site guide is a tool developed to encapsulate research and education in archeology. A digital electronic device enables users to navigate and explore an archeological site. It makes use of mobile networking and augmented reality with three-dimensional visualization. Both online as well as offline tours can be set up using this device. The architecture (client-server architecture mainly) is shown in Fig. 2.2. The site information server (SIS) is used for transferring the necessary information to the clients via wireless LAN. Mobile systems are carried by users who are exploring the site; users can demand the information in multimedia format from the SIS and it returns the required information based on the coordinates it has retrieved from the GPS and other associated attributes. The accuracy of the coordinates of the users is improved by using a DGPS (differential GPS), placed at a known location whose coordinates are noted with precision. The architecture of archeoguide is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.

   
   

1. 2. Automatic segmentation of words from historical documents [4]: Handwritten historical documents contain large amounts of “noise.” To interpret and decipher them, the initial step is to segment handwritten pages into words (Fig. 2.3). Many conventional algorithms such as gap metrics have been used for this purpose, but this novel research work outperforms the traditional algorithms. To begin with, the historical document is cleansed (margins removed) and then an algorithm such as a gray-level projection profile is applied for the purpose of discovering lines. At various scales, the page is filtered using an anisotropic Laplacian operator. This process produces “blobs,” which are small in scale for characters and larger in scale for words. The challenge is to find an optimized value of the scale for which there are blobs present corresponding to words. The maximum scale of the extent of the blobs is computed, which can be done using several techniques. When the optimum scale is found, the blobs are covered with boxes. The process of segmentation of words is shown in Fig. 2.3.

   
   

1. 3. Reassembling of broken objects from fragments [5]: Many artifacts obtained from archeological excavation sites tend to be broken, for the obvious reason of their antiquity (Fig. 2.4). An important task in this case is reassembling and combining the broken pieces to accurately obtain an approximate shape of the object. To solve this problem, computer-aided reassembling is applied. First, all the fragments are coded based on their features and characteristics such as size, shape, material, texture, etc. Efficient coding schemes, as previously stated, are applied for effective coding of the remains of the objects. Also, techniques involving computer vision along with pattern recognition are applied to retrieve the codes based on the features as displayed in the digitized form of the images of such fragments. Later, shape-matching algorithms are used to match a fragment with another corresponding fragment based on the coded attributes of those fragments. The main problem here is that the computational time and space complexity of exhaustively matching every fragment is extreme. To overcome this problem, recent approaches like multiscale matching are being applied and they have brought about significant reductions in the time complexity of this process.

   
   

1. 4. Analyzing digitized ancient paintings using stochastic models: Efforts are being made to develop methods to characterize ancient paintings. With effective automated methods to characterize and classify ancient paintings, it would be much more time efficient to observe links between artists, taking into consideration the times in which they lived. Image processing (retrieval, mostly), computer vision, and statistical image modeling have all been applied to a large extent for classification of images. Markov random fields (MRFs) have also been used for segmentation (multiresolution) of textured images. Hidden Markov tree (HMT) is another technique used for a similar purpose. Overall, content-based image retrieval (CBIR) has been extensively used for classification and a significant amount of research work is underway to improve the process. One such method is described in [6]. In order to characterize the artist and his paintings, stochastic models are used in combination. In this research work, a two-dimensional multiresolution hidden Markov model (MHMM) is used, which basically works on encapsulating the strokes of the painting. Wavelet transformation is usually applied to obtain the image in the form of relative frequency bands. Process of wavelet transformation has been illustrated in Fig. 2.5.

   
   

1. 5. Virtual restoration of ancient paintings: Various image-enhancement techniques are used for the purpose of producing an image from an original image, so the new image developed is better in resolution and quality than the original. Based on color intensities and variations in the chromaticity of the image, image enhancement is usually applied in some color space. In this research work [7], a new algorithm has been developed that emphasizes color contrast enhancement (Fig. 2.6). It also takes into account lacuna texture synthesis and uses the YUV color space. In order to alter the luminance component as and when required, adaptive histogram equalization is carried out. Also, MRF is used for the purpose of texture analysis.

   
   

1. 6. Simulation of ancient societies: Apart from storing enormous amounts of data and carrying out analysis on historical data, computer technologies can also be applied to virtually simulate ancient societies, thereby providing educational information and knowledge to laymen.
2. 7. Geographic Information System (GIS): The GIS is used for the purpose of management and analysis of spatial data. Interactive tools allow users to manage the data on the maps and many customizations are available to meet user requirements. The GIS provides effective visualization of geographical data. As a matter of fact, GIS and location intelligence technologies are very much required in the field of archeology during the exploration of excavation sites. All the data required by the user has a key index in the form of a space-time location, by which all the unconnected information can be related. Raster and vector forms are the typical ways that the data can be stored in GIS and analyzed accordingly. Capturing of data into the GIS can be done in many ways. For instance, the hard copies of the images of geographical areas can be scanned into a digitized format, which is stored in vector form. GPS can also be used to produce the requisite data in spatial coordinates. GPS can also be used along with laser rangefinders to determine a particular location; a laser rangefinder uses laser beams for the purpose of detecting an object and finding its displacement from the user. Aerial data capturing has also been made feasible using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The foremost purpose in using the GIS is the storage of archeological data while exploring excavation sites, a vital purpose. Predictive modeling and density mapping are carried out once a sufficient amount of data has been collected. The working of GIS has been illustrated in Fig. 2.7.

   
   

1. 8. Remote sensing [9]: This refers to aerial photography of excavation sites in order to retrieve information as required by archeologists. The evolution of remote sensing (Fig. 2.8) techniques has resulted in significant improvements in the photography of excavation sites, with the use of capable sensors. Several areas of the electromagnetic spectrum are useful for remote sensing in archeology, including the visible bands, infrared, and radio microwaves. Digital image processing has come into wide use for remote sensing. LiDAR, Which refers to light detection and ranging, is also being used extensively, along with geometric correction of very high resolution satellite imagery. There are some models that meet cartographic requirements, referred to as digital terrain models. An enormous amount of multispectral and temporal data can be made available, with very high precision, for maps with medium scales using these models. Radio-controlled systems have thermographs used for imaging of excavation sites from low heights. Thermal gradients can also be detected using some modern-day thermo-cameras. Gradients of only a few degrees centigrade can be detected so precise analysis of thermal gradients can be carried out using these tools. Digital elevation models (DEMs) can be used for production of accurate and precise maps that take into account all the environmental parameters in the data collection.

   
   

Remote sensing has been widely used to fulfil cartographic requirements ranging from the development of topographical maps of excavation sites to thematic maps. Hyperspectral sensors are used to produce thematic maps, resulting in maps with very high accuracy. Various supervised algorithms along with some unsupervised methodologies have been employed for the production of such maps. Techniques like fuzzy logic have also been used to determine the relationship in pixels based on semantics. Photogrammetric techniques are used in stereoscopic models to produce digital terrain models. In order to produce DEMs effectively, some cameras, such as airborne frame cameras, use digital image matching. The application of these techniques employs stereo-pairs with diverse modalities.

2.2.3 Computer Assistance in Biological Anthropology

A number of computer applications can be found in each subfield of biological anthropology, as described in the following list:

1. 1. Paleoanthropology [11]: This involves the study of fossils, which requires a great deal of qualitative evaluation. Medical imaging technologies are used for the careful assessment of fossils: computer tomography (CT) is used widely in this field to visualize fossils and gain insights into inaccessible regions of skeletons. Fossil specimens sometimes are required to be reconstructed, which is only possible through computer assistance. CT Scans use X-ray imaging, with data collected from different directions around the fossil specimen. The framework for computer assisted paleoanthropology is illustrated in Fig. 2.9.

   
   

An accurate three-dimensional, virtual construction of a fossil is only possible if the scanning is done from all angles and a sufficient amount of data is collected. The concept of virtual reality (VR) is used for the virtual reconstructions of fossils. Various tools such as computer-aided design (CAD) are used in the development of virtual fossils. CT scanners can also be used for the purpose of paleo-diagnosis, involving qualitative evaluation as well as quantitative assessment of skeleton attributes. Morphometric analysis is carried out using CT scanners as well; this analysis includes the study of some objects with definite shape and size.

1. 2. Primatology [12]: Primatology involves the evaluation and assessment of primates, whether living or extinct. Computers are widely used in this field, in particular biomedical imaging. Various tools were used in the primatological research of [12], including the following:
   1. (a) PAC systems: Picture archiving and communication (PAC) includes workstations with only a display feature, primarily functioning as electronic light boxes.
   2. (b) Diagnostic reporting: Image processing operations like histogram equalization, which involves altering grayscale values, can be carried out.
   3. (c) Manipulation systems: 3D modeling with applications of computer graphics can be done using these systems. This also involves the 3D reconstruction of images with the use of CT scanners (Fig. 2.10).

      
      

1. 3. Behavioral ecology: This field involves the study of how living beings interact in a population, taking into consideration the evolutionary context. It refers to how different living beings adapt to their environment. Computers are being widely used in this field; the following research work [13] shows some of the digital technological aspects of behavioral ecology studies:
   1. (1) A computer-assisted system for photographic mark–recapture analysis [13]: This is an effective and efficient way to analyze and evaluate different types of populations. For the purpose of pattern matching and for fulfilling the purpose of image manipulation, certain types of computer software are required. The following points summarize the paper [13]:
      1. (a) For the purposes of storing digital images, extracting patterns in the digital images, matching the patterns, and mark-recapture, an application has been developed using Java. A scale invariant feature transform (SIFT) operator is used, the purpose of which is to extract distinctive features from digital images.
      2. (b) The application was tested on giraffes of which more than 1200 digital images were taken for the purpose of the study of behavioral ecology. Data of giraffe coat patterns was gathered by matching of digital images, taking into consideration the context of the historical evolution of more than 600 giraffes. The study helps to better understand giraffe evolution. Three-dimensional matching of SIFT features in two pairs of images is carried out.

To carry out the requisite analysis, the photographic mark–recapture tool must satisfy the following conditions prior to the analysis:

1. (a) The species to be analyzed can be captured in two ways:
   1. (1) while free ranging,
   2. (2) using remotely triggered cameras.
2. (b) Certain patterns in the captured animals should distinguish them from the other animals.
3. (c) The pattern must be consistent and should not vary significantly over a notable period of time, considering the evolutionary context.

False acceptance rate (FAR) and false rejection rate (FRR) are used to compute the errors and the performance of the developed application.

1. 4. Computational Behavioral Ecology [14]: More efficient acquisition of information on various types of populations is a result of the latest technologies such as GPS, high-definition (HD) cameras for capturing high-quality digital images, UAVs, crowdsourcing, and sensors. This has resulted in large amounts of data and information used to create datasets for computational evaluation, to fulfil the purpose of population studies conducted by behavioral ecologists, essentially changing how such studies are done. The following list describes some of the work of computational behavioral ecologists:
   1. (1) Video cameras are used extensively for the purpose of tracking insects and smaller animals. Larger animals are made to wear GPS collars with embedded solar batteries, which helps in detection of the animals’ movements.
   2. (2) Computer graphics and computer vision tools are used widely for the determination of the angles at which those animals might be looking.
   3. (3) Research work is taking place on miniature radio antennas for the purpose of tracking birds.
   4. (4) The patterns on animals are key features and attributes that significantly distinguish them from other living beings. Various algorithms such as HotSpotter (developed by Berger-Wolf and colleagues) are used for automating the process of recognition of one type of living being from another.
   5. (5) The Image-Based Ecological Information System (IBIES) was developed for the purpose of detecting living beings and tracking them. SIFT is used in this system.
   6. (6) All the information collected from GPS, sensors, and cameras is eventually used to evaluate the behavior of individuals, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The information involves coordinates of the locations of individuals based on their movements and orientation.
   7. (7) Various learning algorithms are being used to evaluate the behaviors of populations. These include social interaction with other individuals, relationships with other individuals, social behavior, coordinated progression, etc.
   8. (8) Social networks are important in evaluating the behavior of individuals. The significance of coordinated movement of a community is also very relevant in these studies. Most of the decisions made by individual animals are taken when there is a transition from uncoordinated to coordinated movements.
   9. (9) A framework has been created by Berger-Wolf for the purpose of retrieving communities as well as their dynamics in social networks. It helps in determining groups with maximum cohesion. The dynamics of communities include the movements of the animals, the duration of the movements, the locations to which the animals travel, etc.
   10. (10) In order to resolve problems related to social networks, graph theory is extensively used. With all the data acquired, the graph coloring problem produced a network with communities at the minimized total cost (https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/graph-coloring-applications/). Later, principal component analysis (PCA) is applied. This technique of using large datasets and later analyzing and visualizing the data is a very effective way of carrying out the work of behavioral ecology.

1. 5. Bioarchaeology: This field involves the study and analysis of the skeletal remains found in excavation sites. Based on the study of bones and skeletons, a great deal of information about people living in the past is revealed regarding their diet, health and diseases they might have suffered from. As a matter of fact, this type of study also reveals lifestyles and ritual practices. This field is also known as osteoarchaeology. The following list describes the ways in which computers and technology are being employed in osteoarchaeology:
   1. (1) Computer-assisted reconstruction of the skull [15]: This work focuses on the reconstruction of the skull using computer vision and graphics, CT, and stereolithography. The medical computer tomograph was used for data acquisition and some raw data was collected using X-rays. Two-dimensional data of the images was put on a high-performance graphics workstation and the processing of the large amount of information was carried out using the software called “Fossil Reconstruction and Morphometry Interactive Toolkit” (Form-IT). Stereolithographic replication was used as well. There was a need to separate out the original fossil pieces from the heterologous material which was required to be added during the previous process of reconstructing. In order to see the accuracy, computer tomography–based 3D surface representations of the regions were used. Some tools allow the use to make use of a computer mouse to position the pieces. Stereo view equipment was used to perform some of the more complicated spatial tasks, and other tools were also used to perform tasks like 3D morphing.
   2. (2) Computer-assisted reassembly of the skull using laser scanners [16]: In this study, data acquisition is based on high-resolution images retrieved using CT scanning. The research work focused on four 3D models created by a hand-held laser scanner and one model created by automated laser scanner for the purpose of reassembling five skulls. “Freeform modeling,” a computer modeling program, was used for the purpose. The accuracy of the restoration was determined by Geomagic Qualify, a computer program that works on the measurement of the overlap between shells of reassembled and original skulls.
   3. (3) Three-dimensional restitution of damaged skull [17]: This paper describes the reconstruction of a medieval damaged skull. CAD was used, along with rapid prototyping techniques. Three-dimensional models of the damaged skull were created by scanning using lasers to create a digital model. Virtual reconstruction of the parts missing from the skull was carried out using symmetry in accordance with the midsagittal plane. The final design was created using rapid prototyping. Process of reconstruction of damaged skull has been illustrated in Fig. 2.11.

      
      

   4. (4) Automated human bone age evaluation using image processing [18]: Human age analysis from bones can be categorized into two types:
      1. (a) from bones of live humans, carried out using X-rays, MRI, CT scans,
      2. (b) from bones of dead humans, through the forensic study of the bones.
   
   Bone age can be analyzed by evaluating the bones based on length, shape, size, and texture. For the process to be automated, a dataset of the medical images needs to be created, so radiograph images of the living humans can be used. Image-processing methods can be further applied for automating this process. The following are tools for automated age estimation of bones:

• • HANDX software system: The images are enhanced using an algorithm that creates a histogram. The histogram is further classified into categories using a Gaussian distribution function. The bones are outlined using a process of contour adaption. For every bone, the process is repeated. For the purpose of measuring, major and minor axes are determined for each bone and the requisite comparison is made.
• • Computer PACS system and the computer-aided skeletal age scores system (CASAS).
• • Fuzzy logic–based and neural network–based systems.
  1. (5) Three-dimensional analysis of canal network [19]: Cortical bone has a network of canals. Microcomputed tomography (μCT) is used to perform three-dimensional analysis of the canal network (Fig. 2.12).

     
     

1. 6. Paleopathology: This field is concerned with diseases that may have occurred in both humans and animals in the past, which have implications for currently living humans and animals. The diseases are inferred based on the remains found in excavation sites. Dental remains and soft tissues also play a pivotal role in determining diseases that might have occurred, as well as the life history of individual beings. Computers and other technology are being used in the following ways in the study of paleopathology:
   1. (1) Patients suffering from prostate cancer were classified into categories, using bone scanning [21], depending on disease extent. The experiment described in this paper made use of bone scintigraphy.
   2. (2) CT-guided biopsy was used in paleopathological research [22] involving ancient Egyptian mummies, so a detailed diagnosis could be carried out. X-rays were also used. The aim was to detect the pathological materials and predict diseases that might have occurred.
   3. (3) Paleoradiology of dental material [23]: A study of the remains of dental material was carried out through paleoradiology, with analysis carried out using specialized software. Three-dimensional construction was also possible using stereolithography, with a complete anatomy of the remains determined using paleoradiology. Paleoradiology involves the use of X-rays for scanning of remains and it also involves various image-processing techniques for a comprehensive evaluation of remains.
2. 7. Evolutionary psychology: This field involves the analysis and evaluation of psychological aspects of living individuals. Mental abilities, linguistic characteristics, and ways of perceiving things are all a part of this field of study, and it helps in understanding how the psychology of living individuals has resulted in evolutionary changes. This field study is mainly concerned with human psychology. The cognitive characteristics of the human brain are the major focus, and intellectual levels, mating preferences, and foraging characteristics are also studied. Various ways of carrying out cognitive psychology have been depicted (Fig. 2.13). Computers and the latest technologies and methodologies are widely applied in this field of study, as described in the following list):

   
   

   1. (1) Brain imaging: Computers are widely used in scanning the sections of the brain. For instance, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is used to scan the brain at regular time intervals. The person is made to perform some task to be analyzed and the 3D imaging of the brain of that person is done at regular time intervals. The flow of the blood is also monitored during the brain analysis. The blood flow helps in the analysis of neural activities being carried out in the brain.
   2. (2) Data collection: Computers are used to carry out surveys among different types of individuals in the form of questionnaires, to deduce the psychological thinking of the humans being studies. All the results are stored on the computer.
   3. (3) Cognitive psychology using computer games and computer graphics [25]: In this study computer games with heavy computer graphics were used to monitor behavioral characteristics of users. Artificial intelligence techniques were applied to development of models for the purpose of cognitive studies. A specifically designed computer graphics test called COGNITO was used.
   4. (4) Using AI (artificial intelligence) for cognitive study [26]: AI techniques are extensively used for the purpose of carrying out a cognitive psychology study. For the purpose of data acquisition, techniques like positron emission tomography (PET) are used to obtain head scans (brain). AI techniques involving the use of machine learning and deep learning focus on mimicking human tasks such as basic conversation. Companies such as IBM have been working on these techniques involving information processing. Reinforcement learning techniques and models are also being applied, along with computer vision, to carry out research in this field. In order to understand the processes involving mental stimuli of humans, decision-making problems need to be taken into consideration when applying AI techniques. Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) and data mining techniques are also used in the process. Robotic process automation (RPA) is also used to fulfill the purpose. Role of Artificial intelligence in cybernetics has been described in Fig. 2.14.

      
      

1. 8. Evolutionary biology: This field concerns the evolutionary processes that resulted in the biological life forms on earth, with their huge diversity. Natural selection of individual living beings is studied as a part of this field. The beginnings of life on earth are studied, as well as the adaptability of living beings to different environments. Simulation of life forms using computers plays a vital role in understanding the evolution of living beings. The following list describes some of the uses of computers in evolutionary biology:
   1. (1) Biological computers [27]: Special kinds of microcomputers are developed for medical applications. These are used for analyzing cells, DNA, RNA, etc.
   2. (2) Bioinformatics: Analysis and evaluation of medical datasets are carried out in this field of study. For instance, DNA and RNA sequences are analyzed. The Basic Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) uses algorithms based on alignment of sequences. After processing and pattern matching techniques are applied, useful information on the nucleotide is revealed. The structure of proteins can be changed by altering the orientations of amino acids and changes in the energies can visualized for different orientations.
   3. (3) Use of Bayes function for phylogeny [28]: Phylogeny refers to the study of living beings in an evolutionary context, involving the classification of those living beings based on their characteristics. Using Bayes inference, which is based on conditional probabilities, brings a new perspective to phylogeny. The Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm is implemented in the study.
2. 9. Genetics: This involves the analysis and evaluation of the genes found in living organisms and the study of heredity. The DNA and RNA that constitute a gene are also studied thoroughly as a part of this field. Computers are being widely used in the field of genetics [29]. The following list describes some of the applications of computer technology in the field of genetics:
   1. (1) Sequencing of DNA: Sequencing and sorting of DNA fragments is carried out in an automated way (Fig. 2.15). Each strand of fragment is color coded for recognition by the device and eventually, after the process is carried out, the whole genome sequence is obtained.

      
      

   2. (2) Storing of genetic data in databases: The huge amount of data retrieved from the sequencing of DNA needs to be stored somewhere and is typically stored in databases. For instance, Genbank is one database in which information on DNA sequences is stored.
   3. (3) Bioinformatics for genetic information: Analysis of genes and the requisite evaluation is carried out using the latest computer technologies, such as software systems like BLAST. Similar patterns between the sequences of DNA are analyzed, and the unmatched DNA sequences can be found by matching them with already determined sequences. BLAST actually performs similarity matching between the sequences. The mechanisms used in the development of the search engines are applied to the BLAST system software for similarity matching.
3. 10. Anthropometry: This field involves the study of the measurements of the human body and, in particular, analysis of the variations in these measurements. All the measurements, including height, weight, and organ measurements, are carried out and then correlated with the traits of those humans. In [31], it has been shown how anthropometry of human body has been carried out for the designing of desks of students in educational institutes.

Computers are widely used in the field of anthropometry. The following list describes some of the uses of computers in this field:

1. (1) NIH image system [32]: This software system is used for the analysis of lip measurements. Data of the measurements of distances between the lip and the nose is acquired, after which regression analysis is performed. On the basis of lip scores and nose scores, the degree of deformity is produced as the output.
2. (2) CADANS design [33]: This project focuses on the 3D scanning of the human body to take measurements. Three-dimensional models for carrying out anthropometry are created and are later integrated using CAD.
3. (3) Photo-anthropometric evaluation of faces [34]: Various closed-circuit television (CCTV) images need to be carefully evaluated and analyzed for criminal cases. Software has been specially developed for the analysis of such images. Morphological comparison of the various attributes and the facial features is carried out. In photo-anthropometry, as well as the distances between various parts, the angles are also taken into consideration.

2.2.4 Cultural Anthropology

This field is concerned with the cultural practices existing within human populations, including variations in the cultures, traditions, and beliefs in people of different populations and different geographical locations. The impact of their cultural beliefs and ideologies on the world around them is a major area of focus.

Applications of computers in cultural anthropology mostly include data analytics [35], with techniques such as linear regression, linear programming, the chi-squared method, etc. The chi-squared method is significantly used for analyzing data based on cross-cultural information. The economies of different cultures are also studied in depth. Decision making through linear programming models is carried out.

Ethnography is the related study of the differences in the customs of different peoples. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDA) is widely used in ethnography, along with grounded theory analysis. Computer-aided surveys and interviews are carried out and the data collected are stored in a database.

2.2.5 Linguistic Anthropology

The impact of the language of a particular social group on their social life is studied in linguistic anthropology. The evolutionary aspects of a social group, taking into account the evolution of their language, are also studied. How a language influences the social life of a population is a very important factor. As a matter of fact, language is at least partly responsible for influencing the ideologies and beliefs of different cultures. Computers are used to store information in databases on the linguistic features of different languages and the social lives of corresponding groups of people. Image-processing techniques can be used for the recognition of various languages found in the manuscripts being studied.