Leadership

1

Success on any program or project requires strong leadership from the program or project manager. According to the Project Management Institute (PMI):

• A leader “guides, inspires, and motivates team members and other project stakeholders to manage and overcome issues to effectively achieve project objectives” (2007, p. 23). Leadership is a key personal competency for the project manager.

• Leadership is important throughout all phases of a project‧s life cycle, but it is especially essential for communicating the project‧s vision and then inspiring the team to achieve high performance (2008a, p. 240).

• Leadership “is the process that will facilitate project goal achievement” (1987, p. F-6).

• “Leadership skills are needed for managing multiple project teams throughout the program life cycle” (2008c, p.13). Program managers must establish the overall direction of the program through their leadership of the program management team.

In the third edition of the PMBOK^(r) Guide (PMI 2004), John Kotter writes that both leadership and management are necessary in order to produce outstanding results, but management is more concerned with “consistently producing key results expected by stakeholders” (p. 24), while leadership involves establishing direction and aligning, motivating, and inspiring people. This edition of the PMBOK^(r) Guide stresses the importance of project managers as leaders, especially on large projects, but it also emphasizes that any team member can demonstrate leadership at any time in a variety of ways.

Adams and Campbell (1982) write that the “most important function of a manager, but oftentimes the least mentioned, is the leadership function. This is also true for the manager of a project” (p. 3). They explain that leading a project team requires skills, knowledge, and the ability to communicate with a diverse group of people who represent different functions and backgrounds. They understand the challenges of leading in a matrix management environment but warn that project managers without leadership ability may never see their projects completed.

Project managers tend to gradually acquire leadership skills early in their project careers and then sharpen them as they work on more complex projects and with more seasoned project managers. Project managers must be not only leaders but also managers, facilitators, and mentors. This chapter describes these key roles.

The Importance of Leadership in Program and Project Management

In many ways, program and project managers face more leadership challenges than functional or operational managers. Programs and projects may have more stakeholders than functional or operational teams, and they may not all be easy to identify. Organizational structures are often less clear in a program or project environment.

The primary difference between relationships in a program and project management environment and those in a functional or operational management structure is that the latter are more stable. The relationship between the functional or operational manager and the employee is ongoing. This means they can work together to formulate a career path for the employee that enhances his or her skills and enables him or her to pursue roles with greater responsibility over time. The employee is not concerned about what his or her role will be in the organization once the program or project ends or when his or her specific tasks on the program and project are completed. He or she has security in the organization. Also, the mission the employee must fulfill is generally clear, and the employee can relate to the strategic goals of the organization and the vision or desired state from his or her position within the functional unit. Formal and informal operating methods tend to remain constant. Additionally, program and project work requires people to work with others whom they may not have worked with in the past, but within the functional unit, the employee can develop longer-lasting relationships with peers. These help build lasting trust and can make the work experience a more enjoyable one.

Identifying Stakeholders

The functional or operational manager tends to have fewer stakeholders than does a program or project manager. This means that it is not necessary for functional or operational managers to prepare a stakeholder management plan, and over time, people get to know the key stakeholders with whom they work on a daily basis. Because the reporting relationships are known, it is easier to manage upward.

Relationships are less clear cut in program or project situations. For each new program or project, the program and project managers must identify the key stakeholders that will be involved and must ensure that a key stakeholder is not overlooked.

PMI (2008a) suggests several ways project managers can identify stakeholders and determine the influence and impact they may have on the project. These include using power/interest, power/influence, or influence/impact grids or a salience model. The power/interest approach evaluates the stakeholder‧s level of authority and his or her level of concern. The power/influence approach assesses the stakeholder‧s power on the project versus his or her active involvement. The influence/impact grid evaluates the stakeholder‧s active involvement and his or her ability to effect change on the project. The salience model evaluates the stakeholder‧s power—e.g., the ability to impose his or her will, his or her level of urgency, his or her legitimacy, or his or her level of involvement in the project.

Using Smith‧s (2000) approach, project managers identify each stakeholder‧s interests in the project and estimate each stakeholder‧s priority and the potential impact (high, medium, or low) he or she will have on the project. Smith then suggests that project managers prepare a stakeholder importance/ influence matrix and describe the extent of stakeholders’ participation in the project in each phase (initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing). The project manager can then use this information to determine how best to work with each stakeholder and to prepare a stakeholder register and a stakeholder management strategy, which are both outputs of the “identify stakeholders” process outlined in the PMBOK(r) Guide (PMI 2008a).

But it is not enough to identify the stakeholders and prepare a strategy. Project managers must actively engage stakeholders throughout the project as planned and manage communications with them to see if they are interested in other aspects of the project. This active management of stakeholder expectations, as noted in the PMBOK(r) Guide (PMI 2008a), can increase the likelihood of project success because the stakeholders will feel a sense of ownership in the project.

Cleland and Ireland (2007) also note the importance of active stakeholder involvement in their five-step model, in which the project manager defines the key issues, then determines the underlying factors surrounding these issues, identifies the key stakeholders, identifies the specific “stake” each one has in the project, and finally modifies the project‧s strategy in light of the stakeholder analysis and the stakeholders’ commitment to the project.

Milosevic (2003) recommends that project managers prepare a stakeholder matrix, listing stakeholders and the factors that are keys to success for the project. Table 1-1 presents an example.

To prepare this matrix, the project manager can use tools such as brainstorming (all team members discuss ideas freely), the nominal group technique (all team members speak without interruption or criticism), and Delphi analysis (experts participate anonymously, assisted by a facilitator, to help the group reach consensus and to prevent one person from dominating the discussion). The project manager must then document the matrix and update it throughout the project‧s life cycle. Milosevic explains that such a matrix is particularly useful while planning a project, but it also helps foster overall project team development because it informs the team members of the stakeholders’ key success factors, which will help the team develop a stakeholder management strategy.

Table 1-1 Example Stakeholder Matrix

Stakeholder	Key Success Factor
Sponsor	Meeting the business case goals for the project
Project Manager	Ensuring the project is on time, within budget, according to specifications
Portfolio Manager	Ensuring the project supports the organization‧s strategic goals and objectives
Team Members	Completing their assigned tasks
Functional Managers	Ensuring team members complete work quickly so they can return to the functional unit
Finance Managers	Ensuring the project achieves its desired return on investment
Marketing Managers	Ensuring the deliverable is the first to market
Customers	Ensuring the project meets their needs and expectations

At the program level, PMI (2008c) devotes a knowledge area to stakeholder management. This knowledge area focuses on identifying the program‧s stakeholders in terms of how each one affects or will affect the program—for example, a stakeholder‧s influence on the culture of the organization, as well as any major issues associated with a stakeholder—and then developing a strategy to promote active stakeholder engagement, which will ensure acceptance of the program‧s deliverables, objectives, and benefits. At the program level, the emphasis is broader; in most cases, programs, which have a larger scope and longer duration, involve far more stakeholders and interdependencies than projects. PMI also notes the importance of stakeholder management to successfully implementing changes in an organization.

Both program and project managers must recognize that stakeholder management is a key success factor. It cannot be addressed in a document prepared at the beginning of the life cycle. It is an iterative and ongoing process. New stakeholders will become interested in or gain influence over the program or project, while others may no longer have an interest in the program or project at certain points.

The key stakeholder management skills required of program and project managers include:

• The ability to quickly identify the needs and expectations of a stakeholder.

• A high level of personal confidence. Program and project managers must be able to effectively work with stakeholders who hold various positions in the organization, customers, and the public.

• An ability to adapt their style of communication when interacting with stakeholders, given their personalities and specific interests and influence on the program or project.

• A willingness to embrace change and diverse points of view, which will help the program or project manager develop mutually agreeable solutions to problems or issues that may arise.

Clarifying Organizational Structure

Another key challenge for program and project managers is the lack of clarity of the structure of the organization. Program and project teams, whether they work virtually or are co-located, come together for a certain period of time and then disband. Especially in a virtual environment, team members may be subject matter experts that only join the program or project team for certain specific tasks. Further, it is rare for people to work on only a single program or project, unless they are a member of its core team and assigned to it for much of its duration. The organizational structure of programs and projects is, therefore, nebulous.

Further, in matrix environments (discussed in more detail in the introduction), the program or project manager‧s authority can range from low to high. A weak matrix or project-coordinator–type structure in which the project manager does not have much authority is typical for smaller projects, while for larger programs and projects, working within a strong matrix, and, sometimes, using a projectized approach, is more common and gives program or project managers a higher degree of authority. The organizational structure may change during the life of the program or project, especially if the program‧s or project‧s priority in terms of the organization‧s portfolio changes. As noted by PMI (2008c), different types of organizational structures may be used for the project and nonproject work that composes a program. Still, the project or program manager‧s level of authority may not be equal to that of a functional or operational manager. Both the nebulous organizational structures and the different levels of authority mean program and project managers must have sophisticated people skills, including:

• A high tolerance for ambiguity

• Personal comfort in operating with a dual focus (such as applying technical skills while also operating as a generalist)

• The ability to change direction quickly if needed and to lead the change within the team

• Skill in creating group cohesion, without encouraging groupthink or “management by agreement” (see Chapter 8 for more on the risks of too much agreement)

• Personal confidence that enables the program or project manager to undertake a significant endeavor without knowing in advance all the issues, risks, and other problems that may arise

Program and project managers can develop skills such as tolerance for ambiguity, strong self-confidence, and comfort with relinquishing control by:

• Becoming involved in mentoring relationships

• Volunteering for assignments outside their usual work

• Seeking open and honest feedback from peers and others in the organization regarding the effectiveness of their work

• Taking classes and workshops in other fields to get exposure to new ideas and new ways of working.

Leveraging Resources

The functional manager also benefits more from greater consistency of resources than does the program or project manager. While this book‧s focus is on human resources, other resources also are required at certain phases in the life cycle of a program or project. Because the functional manager has a long-term working relationship with those in his or her department, he or she is aware of the technical and interpersonal strengths and weaknesses of each employee and may have worked with individuals on developing their prospective career paths. This relationship enables the functional or operational manager to:

• Apply the strengths of the people in the unit more effectively

• Avoid problems by assigning people to tasks they are likely to perform successfully.

Also, because the working relationship at the functional or operational level is ongoing, a manager can develop the human resources of the unit. He or she may:

• Create and monitor ongoing personal development plans for each employee to enhance his or her technical and interpersonal skills, thus improving the talent pool

• Be involved in hiring and promoting individuals in the unit

• • Provide other rewards and recognition in addition to salary advances.

Program and project managers face different challenges. First, they must establish at the inception of the program or project the knowledge, skills, and competencies required to achieve the program‧s or project‧s goals and complete the deliverables. Then they must determine how they will acquire the needed resources, when the resources will be needed, for how long they will be needed, and how they will be released to their functional or operational unit at the program‧s or project‧s conclusion. This information constitutes the resource management plan.

Then the program or project manager must negotiate with functional and operational managers, as well as with the human resources department, to acquire the needed human resources and to ensure that they are available when they are needed. Outsourcing may be necessary, so make-or-buy decisions may have to be made for both human resources and other resources.

Once the resources have been acquired, there are other challenges. The program or project manager:

• Must quickly assess the strengths and weaknesses of each team member (usually, team members have not previously worked for the program or project manager).

• Has little control over the human resource component; often, the resources are preassigned to the team by someone else.

• Has little time or authority to prepare long-term professional development plans for a poorly performing team member—or any team member. Often, the program or project manager must work with whoever is assigned to a specific work package but may not be able to provide training to team members to improve their skills and competencies while program or project work is underway.

• Must determine through a resource assignment matrix the specific roles and responsibilities of the team members for the various tasks or activities to be performed on the program or project.

• Has limited control over recognition and rewards for outstanding work done by the team as a whole or by specific individuals on the team.

To be able to work effectively within these human resource constraints, the program or project manager must have:

• The ability to quickly and accurately assess the strengths, weaknesses, and personalities of people he or she may never even meet, especially if work is performed in a virtual environment

• The ability to focus more on the strengths of each team member.

It is difficult to develop these skills, but there are approaches that can help:

• Becoming familiar with a system that describes individual personality differences, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or McClelland‧s achievement motivation approach.

• Making a conscious effort to identify some positive aspects of all negative professional situations.

Leveraging Motivation

It is simpler for the functional or operational manager to motivate his or her employees than it is for the program or project manager. In a functional or operational unit, relationships are long-term. Employees realize that they need to meet the expectations of their manager: He or she has the power to give raises, promotions, and assignments, and he or she also has a significant impact on each employee‧s career direction. Employees’ performance development plans or management by objectives plans usually support those of their departmental manager, and their contributions further the department‧s goals and objectives. They prepare these plans with assistance from their manager. As they work to execute these plans, they can seek managerial feedback on ways to improve and to meet their goals and objectives. Contrast this situation with that of the program or project manager, who often has no opportunity to contribute formal feedback on team members’ performance to the functional or operational manager.

Program and project managers face a far more difficult task in motivating team members. In a matrix setting, whether it is strong or weak, the program or project manager has little control over team member assignments and availability and must lead the team through influence and motivation rather than through direction. These managers must truly be skilled in influencing behavior creatively, using “carrots” as often as possible. To motivate team members effectively through influence, program and project managers need two key people skills:

• The ability to motivate team members through knowledge of their personal styles and their career stage

• The ability to apply sophisticated interpersonal communications skills.

The Four Key Leadership Functions of Program and Project Managers

A project manager must be able to play four different leadership roles throughout the project or program life cycle to complete a project on time, within budget, according to specifications, and to the customer‧s satisfaction. The program manager must take on these roles to deliver the program‧s intended benefits along with its deliverables (Flannes and Levin 2001, 2005). The roles include:

• Leader

• Manager

• Facilitator

• Mentor.

These four key roles are summarized in Table 1-2.

It is important not to think of these four roles as occurring in isolation. Instead, the program or project manager must recognize he or she is fulfilling these roles each day under different circumstances. Even as a project manager, for example, is having a one-on-one conversation with a team member, he or she may need to seamlessly move from one role to another.

Generally, project or program managers are comfortable operating in one or two of the four roles. In one‧s own development, one should concentrate on improving competencies in all of the four roles, but especially in those one does not use on a regular basis. Developing improved competencies in these areas may be an element the program or project manager includes in his or her individual development plan.

Table 1-2 The Four Roles of a Leader

The Program or Project Manager as Leader

The leadership role is critical to program and project success. As noted by Shenhar, Levy, Dvir, and Maltz (2007), it is necessary to “turn project managers into leaders” and “make them responsible for business results” (p. 25). To do so, the authors suggest that project managers must create an “inspiring vision, and develop an appropriate project spirit”(p. 28).

For example, when a program begins, the vision or end state is articulated in a business case for the program. It is further developed in the program manager‧s charter. When the charter is approved and the program manager is appointed, he or she then expands this charter by developing the program management plan. Each component project in the program must also have its own business case, and the program manager must ensure that this business case supports the overall program‧s vision or desired end state. This vision is why the program or project is undertaken and shows the added value of the program or project not only to the organization but also to its customers and any valued partners. This vision further must support the organization‧s objectives as shown in its strategic plan and in its portfolio.

In working to describe the vision, the program or project manager (or the sponsor, if the program or project management plan is prepared before the program or project manager is assigned) must integrate the perspectives of numerous stakeholders, most importantly those of the customer, the organization‧s executives, the portfolio review board or similar group, and other key stakeholders. To determine the vision, the program or project manager must actively engage these individuals to ensure that the true purpose is captured and that it is one they will support throughout the life cycle. If the program or project manager does not develop a clear statement of the overall vision, this only will lead to problems, such as scope creep, lack of customer acceptance of the final products, extensive change requests, and poor team morale.

Then the program or project manager must describe the vision in explicit terms so that the team members understand it, are committed to it, and understand why the program or project is being undertaken. (Regarding a case study of a high-tech project, Shenhar et al. (2007) noted that because the project vision that was part of the proposal was not well articulated to the project teams, it was essentially “lost,” and the program plan had to be redesigned twice.) The program or project manager must also note any implied goals that may not be obviously stated and the customer‧s definition of added value. If the program or project manager is confident that executive management and the customer support the vision, the program and project will begin with motivation and purpose.

At your program or project team‧s kickoff meeting, ensure that everyone is comfortable with the overall vision and has a common understanding of it. Discuss the vision with the team, then craft it into a statement that the team will support and will sign off on in the team‧s charter.

To make sure everyone involved understands and agrees to the program or project vision, the program or project manager should:

• Ask probing questions that demonstrate an interest in taking initial discussions beyond the general level.

• Notice what the customer is saying and not saying. If there are multiple customers, talk with each of them to define objectives and requirements.

• Clarify perceptions of the program or project‧s purpose, ensuring that the program or project manager, the customer, and other key stakeholders are all working toward the same goals and objectives.

While it is important to discuss the vision at the program‧s or project‧s kick-off meeting, this is not a one-time discussion. At each team meeting, the vision should be reviewed, especially if the program or project is long and complex. External or internal environmental changes may necessitate changing the vision in some way or altering the overall priority of the program or project in the organization‧s portfolio.

This discussion is not a one-way discussion in which the leader makes a formal briefing; instead, it is interactive. Each team member should be encouraged to participate and define the vision in his or her own words. This approach has more meaning for each team member and allows the team to be more engaged in the process.

The program or project manager also demonstrates his or her role as a leader in the early stage of the program or project as he or she establishes personal credibility with the team members. Establishing such credibility—or “walking the talk”—involves demonstrating actions and behaviors that are consistent with verbally espoused values or decision-making processes.

For project managers, leadership as a personal competency involves creating a team environment that fosters high performance, building and maintaining relationships, motivating and mentoring team members, taking accountability for the project, and using influencing skills as needed (PMI 2007).

Congruence between actions and spoken values, including maintaining commitments, demonstrating fair treatment, acting with integrity, and taking ownership for adverse project outcomes, is essential to creating a motivating climate. Leaders striving for congruence:

• Demonstrate their own values through their day-to-day work

• Refrain from making promises that may not be possible to keep because of organizational resource limitations, political constraints, or internal or external factors outside one‧s control. Instead, they explain why it is not possible to promise to do so.

• Seek feedback from a mentor, coach, or supportive peer regarding how congruent one‧s behavior is with one‧s stated values.

Leadership for both program and project managers also involves serving as the team‧s voice when communicating with external stakeholders, including the public. The leader should communicate actively and consistently with internal and external stakeholders by:

• Supporting and obtaining buy-in to program or project goals and benefits

• Providing updates and progress reports regularly and upon request

• Addressing conflict and resolving issues in a proactive, productive, and forthright manner.

In summary, the program or project manager‧s leader role involves answering the question “Why are we doing this program or project?” by describing the program‧s or project‧s vision and mission and the added value and benefits the completed program or project will bring.

The Program or Project Manager as Manager

One of the people-related challenges program and project managers face is creating an administrative system that has enough structure and discipline to complete the program or project but is not excessively bureaucratic. According to PMI, the manager‧s role is to “effectively administer … the project through the deployment and use of human, financial, material, intellectual, and intangible resources” (2007, p. 23). More specifically, PMI says that managing requires building and maintaining a team, planning and managing for project success in an organized way, and resolving conflicts involving the team or other stakeholders.

It is difficult to create an effective administrative system. The balance between structure and freedom for team members varies from project to project or program to program, depending on the mix of the individuals on the team, even if the organization already has an administrative system in place that is supported by its enterprise program management office (EPMO). Such structures often need tailoring to meet the specific needs of each program or project; some aspects of the system may be appropriate, while others may not be needed. The program or project manager must determine, in conjunction with the team, what should be retained and what is not needed, given the uniqueness of the program and project.

There are a number of indications that program or project managers are successfully executing the manager role:

• Team member roles and responsibilities provide a clear source of direction, while still giving each team member opportunities to define his or her own plan to complete them. This can be done by using a resource assignment matrix (or responsible, accountable, consult, inform [RACI] chart) tied to the work breakdown structure that shows specific responsibilities for each team member (e.g., approve, coordinate, review, perform, accountable, or consult) based on specific work packages that have been assigned.

• Processes and procedures state clear behavioral and performance expectations as guidelines rather than as strict rules that must be followed without exception. Managers should carefully consider which aspects of a methodology must be followed and which are optional based on the specific requirements of the program or project.

• Meetings are purposeful and focused, providing opportunities to balance the need to dissent and discuss decisions and seek closure. As appropriate, a meeting can even be held to review the structure and methodologies in place to see if improvements are needed.

The program or project manager who successfully functions as a manager explains to team members the rationale for what some may think is excessive structure. Managers should recognize that some team members have difficulty operating in a structured environment. In these discussions, managers can discuss making structures more flexible if possible (after consulting with the EPMO, if applicable), and they should make clear that they want to complete the program or project and transition it to the customer or an operational function with minimal bureaucracy.

Personal preferences and style will also affect the way the program or project manager executes the managerial role. Some people have a tendency to create excessive structure (in other words, become too controlling), while others may create too little structure, adopting a more laissez-faire approach to managing, even if this lack of structure diverges from the EPMO‧s or organization‧s requirements.

An overcontrolling manager has difficulty prioritizing how best to spend his or her time and often focuses on tasks that may better be handled by others. Although well-intentioned, such a program or project manager strives for excessive structure and order, perhaps reflecting his or her doubt that things will work out as planned. This type of leader often struggles with anxiety and personal stress and is frequently unaware of how his or her behavior affects the attitude and morale of program and project team members.

Team members working for such a micromanager may:

• Feel frustrated and angry about being overstructured or overmanaged, especially if they have extensive experience in successful program or project management

• Lose motivation to complete assigned work packages and activities

• Believe that they are undervalued or unappreciated or that the manager does not trust them to do their assigned work.

If a program or project manager suspects that he or she is at risk of becoming a micromanager, he or she should seek regular feedback from the team. Ask direct questions, because team members tend not to volunteer their opinions of their managers, or send out an anonymous survey, perhaps from an independent source such as the EPMO, to gather honest opinions.

Conversely, the laissez-faire manager tends to create too little structure for the team, allowing many details or processes to drift. This person may place too much trust in the team members, especially if he or she has worked with the team members in the past and knows their strengths and weaknesses. This type of manager also may overlook matters such as compliance with the program or project management methodology required by EPMO (or a comparable group) and may not be concerned with timely completion of work packages and activities. Laissez-fare managers often enjoy creating the program or project vision but are less interested in implementing the vision on a tactical level.

If a manager errs on the side of creating too little structure, there are several risks:

• Deliverables, compliance, and monitoring may suffer.

• New team members may not know what is required of them; no one will show them the team‧s operating guidelines.

• Team members may be anxious and hesitant about how to proceed because they believe they do not have sufficiently specific guidance to be successful.

• Stakeholders may not receive the information they need, so they may not support the program or project in a positive way, becoming uninterested, uninvolved, or even outwardly negative.

Clearly, the “right” place to be on the continuum between overcontrol and undercontrol is in the middle. A manager who takes a moderate approach establishes a structure that team members follow, but he or she allows enough autonomy and flexibility to enable team members to be creative when completing their assigned work. It is difficult to define the ideal point on the continuum between overcontrol and undercontrol, but there are several indicators of an appropriate balance between extremes:

• Team members report that appropriate procedures are in place for the team to operate autonomously.

• These procedures are documented in a team charter, which all members sign to demonstrate their commitment to them.

• Key work can be tracked and monitored.

• Team members demonstrate positive attitudes, initiative, and creativity.

• The team prepares basic reports to stakeholders that are easy to read and understand, are not time consuming to prepare and read, and provide the stakeholders with the necessary information on progress and status.

The Program or Project Manager as Facilitator

Facilitation is one of the most subtle yet profound roles program and project managers can assume. As a program or project facilitator, the manager demonstrates behaviors and attitudes that can help others get their work done. The program or project manager does not do team members’ work for them; instead, he or she sets the stage for success. PMI (2008c) recommends that the program manager prepare high-level plans to guide project and operational managers working on the program and specifically states that the role of the program manager is not to do the work of other managers working on the program.

Facilitation often is achieved through the art of influencing others. It entails communicating effectively, resolving conflicts, obtaining needed resources, and motivating people, both individually and as a team. A key role of the program manager is to resolve any conflicts a project manager feels he or she cannot resolve on his or her own, especially if these conflicts may affect another project or other work on the program. A program manager may also step in to help a project manager determine the most appropriate response to a risk, whether the risk is perceived as an opportunity or as a threat, particularly if the risk might affect another project in the program.

Facilitators make use of the following people skills:

• Using clear, explicit statements to get to the point

• Asking open-ended questions, such as “What else do you think our team should do to be successful on this project?” or “How can I best help you to resolve your conflict?”

• Being a good listener by trying to recognize the key points of the speaker‧s message

• Asking for clarification as needed by asking if their understanding is correct

• Demonstrating a willingness to behave assertively and to do whatever it takes, considering professional and social responsibility, to assist the project manager or the team member, even if this means not being liked by a key stakeholder.

Facilitation as a management skill can be compared with the task of planning and orchestrating the details for a dinner party. The host of the party does his or her best to consider the needs of the guests, to obtain the items needed for the event, and to create an atmosphere appropriate for the gathering. As the guests arrive, the host continues facilitating the event by offering choices to the guests and doing what he or she can to create a positive experience.

However, this is where “facilitation” ends. The host cannot make the people have a good time. Facilitation provides them with the resources they need, but the creation of fun is up to the guests themselves.

The goal of facilitation is to provide team members with choices, options, and a conductive setting and then trust that the team will create the sought-after outcomes and benefits. It is not the program or project manager‧s job to create the solution on his or her own—that is up to the team.

Further, as the program or project manager helps team members resolve conflicts, responds to potential risks, and acquires needed resources in a productive and effective manner, he or she demonstrates that he or she is an adept facilitator. If the program or project manager is able to respond to potential resource issues—e.g., the program or project requires a specialized technical expert—in advance and successfully attains the needed resources, the team will see that the program or project manager supports and is dedicated to them and their work.

Facilitation requires that the program or project manager not get too involved in the details or substance of the program or project. Such immersion in the details, while intellectually stimulating, can become a way to avoid some of the less pleasant aspects of being a facilitator, such as the need to be assertive to make things happen for the team and stakeholders. The assertiveness component of the facilitator role can be developed through training, feedback from sponsors or peers, reading books, mentoring and coaching, and in workshops on assertive behavior. In addition to assertiveness, PMI (2007) urges project managers to take the initiative when needed and assume calculated risks to expedite the completion of a project.

As facilitators, program, and project managers should prevent inconclusive discussions by recognizing that consensus, while desirable, often cannot be obtained, and appropriate actions and decisions must be taken, especially if the program or project is in a crisis situation. They also must make timely decisions, be persistent, and show consistency in their actions.

The Program or Project Manager as Mentor

Mentoring is the process by which one person (the mentor) assists another person (the mentee) either formally or informally in various tasks related to professional development and growth. The purpose of mentoring is to share the lessons the program or project manager has learned from experience to improve the capability of other individuals or the program or project team as a whole. Mentoring relationships can be informal or more formal, designed to emphasize improvements in knowledge, skills, and competencies.

Establishing mentoring relationships with team members is a PMI leadership performance criterion (2007). Mentoring is a valuable contribution to team member performance and development, but it is a service that needs to be offered with care. Some team members may not wish to be in a mentoring relationship, especially if it is with their program or project manager; they may prefer to work with someone who is not part of the program or project team, perhaps in their functional organization or even in another business unit or department. Nonetheless, the program or project manager can informally mentor a current team member by offering the mentoring input in a casual and indirect manner that aids the team member‧s growth and also addresses current work on the program or project. This kind of informal mentoring is especially useful when new people join the team so they can understand the purpose of the program or project, the methods the team is using to do its work, and the overall policies, procedures, and guidelines in place in the organization.

Mentoring may call upon the program or project manager to demonstrate the following people skills, depending on the needs of the individual and the current needs of the program or project.

• Serving as a role model: the program or project leader clearly demonstrates skills, behaviors, and attitudes whose adoption may benefit team members

• Demonstrating a genuine, personal interest in the welfare and professional growth of team members and, as appropriate, providing counseling or advice concerning team members’ problems and one-on-one personal attention

• Offering suggestions, possibilities, resources, problem-solving approaches, and opportunities to discuss with team members how certain situations were handled, current and future issues regarding their assigned work, and improvements team members can make in the use of processes, tools, and techniques

• Providing feedback that is supportive yet frank and accurate, reinforcing successes while portraying failures as learning opportunities that can spur team members to improve their knowledge, skills, and competencies

• Motivating team members to set and achieve long-term professional goals and to overcome any barriers that may impact career growth, including identifying any needed changes in attitudes or interpersonal style.

During the more intense periods of a project, for example in a program during the delivery of program benefits phase, most interactions between the program or project manager and team members are focused on real-time issues and risks. Focusing on mentoring during these periods is not appropriate and should wait until work demands are lessened. During quieter times, the program or project manager, in the mentor‧s role, and the team member can debrief each other about recent work. The mentor can then offer formal or informal guidance about how the team member could approach particular situations in the future.

In program management, often the mentoring relationship is between the program manager and his or her project managers. Sometimes the projects are already underway before the program is officially approved. Then the mentor‧s role may be to help the project managers see how their projects fit into the program, to assist the project managers in their work with their teams, and to help the project managers understand the vision for the program and why the projects are now being managed as part of the program.

The program manager also can help the project manager develop various project management plans to ensure that the project plans support the benefits and goals of the program and to point out interdependencies with other projects in the program. Additionally, program managers can help project managers resolve issues, respond to risks, or resolve conflicts.

Sometimes a team member will request feedback from the program or project manager; other times, he or she will not ask for feedback but will be receptive if it is offered. Program and project managers should pay attention to the team members’ personalities and motivational styles to identify individuals who might be receptive to mentoring.

In many organizations, mentoring relationships work best as formal ones between, for example, a project manager and a person on another project team. Such a relationship enables both parties to focus more clearly on the developmental needs of the mentee, without the distractions associated with both parties working on the same project. Regardless, whenever mentoring takes place, its effectiveness should be evaluated by the mentor, the mentee, and others on the program or project using one-on-one interviews or surveys.

It is important to carefully select mentors. Typically, mentors volunteer for these assignments, but they must be evaluated to determine if they have the required interpersonal skills and competencies to assist team members or the entire team. It is recommended that specific criteria be developed for selecting a mentor. A training program for mentors in the organization is beneficial. Training in providing advice, listening skills, communication approaches, and problem solving may be needed.

Mentors must have enough time to adequately perform this role; they have to provide timely guidance and feedback for the relationship to be a successful one. Similarly, the mentee also must have sufficient time to work with the mentor.

A formal relationship between the mentor and the mentee, in which each person commits to specific goals and objectives and signs off on them, is recommended. The mentor and mentee usually document this relationship in their first meeting. The documentation describes the goals and objectives of the relationship, how often the mentor and mentee will meet, whether meetings will be held face to face or virtually, how they will discuss issues or concerns outside regularly scheduled meetings, areas in which improvement is sought, and how each party will evaluate the benefits of the relationship. This documented process can benefit the mentee by ensuring that he or she is receiving mentoring advice that is consistent with the organization‧s values. If not, the mentoring relationship should be changed to add value or terminated.

When a documented approach is in place, it is easier to evaluate the relationship and determine ways in which it could be improved. Later, the mentor and mentee can determine whether the documented mentoring objectives were achieved, especially with regard to improving interpersonal skills, as work on the program or project continues.

Some mentees describe the mentoring relationship as a positive one in which they can talk in confidence with a professional outside their program or project team about matters of professional growth and development. Mentors report positive feelings about the opportunity to give something back to the profession in terms of helping a junior colleague move along the career path.

Summary

Leadership challenges program and project managers face are more complex than those faced by the functional leader. The program and project managers must confront leadership hurdles in the areas of organizational structure, consistency and availability of human resources, and the motivation of team members. Many organizations recognize that program and project managers must become real leaders who handle strategic, operational, and human factors (Shenhar et al. 2007). The leadership role of program or project managers is multifaceted; they must simultaneously serve as leaders, managers, facilitators, and mentors.

The leadership role requires that program and project managers provide a vision to the team, or describe the desired end state of the program or project by defining the value that will be added by its completion and the benefits to be achieved. The manager role helps keep the focus on the customer in terms of performance, time, cost, and value. The facilitator role involves providing the emotional and logistical support that team members need to complete the program or project. Finally, the mentor role asks the program or project manager to artfully assist team members with issues of professional growth, development, and direction.

It is rare that a program or project manager excels equally in all four of these leadership roles. Managers need to be realistic regarding their own strengths and weaknesses in each role and proactively address weaknesses in their individual development plan (without criticizing themselves in the process). It is also important for program and project managers to develop the ability to recognize the situations in which a specific role is appropriate and when to move from one role to another.

Discussion Questions

A project manager working for an aerospace company in San Diego is placed in charge of a major project in her company, ranked number 10 on the list of 125 prioritized projects. Her team members are mostly junior-level professionals with little experience working in project management and also in working on their own without close supervision. This presents a problem for her because the bulk of the project work is to be conducted by this team, which is a virtual team operating in three locations in the United States, one location in Europe, and one location in Asia. She has limited funding for a face-to-face meeting with all of the team members and will need to rely on conference calls and emails for most communications among the team. The company does not have a standard project management methodology but is considering establishing an enterprise project management office.

While she has managed projects before, the project manager‧s teams were staffed with more senior professionals, many of whom were PMPs, each with a history of self-directed performance, and the teams were co-located, so it was easy to meet regularly and discuss issues of concern.

For this new project, she makes the false assumption that her laissez-faire management style, which was successful in the past, will still be appropriate. She believes she can leave much of the direction up to the team.

However, as the project evolves, problems surface because the laissez-faire approach is not working. The team members often have conflicts that she must resolve, and team members are often unsure about how to proceed effectively to do their assigned work. Some are not even certain what they are supposed to be doing on this project. These problems stemmed from a need for greater monitoring and structure for this team, their junior-level status, and the challenges associated with working in a virtual environment.

Consider the following questions:

1. How can this project manager establish a more structured managerial approach?

2. How can the project manager then communicate the need for the structured approach to the team?

3. How can the project manager mentor some of the junior-level team members?

4. How can this project manager ensure that all of the team members share the same concept of the project‧s vision, its goals, and the benefits that must be achieved?