Interpersonal Communication Tools

4

While program and project managers have a variety of technical tools to aid them in their work, such as information technology, project management methodologies, and earned value, one tool that is rarely considered in detail is interpersonal communication. Portfolio, program and project managers can make effective use of this tool to improve their teams’ performance. Key interpersonal communication skills include the ability to:

• Use concrete communication skills, which can serve as the “nuts and bolts” of an effective discussion

• Identify and appreciate individual differences among stakeholders

• Pay attention to the tone and texture of the communication

• Recognize communication stoppers.

The Importance of Communications in Portfolio, Program, and Project Management

Stuckenbruck and Marshall (1985) write that effective communication within a team and between team members and other stakeholders is necessary if a team is to be effective. But the project manager, primarily, is responsible for communication. The authors note that 90 percent of the project manager‧s job is communication and that he or she spends approximately 50 percent of his or her time communicating with the project team. Hollingworth says, “Communications is much like a game, and those who know its rules—those who have a command of good skills, play it better than those who don‧t” (1987, p. H-1). She further notes that “the quality of one‧s communications skills is probably the most important of all traits.”

Communications became more important in project management in the 1990s (Chiocchio 2007) because of increasing emphasis on the project team and the growing complexity and globalization of the business world. The way people communicate also changed. In the 1990s, new technologies became widely available. These have influenced performance by enabling people to think in different ways and to communicate and work together differently.

Shenhar, Levi, Dvir, and Maltz (2001) points out that traditional forms of communication are not always appropriate. He notes, for example, that projects with low uncertainty can rely on existing technology, while highly uncertain projects may require new or different types of technology that do not even exist for richer, less formal communications. In other words, these highly uncertain projects may require new and different forms of communications to ensure that everyone involved can use the same type of communications methods regardless of their location.

PMI (2007) recognizes the importance of communications as a key personal competency for the project manager. Communication, for the project manager, has four key elements: actively listening, understanding, and responding to stakeholders; maintaining lines of communication; ensuring the quality of information; and tailoring communications to the audience (pp. 26–27). Further, PMI (2008a) says that communication is one of the major reasons a project either succeeds or fails. Openness in communication is essential for teamwork and strong performance.

The PMBOK(r) Guide explains several dimensions of communications (p. 245), with examples tailored to portfolio, program, and project management.

• Internal and external

  • Internal: A project team member communicates via email with others on the team.

  • External: The program manager communicates with his or her customers.

• Formal and informal

  • Formal: The program manager regularly conducts stage-gate reviews with the program‧s governance board to determine whether the program should move to the next phase of the program life cycle. Stage-gate reviews can also involve deciding whether additional work is required before moving on to the next life cycle phase; whether circumstances have changed; whether the program is delivering its planned benefits; and whether the program still fits appropriately within the organization‧s portfolio.

  • Informal: A project team member telephones another team member to brainstorm an idea.

• Vertical and horizontal

  • Vertical: When working on a program, a project manager escalates an issue to the program manager; if the program manager cannot resolve it, he or she escalates it to the sponsor or to the governance board.

  • Horizontal: The organization establishes a community of practice (CoP) for its project managers to meet regularly to discuss best practices, to learn about new trends from internal and external speakers, and to interact with other project managers when needed—for example, to prepare for certifications or to discuss lessons learned.

• Official and unofficial

  • Official: A program manager working in the pharmaceutical industry prepares a press release announcing the availability of a new drug after approval by the Food and Drug Administration.

  • Unofficial: Two project team members have an off-the-record conversation about whether they think the project will succeed.

• Written and oral

  • Written: A project team member prepares a weekly status report regarding his work package for his project manager.

  • Oral: A project manager gives an oral presentation to the portfolio review board about why her project should continue to be part of the organization‧s top five projects in terms of resource availability in the upcoming year.

• Verbal and nonverbal

  • Verbal: Co-located team members meet informally to discuss project status.

  • Nonverbal: During an informal meeting, one team member evidently does not share the same views as the others: he shows absolutely no interest in the discussion even though it involves his specific work. It is unclear why he is not participating; he could be preoccupied or bored, or he might disagree with the comments others are making. In any case he decides not to engage the team members as he is under pressure to complete his work as quickly as possible and wants to avoid conflict at this time.

Program managers spend even more time on communications than do project managers (PMI 2008c), given the larger number of stakeholders, communications channels, and technology and tools involved (and their complexity), as well as the length of programs.

The portfolio manager deals with stakeholders at many levels, but especially those at the highest level of the organization. He or she therefore must be adept at reaching out to various people and must have extremely well- developed communication skills. These skills are especially important because the portfolio manager helps make the business case to the portfolio review board or similar group for a new project or program, may have to inform a sponsor if a program is not selected, and also may need to inform a program or project manager if the portfolio review board decides to cancel the manager‧s program.

Communications on Virtual Teams

Certain considerations uniquely affect virtual teams. These include:

• Considering different time zones so that one team member is not always inconvenienced when conference calls or virtual team meetings are held

• Using comparable technology for the most effective communications

• Being aware of team members’ cultural norms to prevent misunderstandings—for example, knowing whether a team member‧s silence represents concurrence or respect.

Even if a team is not geographically dispersed, it will likely rely on communications technology of some kind, such as email, discussion forums, and blogs, to a greater extent than in the past when team members would hold more informal meetings and discussions with others to talk about issues of concern as required.

Language differences are another consideration. Many programs and projects, especially in the virtual environment, adopt English as a common language even if there are team members who are native speakers of Mandarin Chinese or Spanish [Note: The number of people in the world who speak these two languages is far greater than the number of native speakers of English.] Adopting English as the official language of a program or project can be done by following a formal English approach—one in which dialects, accents, slang, and colloquialisms are eliminated. Charles Ogden in 1930, was an early proponent of such an approach; he developed Basic English, intended to be an international language with 850 words that could be used to communicate about day-to-day processes. More recently, Kolby (2000) developed a dictionary containing the 4,000 words he asserts are essential for an educated vocabulary and success in business, education, and life. This dictionary is an excellent tool for multilingual teams to use to avoid common misunderstandings by eliminating slang and other daily expressions used by native English speakers, which may not be familiar to other members of the team.

Developing Concrete Communication Skills

A number of concrete communications skills can foster effective communications on both virtual and co-located program and project teams, including:

• Sending “I” messages

• Listening actively

• Asking open-ended questions

• Tracking the message

• Reframing a point.

Sending “I” Messages

“I” messages, such as “I believe there is a key issue on the Richards project that we need to discuss,” are effective because the speaker is clearly taking responsibility for his or her point of view and at the same time is giving the other person the opportunity to consider whether he or she shares that opinion. This accountability is especially important for program or project managers. For example, in a meeting the program governance board discusses a problem that will cause the program to miss a key milestone. If the program manager can say to the board, “I want you to know we are going to miss our upcoming milestone to deliver the software to the customer on time because we encountered a testing issue,” he or she takes accountability for the problem. Another approach would be to say, “Our team is not working well together, and one team member is extremely late with his work package so I want you to know this means we cannot deliver the software to our customer on the planned date.” The “I” message shows the program manager takes responsibility for the team‧s work and for the overall success of the program. This approach also demonstrates that the program manager is aware of the various issues affecting the program and is willing to openly communicate them to the board.

Taking responsibility for one‧s own point of view is a great way to identify and clarify individual points in a discussion. If there is a downside to frequent use of “I” messages, it is the possibility that the speaker may come across as overly self-referencing or egocentric, and listeners may feel that the speaker is not team oriented.

Listening Actively

Typically, we focus on improving our abilities to speak and write effectively, with little time devoted to listening actively to speakers, whether they are key stakeholders, outsiders to the program or project, or peer or team members. Listening is not just hearing. It is a skill that takes time to develop and perfect.

Hollingsworth (1987) defines active listening as paying close attention to what is said, asking the other party to spell out carefully and clearly what he or she means, and asking the speaker to repeat him- or herself if the listener is not sure what was said. This definition is applicable to our work in program and project management.

Some program or project problems can be attributed to someone‧s failure to actively listen:

• Perhaps a team member made a mistake because he misunderstood his assignment—which happened because he did not listen or heard only what he wanted to hear.

• When working with customers, it is easy to assume that we understand their requirements and that our proposed solution will meet or exceed them, but instead, we often have not listened to their concerns and have not developed a joint understanding of what must be done for mutual success.

• It is easy in meetings or on conference calls to just tune out and do or think about something else and thus miss something that is critical to one‧s work on a program or project.

Active listening gives the speaker the message that the listener hears what he or she is saying, even if the listener does not necessarily agree with the point. The active listener gives feedback—for example, “Carl, I hear that you strongly believe that the project is not going to be done on time unless you get two additional engineers on the project.” This response lets Carl know that you have heard his message; this is crucial to effective communication but does not commit you to agreeing with his point.

Active listening is an effective tool to use when the speaker has very strong feelings about something and needs to get it off his or her chest before continuing with the conversation. Active listening keeps the conversation moving, allows your partner to be heard and understood, and buys you some time if you are uncertain about how you want to respond to the issues being discussed.

Such active listening is especially important when working on a virtual or a culturally diverse team. For example, assume you are on a conference call with your virtual team. A word in English—for example, resent—may mean “I have re-sent you the email you did not receive,” or it may mean “I resent what you are saying and disagree with it totally.” If you are unclear as to the meaning of the speaker‧s words, you should ask the speaker for clarification to avoid misunderstandings. If overused, however, active listening can have the negative effect of making you appear wishy-washy, patronizing, or perhaps unable to make a decision. According to PMI (2007), listening is a core personal competency, one in which self-improvement is critical.

You can demonstrate active listening skills by:

• Confirming that you understand another person‧s point of view, even if it differs from your own

• Telling and showing team members that their views do count, are important, and that you consider them when you are making decisions regarding the program or the project

• Responding verbally to issues raised by others to show you have listened to their concerns (and showing your commitment to action by keeping a log, accessible to the team, to track progress toward resolving those issues)

• Letting others know that you heard their suggestions but needed to go in a different direction because, for example, of a change in the organization‧s strategic objectives, a merger or downsizing, or a risk to the program or project

• Confirming that you have received someone‧s message, even if you cannot respond to it immediately, letting the sender know when you will respond, and responding as planned, without another delay.

You can seek feedback about your progress in improving your listening skills by:

• Surveying stakeholders on the program or project to determine whether they feel as if you, the program or project manager, have really heard them and understand their key concerns and issues

• Asking a peer to observe a conversation you have with your program board or during a team meeting and offer feedback and suggestions.

Asking Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions give the answering party the chance to expand on a point without feeling forced to respond with a terse yes-or-no answer. Open- ended questions work well in situations in which answers are not necessarily clear-cut. Open-ended questions also are “friendlier” than a yes-or-no questions—they show the other person that you are truly interested in his or her point of view.

Even when you ask a yes-or-no question, you can follow it up with an open-ended question beginning with “why” or “how” to elicit more information. For example, if you want to find out how a certain team member is handling a key aspect of the project, an open-ended question such as “Phil, would you please lead me through a description of what you have done recently on the project?” will elicit this type of information. This question offers Phil latitude in responding, which will likely reduce his defensiveness and allow him to speak with a degree of comfort because he is setting the direction. This style of questioning allows you to sit back and listen for the information you‧re interested in.

If Phil fails to address one of your areas of interest, you can ask a follow-up question such as, “Sounds good, but can you please tell me a little more about how you are covering the administrative details?” Open-ended questions help create an expansive tone in the conversation, encouraging your partner to volunteer more information.

What is the risk of using open-ended questions? Risks include coming across as indirect and unfocused, possibly having a hidden agenda or a concern that is not verbalized. To a more concrete person, open-ended questions may seem nebulous.

Tracking the Message

All of us have had the frustrating experience of suddenly realizing that we are talking with someone about four different subjects at once and have no idea how we got off the original topic. This often occurs when both parties are not tracking the content or purpose of the discussion and are inserting new topics into the discussion. Insertion of a new topic can occur for a number of reasons, including a failure to listen to the other party‧s key message, a strong emotional reaction from one of the parties, or a tendency to avoid closure on one subject before moving on to a new one. A conversation can be brought back on topic with a tracking statement such as: “Bob, I think we are going off topic. Can we please back up to the point where you were mentioning the cost for the software package? I think that is when I started to lose you.”

Conversations during meetings are quite vulnerable to going off track. Virtual teams frequently communicate via conference calls, and it is easy for one team member to become so interested in the first item discussed that he or she places the call on mute and does some research to adequately respond to this issue. But when this team member goes back to the call, everyone else on the call has moved on to other items on the agenda. The team member who has gotten behind often interrupts the conversation to explain to the rest of the team what he or she has learned from research. While the information may be of interest, the team may have already reached consensus on the issue at hand or may have determined that it was not appropriate for further discussion at the time.

If you find yourself in such a situation, you may consider raising the issue again at the end of the call. Apologize to the group for leaving the call, then explain that you have learned something new on the topic, and ask them if it is all right to tell them what you have learned.

Reframing a Point

At times, discussions reach a point where communication is faltering or has become negative. Unless some change takes place, the discussion is headed for failure. In these situations, a valuable communication tool is reframing. Just as a picture framer can change the appearance of a painting by putting a new frame around it, you can put a new frame around a failing discussion and create a new sense of optimism or achievement.

For example, assume that your team has been talking for 45 minutes about a shortage of engineers needed to complete the software project on time and within budget. The tone in the room is one of frustration, with some sense of hopelessness and resignation. Reframing this discussion would put a different spin on the conversation. It would allow the team to see the issues from a different perspective—one that offers more optimism. A reframing comment at this point of the discussion might be something like: “We need to consider if the discussion keeps going in this direction, we are not going to get anything done. What if we look at this situation as an opportunity to build a bridge between the engineering group in the other division and our group? We have said for a long time that a bridge like that would be good for us to have.”

Reframing the issue, which can be done by any person in the conversation, involves creative thinking and a willingness to take a chance by offering a new perspective. When offering a reframing comment, be prepared for some people to remain stuck in the negative and to resist these creative alternatives. Be persistent. It may be necessary to state the same reframing message in different ways before success is achieved.

To work effectively with those who still may be negative toward the new approach, suggest forming a small group to work together to come up with a possible solution to discuss with the rest of the group. Set a time to do so quickly so the issue can be resolved. Include a member who is reacting negatively in this small group to help to gain some type of consensus for the new approach. Crafting a different approach may still take some time because it does require ingenuity.

Identifying and Appreciating Individual Differences in Communications

It is easy for us to assume that everyone will communicate in similar ways, especially if they are working on the same work packages and activities and therefore have comparable technical interests. However, each person will approach his or her work assignments in different ways and will also communicate using a variety of styles. Each person will require different kinds of communication about the program or project, and you, as the program or project manager, should avoid overloading team members and other stakeholders with information. They will have preferences for how they want to receive information and also how they want to provide it to others. Some people overcommunicate; others undercommunicate or do not communicate at all. Once you are aware of a stakeholder‧s preferred communication style, you will be better able communicate with him or her. Here, we discuss a few methods for interacting with various stakeholders based on their individual styles.

The MBTI Approach

There are many ways to assess the style and personality of project team members. One conceptual framework that can be useful when considering individual differences is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Based on the work of Carl Jung (1971), the MBTI describes various components of personal styles. Jung believed that individuals vary in how they approach and perceive the world. In today‧s world of work, the MBTI is used extensively with teams, both as a team-building instrument and as a method for discovering the different communication styles of team members (Hammer 1996).

The MBTI may be administered in a number of formats by certified practitioners. Some teams prefer to take the instrument via various online assessment forms; other teams prefer to take it in a shortened, hard-copy form during team meetings.

In essence, the MBTI measures an individual‧s preferences among four pairs of qualities or preferences:

• Extravert or introvert. Extraverted people are energized by a significant amount of interaction with the outside world. This type of individual is action oriented and becomes bored if things move too slowly. In contrast, the introverted individual is energized by reflective activities away from lots of outside stimulation. This type of person enjoys being involved in tasks where he or she can really immerse him- or herself in the depth and the details of the issue.

• Sensing or intuition. A person with a sensing preference looks at the world from a pragmatic, concrete, and immediate point of view. The sensing person prefers to use the five senses to attend to the world and has a present- tense focus aimed at solving problems that can be scored, measured, or quantified. The intuitive person, on the other hand, prefers to look at a problem with more of a big-picture focus, eyeing future possibilities and trends. This person enjoys insights and abstract-based activities and has less interest in the concrete present than the sensing person does.

• Thinking or feeling. The individual with a thinking-based decision-making style likes to look at the logical and rational components of an issue and make a decision that is supported by facts, analysis, and numbers. The feeling-based decision maker, by contrast, makes decisions with the “heart.” The feeling person prefers to consider values, beliefs, and personal feelings—types of “information” that are much more subjective in nature.

• Judging or perceiving. The person with a judging orientation prefers to use an orderly approach to plan and structure activities and events. The judging person seeks to achieve closure on tasks and is generally quite goal- oriented. The perceiving person, conversely, wants to approach the world in a less structured manner, leaving things more to chance. This person is comfortable with flexibility and responding to whatever comes up in the moment. Perceivers are often viewed as curious and may engage in many activities simultaneously.

Communication Tips: Using the MBTI Ideas to Deliver Your Message

Using the ideas on individual differences suggested by the MBTI, you can tailor your message to reach each person on your team in a way that suits his or her unique style. By customizing your message, you increase the chances of successful communication and team cooperation. Table 4-1 suggests ways of communicating with team members based on their MBTI type.

Communicating with the Extraverted Team Member

The extraverted team member is one who is interactive, who focuses attention and energy outside him- or herself, who enjoys mixing with people, and who generally has a great deal of verbal contact with others. The extravert wants to be involved and to be at the center of the action.

Table 4-1 Communication Tips Using the Myers-Briggs Preferences

Personality Style	Compatible Type of Communication
Extraverted	Get together personally to think out loud.
Introverted	Help draw out this person, then give him or her some time to privately reflect on your message.
Sensing	Present tangible facts, examples, data, and real-world experiences to make your point.
Intuitive	Offer a “big picture” overview, presenting concepts that are crucial for your discussion.
Thinking	Present arguments that appeal to a rational analysis of the facts; appeal to the “head.”
Feeling	Talk more from the “heart,” using statements that address values and gut-level decision-making.
Judging	Be orderly in presenting your message, and keep the discussion moving toward resolution and closure.
Perceiving	Allow for an open-ended discussion, staying flexible about the agenda.

To communicate effectively with an extravert:

• Think out loud with this person; the extravert enjoys brainstorming.

• Communicate in a personal, face-to-face manner if possible, and minimize written, email, or other types of communication that the extravert may view as too impersonal.

• Place the extravert in settings where group communication is needed, such as brainstorming sessions; this type of milieu will stimulate the extravert and will get the creative juices flowing.

• Because extraverts can be verbally outgoing, they can dominate group meetings, particularly when dealing with more introverted team members. Work to keep the extravert‧s output in such settings at an acceptable level.

• If you are working virtually, use computer-mediated technology, such as instant messaging, to communicate directly with this team member.

• On the virtual team, occasionally phone this person if possible, recognizing his or her need to communicate by other than asynchronous means. In these calls, ask him or her for his or her points of view on issues facing the program or project.

• Enable the extraverted team member to lead discussions if working in either a virtual or co-located team; if on a virtual team, ask this person to become familiar with computer-mediated technology to facilitate group meetings.

• Set up situations on a virtual team, if possible, that will allow the extravert to be able to interact with the sponsors or customer(s). This will put his or her enjoyment of working with others to good use.

• Suggest to other team members who may have difficulty speaking up that they might contact this extraverted team member for suggestions. (Of course, ask the extraverted team member first if he or she is willing to do this, and ask him or her to be as encouraging as possible should he or she be contacted by others on the team).

Communicating with the Introverted Team Member

Introverts are known for keeping a lower profile within group discussions, and they tend to be more thoughtful and reflective than expressive. They often appear deep in thought and may need some supportive prodding before they will offer an opinion. When communicating with an introvert, consider the following:

• One-on-one settings often allow the introvert to be more disclosing and communicative. Within group settings, the introvert may remain quiet or be less involved.

• Introverts do not particularly enjoy thinking out loud. Rather, they usually prefer to have some time to think issues through before responding.

• Introverts may prefer more impersonal methods of communicating, such as email or written documents. Such written messages give them the privacy they prefer to reflect and think ideas through until they are ready to respond.

• Consider using nominal group type techniques, in which everyone is required to participate without interruption, to get this individual engaged in brainstorming sessions without fear of criticism of his or her ideas.

• Provide an agenda for team meetings in advance so the introverted team member can think through what is to be discussed and can be prepared to offer suggestions.

Introverted people are especially suited for work on virtual teams, in which they have solitude to do their work and are not constantly interrupted by other team members, because people cannot drop by and chat. However, on virtual teams it is too easy to forget these team members and the contributions they can offer, especially if there are changes in the organization‧s strategic direction that affect the program or project, a key issue to resolve, a decision that must be made, or a risk that requires resolution. If you feel the introvert needs to be involved but is not participating, contact the introvert directly and ask him or her to comment. Determine approaches to involve these team members in such important discussions, giving them time, if possible, before they must respond.

Communicating with the Sensing Team Member

The sensing person approaches the world with a pragmatic, tangible, and immediate focus, paying close attention to details while working at a steady pace. This person wants to deal with tasks in ways that can be quantified and measured. When communicating with a sensing team member:

• Give the sensing person details, facts, examples, and concrete points. He or she has little use for theory or “the big picture.”

• Stay in the present when delivering your message. Explain the current importance of your message.

• Stick to the business at hand. The sensing person thinks extra communication about tangential matters is a distraction.

• Provide an agenda in advance of all team meetings, especially if working in a virtual environment, and stick to the agenda so the sensing team member does not find the meeting a waste of his or her time. If topics that are not on the agenda come up, note them and plan to discuss them at a later time.

Communicating with the Intuitive Team Member

The opposite of the sensing person is the person who approaches the world intuitively. The intuitive person likes to develop a vision and is good at synthesizing future possibilities and trends. Routine tasks are boring for this individual; he or she is always looking for better ways to do things. When communicating with someone who has an intuitive style, consider the following:

• Provide context for the issues and an overview of where you envision the discussion may take you. During work on the program or project, discuss the goals and how the program or project supports the organization‧s vision.

• Remember that an intuitive person likes to theorize and follow different tangents during a conversation. You may need patience as this person brings up a number of other areas that may seem unrelated to the problem at hand.

• In meetings, the intuitive person will often communicate with peers by assuming the role of devil‧s advocate, expressing ideas and messages that seem outside the box or tangential to the current point.

• If the program or project manager believes that people on the team do not understand how the program or project fits into the overall strategy of the organization, ask the intuitive team member before a team meeting to relate the program or project‧s vision to the organization‧s overall strategy to refocus the team.

Communicating with the Thinking Team Member

The person with a thinking style prefers to interact with the world using logic and reason. His or her communication is often concise and to the point, focusing on a logical presentation of the facts. This person adopts a rational mode of addressing a situation; the thinking person frequently works “from the head” when solving problems. The best way to make your point with a thinking person is to:

• Present a logical argument, focusing on an analysis of the situation that is grounded in an assessment of the facts.

• Get to the point; the thinking person has little interest in casual conversation.

• Not take it personally if you encounter a thinking person with little need for small talk. The thinking team member is ideally suited to a virtual team, where small talk is not a major concern.

• Ask the thinking person an open-ended question to draw him or her in if he or she is not participating in a meeting. This will help him or her take the meeting seriously and find it a valuable use of time.

• Encourage this team member to state his or her opinions in a way that can help others not only understand the situation but also persuade them to adopt a proposed solution.

Communicating with the Feeling Team Member

The feeling person uses a significantly different approach from the thinking person when dealing with the world. The feeling person places emphasis on the subjective aspects of the situation, such as personal values, how people feel about the issue, and what his or her “gut” says is the correct thing to do.

Try these methods when communicating with the individual with a feeling style:

• Appeal to this person‧s values when making your argument.

• Expect this person to talk a great deal about feelings; he or she may put less emphasis or credence on the logical facts of a situation.

• Consider that this person may need to talk feelings through, or “get it off their chest,” before they are able to move to verbal communication geared to tangible problem solving.

• When managing a virtual program or project, the feeling team member may be the person who raises a conflict or an issue to you for resolution, even if he or she is not involved directly in the situation. If this happens, give the feeling team member time to explain the details to you so that you can better understand the situation, involve the appropriate members of the team, and make a decision.

• Ask the feeling team member to encourage others to express their points of view during team meetings.

Communicating with the Judging Team Member

The judging approach is one in which the individual uses an orderly method to structure activities and endeavors. Judging people like to have a project plan, a detailed work breakdown structure, or an agenda for each project meeting. They are motivated toward gaining closure on an event and moving forward. Because the person with the judging preference seeks order and structure, consider trying these approaches:

• Present your message in an orderly manner, using agendas and outlines to define the purpose of the discussion.

• Stay on point and try to avoid drifting into other topics or tangential points.

• Remember that this person works toward closure; keep the conversation moving toward a conclusion. Set both time and topic parameters before beginning.

• Involve this team member in a gatekeeper-type role during team meetings in case a meeting is diverting too much from the agenda. This is especially important when working in a virtual environment because the lack of shared physical space to hold the team‧s attention might cause individual team members to get off track more easily. The “gatekeeper” team member can help the team move toward closure, and he or she can make a list of other issues to address later as necessary.

• Ask the judging team member to summarize what has been said during a meeting to ensure everyone understands and supports the decisions made.

Communicating with the Perceiving Team Member

The perceiving person prefers flexibility and spontaneity. For the most part, perceiving people like to keep their options open and prefer not to work from a schedule or plan. Talking with this type of person will be a free-flowing experience, and there will be little need for structure and closure.

Consider these suggestions when working with a perceiving team member:

• Stay flexible and avoid using a rigid agenda for your meeting.

• Remember that this person will want to let the communication take its natural direction; expect him or her to mention many topics. Also, when meeting with a perceiving person, he or she may not worry about time and so continue to discuss an issue longer than planned. A judging person might have a hard time working with a perceiving person in this type of situation, because a judging person might be anxious to come to closure on tasks rather than letting communications drift to other topics outside of the planned agenda.

• Gently help this person stay on track when necessary; offer comments that acknowledge his or her ideas but still help maintain focus.

On a mature team, especially one in which people have worked together as a team before or on a program that has been underway for some time, it is often appropriate for people to share the results of their MBTI assessments or talk about their results on other personality instruments discussed in Chapter 3, such as Schein‧s career anchors or McClelland‧s needs for achievement, affiliation, or power. This open sharing should be encouraged so that people recognize one another‧s preferred style and can then better communicate with one another. Sharing also indicates an empowered team in which people trust one another and want to collectively work toward team success in all aspects of the program or project. On such teams, people can openly discuss any concerns or problems and recognize the importance of consistent, open, and honest communication among team members and with stakeholders.

Paying Attention to the Tone and Texture of Communications

Just as important as considering the individual styles and preferences of your team members as you craft your communications is having a keen awareness of the texture and tone of any communication. This awareness involves:

• Being present during the discussion

• Listening to the “music behind the words”

• Considering the alliance and the context

• Keeping the communication reciprocal

• Being aware of content and process.

Being Present during the Discussion

Being in the present when communicating means paying attention to the thoughts, ideas, feelings, and beliefs you are experiencing during a specific moment in the conversation. It means being aware of your mood, energy level, and emotions. For example, are you having a good day? Feeling angry? Having this awareness does not mean that you have to disclose or act on these feelings when you are communicating. Rather, the goal is to have a healthy awareness about what is going on with you now so you can use that awareness to communicate more effectively with your team members.

How can a program or project manager work on being present during a conversation? Here are two approaches to consider:

• Reflect on your immediate feelings. Your goal should be to develop an awareness of what you are feeling at that moment. Such an awareness will help you avoid stepping into metaphorical potholes as you communicate with the other person.

• Reflect on what your body is telling you. This physical level of awareness often reveals what is going on with us emotionally. Other people may also be able to tell how we are feeling from our body language. Most people have their own set of body cues that signal important information about their feelings. While these body cues may be apparent during face-to-face conversations, people are obviously unaware of them in virtual environments. During virtual communications, verbal explanations can substitute for body language. If, for example, you are having a bad day and you think your tone of voice (or the tone of an email or message you are writing) reflects your negative mood, you might briefly explain how you are feeling to the virtual team member with whom you are communicating.

An awareness of your feelings and your body cues will enable you to do the following when you are communicating with your stakeholders:

• Really hear what the other person is saying to you. If you are communicating with a virtual team member, unless it is on a teleconference or video conference, obviously you cannot hear the person talking to you or see his or her body cues. Likewise, the person you are communicating with cannot hear you or see your body cues, either, and may not understand the message you are trying to convey. Often, in these settings, you may wish to ask an open- ended question for some additional clarification.

• Demonstrate more respect and consideration for the other person. This approach also coveys your trust for the other person, which can foster the impression of being empowered as a team. Keep your body cues in mind when demonstrating respect, consideration, and trust. For example, you may be stressed or displeased about something else going on in your life—something unrelated to this team member—and if your body cues indicate this displeasure, you might confuse the other person.

Listening to the Music behind the Words

Flannes and Buell (1999) encourage people to “listen to the music behind the words.” Doing so means listening to the message that is rarely verbalized or that indicates mood and emotions. The obvious message, which often masks the “music,” is the content of the message and applies to the subject of the discussion. The music behind the message is the subtle affective level of the communication. It tells you so much more about what is happening. Consider this example of listening to the music behind the words:

By listening on this deeper level, the project manager would have picked up important cues suggesting that things were actually not going well on the project. It could also be that the project is progressing satisfactorily, but Judith is dissatisfied with this project and feels she cannot continue to contribute at a high level. She may wish to be reassigned to another project in the organization or to return to her functional unit.

Considering the Alliance and the Context

It is not possible to describe the “right” thing to say in any given situation. Figuring out the right thing to say is always a function of the nature of the alliance or relationship between the people who are interacting, plus an awareness of the context in which the communication is taking place.

Bugental (1990) developed the concepts of alliance and context. Alliance refers to the nature and quality of a specific relationship. Alliances differ in degrees of history, trust, openness, formality, and role. Different types of alliances exist between people on a team who are already friends before the project begins; between project team members and the project or program manager; between the team and the sponsor, the customer, and other key stakeholders; and between outside vendors. Thinking about the nature of an alliance offers the chance to tailor communications to the intricacies and the specifics of the immediate relationship.

Examples of types of alliances include the following relationships:

• Two friends who have worked together in the organization for 12 years and now are assigned to work on the same project

• Two programmers, each new to the company, assigned to work for the first time with each other

• Two virtual team members from different cultures working together.

There is no ideal alliance. Each alliance needs to be seen as a living thing, requiring nurturing and attention. Alliances must show sensitivity to specific needs of each party, and mutual respect is required for the alliance to strengthen and grow. Be careful not to take any alliance for granted.

Remember that every alliance is dynamic. Each alliance also is different, which makes it special and unique in its own way. There is no ideal alliance, and over time, alliances will shift as people move to other teams or other positions in the organization or leave the organization.

Bugental‧s (1990) view of context addresses the idea that an effective interaction is a function of an awareness of current circumstances. For example, in deciding how to tailor a message to a team member, the project manager should consider a number of context variables. These variables may include the current mood of the other person, the amount of pressure on the project team, or the fact that the organization may have recently undergone a reduction in force. A context variable will also include the setting—whether the message is being delivered in front of a formal group of stakeholders or over lunch at a neighborhood cafe.

By being aware of the context in which you are speaking, you can craft messages that are conducive to the current surroundings, thus helping put the person you are talking with at ease and increasing the odds of delivering your message effectively. On a virtual team, such face-to-face interaction is rare, but the context in which a message is delivered remains critical. Sometimes email is appropriate, while at other times the message is better delivered through a phone call or video conference.

When considering how to use the concept of context in communicating, be aware of these variables:

• Degree of formality or informality of the surroundings

• Current atmosphere in the workplace (e.g., anxiety, stress, pressing deadlines, recent reductions in force)

• Level of intimacy of the setting—whether it is an individual or a group setting.

Many of the ideas behind the concepts of alliance and context are obviously grounded in common sense. However, it is precisely because these ideas do appear to be commonsense that we often overlook them or give them minimal consideration when we are communicating. If we keep the concepts of alliance and context in mind, and we slow down and take time to apply them sensibly, we can achieve greater success in communication.

Keeping the Communication Reciprocal

Another important but subtle aspect of communication is the ability to create an atmosphere in which people on the team are treated with mutual respect and dignity, regardless of each team member‧s seniority or level of expertise (Buber 1970).

Buber discusses the importance of reciprocal, meaningful interactions. People must understand and hear what others say and are able to respond accordingly. Buber also focuses on the importance of the community of others and shared principles. A community focus and shared principles are essential in program and project management because of the sheer number of stakeholders on each program or project. The creation of shared principles must be intentional; a group of people are unlikely to all have the same principles. This points to the importance of the program or project team developing a charter in which they state the principles they will follow for overall team success. Determining the team‧s principles in concert is one step toward ensuring that managers and team members communicate as equals.

Here are some ways you can apply the idea of reciprocal communication in the day-to-day program or project environment.

• When looking at your communications partner, try to visualize this person as an equal, whether you are a project sponsor who has been with the organization for more than 30 years and are talking with a new project team member who just joined the company or you are a new team member talking with the sponsor.

• Situations in which you are talking about solving a problem can help you think of your communications partner as an equal. For example, assume you are a new team member and you are talking with the project sponsor. You have an idea based on a software integration you did in graduate school for applying a new software tool to the project. In such a situation, you are speaking to the sponsor about a possible way to improve the overall operations of the project, so you can communicate equally because improving operations is something that both of you view as essential for success.

• Watch out for the natural tendency to treat people as stereotypes; such an approach locks one into rigid ways of seeing others and creates long-term barriers to improved communications.

Rad and Levin (2003) write that the virtual environment is ideal for fostering reciprocal communications. On virtual teams, people are often unaware of the age or seniority level of each individual team member. People who might normally not speak up at a team meeting because they lack seniority or are new to the organization may offer ideas using asynchronous methods (such as email) or in teleconferences, where it is not obvious that they are, for example, younger than the rest of the team. Consider the following example.

Being Aware of the Content and the Process

Any communication can also be viewed through the filters of content and process. Content refers to the subject being discussed, such as the results of the project review meeting, what someone had for lunch on Tuesday, or the hardware items in next year‧s budget. Content items are the obvious parts of a communication and are the aspects that people can usually track most easily.

The more complex aspect of a communication is the process, which refers to the manner, style, and methods in which the content is presented. It often hints at underlying feelings or emotional responses that are not being expressed directly. You can look at your team‧s communication process by asking questions such as:

• Is one person dominating the team‧s discussion? In a virtual environment, is one person inundating others with emails and instant messages or taking over discussion forums, wikis, or blogs?

• Are people‧s comments coming across as critical or cynical?

• Does one person continually interrupt when a particular person is talking in a team meeting or teleconference?

• Does one person get very quiet when another team member is speaking in a team meeting or teleconference or if a conflict or sensitive issue is being discussed?

• Is one person continually playing the role of devil‧s advocate, questioning decisions so often that other team members tune him or her out and do not take him or her seriously?

• Are the project team members following the communications management plan, and were they involved in its development?

• Does the structure of the team (e.g., in a functional organization, in a projectized organization) affect the nature of the communications between team members, with the program and project managers, and with other stakeholders?

• Is the team charter effective, or is it too structured, hindering communications among the team?

By paying attention to the process level of communication within the team, the program or project manager can identify unspoken issues, problems, or areas of resistance that are hindering the progress of the project. Attending to process communication issues often takes some nerve and courage. Be active, assertive, and willing to speak your mind.

Recognizing Communication Stoppers

We all have communication shortcomings. Four behaviors—denial, projection, displacement, and objectification—plague us from time to time, particularly when we are fatigued or when we feel emotionally threatened. Which of the four is your biggest risk area?

Denial

A little denial in life is not bad and can sometimes help us get through a tough time. However, denial works against us when we stubbornly maintain a view or position even when those around us continue to make strong arguments to the contrary. (For example, we may continue to deny team members’ messages that we are too controlling during team meetings, even after hearing this message four or five times.) As program or project managers, we need to be cognizant of the negative aspects of denial, especially if we are in a situation in which we need to solve a problem or assist a team member and instead we consciously elect to ignore the importance of the situation. This can affect not only our own productivity but also that of the team. We may choose to avoid the problem, believing someone else will fix it even if we are the person who is accountable for the program, project, work package, or activity.

Because programs and projects are time-bound, if we ignore or deny problems too often, we run the risk of being overscheduled and needing to add resources or use methods such as fast tracking to keep on schedule.

To monitor your risk of falling into the trap of denial, consider the following suggestions:

• When communication falters, ask an open-ended question, such as, “Am I missing something here that you are trying to tell me?”

• Stay receptive and non-defensive to feedback from such an open-ended question.

• Try to avoid conveying an attitude that says, “I do not care” or “Nothing ever changes here anyway, so why should I make an effort to do something in a different way?”

Projection

Projection is defined as attributing to others a feeling or belief that, in actuality, we hold ourselves. It is not beneficial to attribute a belief or attitude to another member of the team without confirming the reality of the projection for that team member. For example, if a project manager believes that all others on the team must share his or her specific view about how to approach a project design process, this project manager is projecting his or her belief upon others.

Projection is especially easy to do on a virtual team, in which meetings with everyone on the team are rare or may not happen at all. One person‧s frame of reference may be entirely different from another‧s.

Here are some ways to keep projection under control:

• If you think that others believe, think, or feel as you do about an issue, confirm this belief with them before you move forward, particularly on key issues.

• Use an “I” statement, followed by a question of inquiry. For example: “I believe very strongly that the specifications for this project need to be reevaluated and probably changed. Am I correct in assuming that you feel the same way?”

• Use discussion forums to post items on which you believe there is agreement by your team and ask team members for feedback before implementing a solution. Let them know how much time you have before the decision must be made.

Displacement

Who has not had a fight with a family member one morning, then come to work and bitten off the head of the first coworker who said something to him or her? Displacement occurs when some emotion or strong feeling that has been generated in one setting (in this case, the fight at home) is passed on to someone (in this case, the coworker) who has done nothing to warrant such treatment. The innocent coworker has no idea where this emotion originated and usually feels confused and distrustful of the person who delivered the blow.

Strong feelings are often generated in the complex world of program and project management, where the manager has many relationships to monitor and must navigate the tricky waters of matrix management and conflicting stakeholder agendas. Under these circumstances, it is easy to displace feelings upon innocent third parties. However, there are steps a program or project manager can take to reduce the risk of displacement.

• After an argument (or any interaction where negative feelings have been created), stop and take notice of what you are feeling.

• Before getting involved in another interaction (such as a meeting or discussion), take some time to let the negative feelings subside.

• As you begin the next interaction, do your best to initiate some discussion with yourself, such as, “I am still angry from the last meeting, but my anger is not about Joe, with whom I will be meeting, so I need to go slow in our discussion.”

These approaches to minimizing displacement can be surprisingly effective and can have profound influence on keeping communication succinct and straightforward. In a sense, these approaches to managing displacement are an evolution of the old advice to count to ten before speaking.

Objectification

Program and project work is difficult and is becoming even more complex. Most programs and projects are facing greater numbers of stakeholders, a lack of sufficient resources to complete the work effectively, and pressure to complete the work faster and more efficiently given the increase in competition. This increase in the number of stakeholders means we have even more relationships to manage than in the past. Some of these stakeholders may be ones we never see or hear from during the program or project, but they are still important to manage to ensure success.

After a certain amount of experience and time spent struggling with different types of relationships, we can slip into the potentially risky habit of developing a shorthand approach to explain these different relationships to ourselves. Consequently, we create labels and categories such as “sponsoring executive,” “project auditor,” “outside vendor,” and “project numbers guy.” These shorthand terms allow us to put people into categories so that we can relate to them more readily. We create assumptions about the nature of each of these categories, which helps us plan how to deal with the categories; in essence, these assumptions give us a blueprint for explaining how these people operate.

Viewed from a negative perspective, however, these categories can become stereotypes. When we use these stereotypes in dealing with others, we run the risk of turning people into static categories or objects. When this takes place, objectification of the other person occurs. Objectification of a team member generally happens slowly. At some point, however, the objectification becomes solidified, and it becomes difficult to see people as they really are: dynamic, changing human beings who rarely conform to the boxes into which we often place them. When working in a virtual team, objectification may be even easier: Some people join the team only to contribute specific technical knowledge at a certain time in the project. These individuals then may be known as subject matter experts who only fit in one small box in the project but in reality could contribute in other areas if allowed to do so.

Guarding against the tendency to objectify is difficult. The best approach to reducing the risk is to be aware of your assumptions about a specific person or group. Here are some objectifying assumptions held by one project manager:

• Project auditors care only about the numbers.

• Auditors never listen to what I have to say concerning project budget overruns.

• They always start meetings with the rudest comment they can make.

If you notice that your list of assumptions contains words such as “only,” “never,” “they,” and “always,” you can assume that you are starting to turn auditors into objects—entities with fixed and rigid qualities. Once the objectification begins, communication becomes problematic. Your messages to the auditors may become more stylized and rote, emanating from your stereotype of what constitutes an “auditor.” Eventually, you start wearing a set of blinders that will not allow you to see any communication and behavior from an auditor that does not conform to your preconceived categories or expectations.

The following suggestions may help you avoid objectifying others:

• Pay attention to individual differences. Team members will respond differently to your communication efforts, and for each individual, some tools will be more effective than others. Using a system such as the MBTI can help you determine how to tailor messages to particular team members.

• Consider the issues of alliance (the nature of the relationship) and context (the setting in which the communication is taking place) as you ork to craft the most effective message.

• Practice the “nuts and bolts” techniques of communication. Experiment. Find the most effective tools for you. Get feedback from others about whether these tools have been successful.

• Stay open to feedback about your blind spots. Everyone has them, so try to receive constructive criticism without becoming defensive. This is not easy to do, but give yourself credit when you try.

• Observe those who communicate well, and adopt approaches from them that you think would work for you. Successful interpersonal communication is more art than science.

Summary

Communications is a key competency for all project professionals—whether at the portfolio, program, or project level. It is easy to just maintain your current communications style, but keep in mind that your style may not be the most appropriate in certain situations. To improve your overall communication skills when managing portfolios, programs, and projects and interacting with stakeholders, consider all the approaches suggested in this chapter and try to use the most appropriate approach for each unique situation.

Discussion Questions

You have been the project manager on a telecommunications project for only four weeks, and already you have experienced a number of communication problems on your team. Your frustration is mounting as you review what has happened to date:

1. Two of your senior engineers keep calling you into meetings because they cannot seem to communicate with each other, and they want you to help them make a decision. What approach would you take in trying to figure out why these people are not communicating effectively with each other?

2. You ask one of your team members to attend a meeting with a group of external stakeholders. After the meeting, you get a call from your counterpart on the stakeholder‧s team complaining about your team member‧s performance in the meeting. The other project manager yells, “This guy did not hear a thing we said today!” What communication skill does your team member seem to lack? How might you handle this situation?

3. You are puzzled that two of your most competent technicians never seem to say anything during project meetings, although they have many good ideas to contribute. What might be contributing to these people‧s silence during the meetings? What could you do to help them be more communicative during team meetings?