1. Switching circuit in order to control the speed of motors in a robot.
2. A sensor that can detect the speed and direction of wheel rotation.
3. In the 4X encoding scheme, we are extracting the maximum transition between the encoder pulses in order to get more counts from a single rotation.
4. Using encoder count and distance per count, we can easily compute the displacement of the wheel.
5. It is a smart actuator having a motor and a microcontroller that can be directly interfaced to a PC and used to customize different settings of the actuator. It can be connected as daisy chain manner, which is appropriate for robotic arm.
6. It is the sensor for finding range and has one transmitter and one receiver. The transmitter transmits ultrasonic sound, and the receiver receives it. The delay between these process is used for distance measurement.
7. Range = high level time of echo pin output * velocity (340 M/S) / 2.
8. It is sending IR pulses and receive by an IR receiver. According to the distance, the voltage in the IR receiver changes, and we can compute the distance using the following equation:

Range = (6787 / (Volt - 3)) – 4