Index

A

absolute failure, 175
AC electrical power, 13
AC power source, 200
impedance of, 97
rectified, 97–98
accelerated testing, for battery life qualification, 142–144
actual cell capacity, 50, 53, 54, 58, 60–61, 68, 160–161
advanced couples, types of, 31
aerospace cell, construction of, 18–19
agencies, 144–148
examples of, 144
alkaline primary cell, 122–123
alternate power, 155
alternate power sources, 221, 223
alternating current, See AC
ambient temperature, 73, 74, 76–77, 82
American National Standards Institute, See ANSI
ampere-hours, 10
ANSI SAE, 145, 146
ANSI Standard, C18.2–1984, 46–47, 228
sealed lead cell, See sealed lead battery applications
sealed nickel-cadmium battery, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery applications
sealed nickel-cadmium cell, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery applications
available cell capacity, 50

B

battery
compared to cell, 10–11
construction with cells, 11
primary, 9, 105, 178
secondary, 9, 178
battery applications
cyclic, 13
float, 13
battery capacity, 10–11, 159–166, 203. See also cell capacity; sealed lead battery capacity
battery cases, 218
battery concepts, general, 9–14
battery configuration, 217
battery discharge limit, 175–176
battery duty cycle, 120–121
battery form, 217
battery integration with product, and safety, 152
battery life, 190. See also sealed nickel-cadmium battery life; sealed lead battery life
battery mounting, 218–219
battery overcharge temperature, 73–76
description of, 73–74
design factors to minimize, 75–76
and heat transfer, 73–76
battery packaging, 217
battery performance, 13
battery qualification, 140–144
battery temperature, 171–172
battery voltage, 10, 169–172, 175
discharge voltage as function of discharge rate, 170–171
discharge voltage as function of temperature, 171–172
mid-point, 170
and product performance, 62

C

C rate, 13–14, 66
Canadian Standards Association, See CSA
capacity, 39–40, 41
capacity recovery techniques, 204, 206
capacity retention, 55, 179
during storage, 205
carbon-zinc cell, 122–123
cell
compared to battery, 10–11
definition of, 10
sizes, 10
cell age, 168–169
cell balance, 195
cell capabilities, 77
cell capacity, 10–11, 13–14, 158, 159–165
actual, 50, 53, 54, 58, 60–61, 68, 160–161, 163, 164
available, 50, 161
design factors, 64–65
and normalizing internal resistance, 65
off-standard conditions in charging and discharging, 54–55
ratings, 49–51, 160–161
retained, 51, 55, 161
and scaling the discharge curve, 56–57
stabilization of, 159, 164
standard, 49–50, 160
and temperature, 129, 160
cell capacity reduction, and cell temperature, 68
cell capacity utilization
multi-cell batteries, 62
single-cell batteries, 62
cell charge temperature, and scaling the discharge curve, 56–57
cell charge voltage, as function of cell temperature, 99
cell components, 12–13
cell construction
and battery life, 11, 4–116
cell contents, and safety, 232
cell current, 179–181
cell design, factors that impact discharge and voltage, 64–65
cell discharge capacity, performance, 49–55
cell discharge limits, 175–176
cell discharge rate, and scaling the discharge curve, 56–57
cell discharge temperature, and effective cell internal resistance, 45
and effective cell no-load voltage, 47
and scaling the discharge curve, 56–57
cell discharge voltage performance, 41–49
cell equivalent discharge circuit, 166–169
cell history, and cell performance, 58
cell interconnection, 128
cell life, 168–169
cell operation, and separator, 64–65
cell performance, and cell polarity reversal, 58–59
cell polarity reversal
and cell performance, 58–59
effects, 59
and venting, 58
Cell Polarity Reversal Voltage (CPRV), 62–64
cell pressure, 70–71, 179–180
cell rate, effecting charging, 70
cell temperature profile, 180
cell voltage, 10, 70–71, 122–123, 158, 179, 180–181, 192, 198. See also voltage
cells
parallel connection, 11, 176–177
series connection, 11, 176–177
charge, 13
charge acceptance, 67, 68, 181–183, 224, 225
charge balancing, 197–198
charge rate, 70, 193–194
fast, 53
method of specifying, 13–14
selection, 193–194
and temperature, 193
charge time, 13
charger, 13
agency listing of, 129–130
detachable, 130
charging, 178. See also sealed lead battery charging; sealed nickel-cadmium battery charging; nickel-cadmium battery charging
cell construction, effects of, 70
charge rate, effects of, 70
conditions, 52–53
constant-current, See constant-current charging
constant-voltage, See constant-voltage charging,
with differential temperature control, 87–88
elevated temperature, 102
fast, 30, 53
with feedback control, 78–96
coulometric, 79
temperature sensing, 80–89
time, 79–80
voltage and temperature sensing, 95–96
without feedback control, 76–77
considerations for, 77
importance of adequate, 178
and interrelationships between cell pressure, temperature and voltage, 70–71
low-temperature, 101–102
with rate of temperature change control, 88–89
of sealed lead battery, 154
series/parallel, 101
taper-current, See taper-current charging
temperature, effects of, 68, 70, 179–181
types of, 185–186
charging current, nickel-cadmium battery, 66, 76–77
charging efficiency, nickel-cadmium battery, 67–70
charging power sources, of sealed nickel-cadmium cells and batteries, 96–103
chemical burns, 149
chemistry, 105
nickel-cadmium, 15
concentration polarization, 165
constant current, 181, 198
constant-current charging, 185, 188, 191–196
definition of, 191–192
single-rate, 192–194
applications of, 192–193
and charge rate selection, 193–194
split-rate, 194–196
applications of, 194–196
and multi-cell batteries, 195–196
constant-potential charging (CP), 89, 186, 188, 198. See also constant-voltage charging
types of batteries used with, 89
constant-voltage charging, 185–191, 196, 210
approaches to, 187–189
and charge time, 187
dual-potential, 189
parameters, 189–190
single-potential, 187–189
temperature compensation of, 190–191
tradeoffs in, 191
uses of, 186–187
construction, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 118
consumer devices/products, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 137
continuous overcharge, and battery life, 113–114
corrosion, and operating environment considerations, 220
coulometric control, charging with, 79
coup de fouet, 173
creep leakage, 107–108
CSA, 145, 147
current collector, 64
current limits, 190
current regulation, 99–101
cutoff voltage, See discharge cutoff voltage
cycle life, 224, 226–227
cycle time, and battery life, 212
cyclic acceleration, 142
cycling down, 187

D

DC power source, 96–97, 199–200
deep discharge, 224
depth of discharge
and battery life, 114, 212
and use pattern, 60
detachable chargers, safety of, 152
differential temperature control, charging with, 87–88
direct current (DC), See DC
discharge
deep, 224
disconnecting circuits after, 176
in parallel, 176–177
pulse, 164–165
discharge characteristics of sealed lead cell and battery, See sealed lead battery discharge characteristics
discharge characteristics, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 39–65, 122–123
discharge conditions
temperature, 53–54
discharge curve, 39–40, 41, 158
scaling, 56–57
application parameters, 56–57
procedure, 56–57
discharge cutoff voltage, 61–62, 63
criteria to select, 62
design techniques, 61–62
discharge limits, 173–176
discharge performance, 224, 225
and cell history, 57–64
as dependent on application factors, 57–64
design for, 158
measures of, 158–159
phases of, 158
and battery capacity, 163
and battery capacity ratings, 165–166
and battery discharge voltage, 170–171
method of specifying, 13–14
discharge termination, voltage vs. capacity, 60–64
discharge time, 13
discharge voltage, 170–172
and sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 119
dischargeable capacity, 67
disposal, 150, 234
DOT, 145
dual-potential constant-voltage charging, 189
dumped-time control (DTC), charging with, 80
dynamic transient response, 43–45

E

economic considerations, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery, economic considerations
Edison, Thomas Alva, 7
effective capacitance (Cp), 43–44, 49
calculation of, 46–47
as function of cell life, 168–169
measurement of, 46–47
normalizing, 65
as function of state of charge, 168
as function of temperature, 168
testing, 225, 228
variables influencing, 45–47
calculation of, 46
cell design, 46
cell temperature, 45
history of use, 46
state of discharge, 45–46
effective cell no-load voltage (Eo), 42–43, 167, 171–172
variables influencing, 47
cell temperature, 47
state of discharge, 47
electrical noise, 88
electrical shorts, 112
electric shock, 150
electrochemistry of sealed-lead cell, 23, 232–234
electrode, 12–13, 17
dimensions as factor in cell design, 64
electrolyte, 12–13
deterioration, 111
effecting cell life and performance, 65
electronic loads, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 131–132
elevated temperature, and battery life, 113
elevated temperature charging, 102
emergency application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 130–131
end-of-discharge voltage (EODV), 49–50, 51–52, 59–60, 61, 160–161, 162–163
and cell polarity reversal, 63
engine starting, 155, 221, 222–223
environment
and sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 119
environmental considerations, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery, environmental considerations
EODV, See end-of-discharge voltage,

F

Factory Mutual, 145, 147
fast-charge, 78, 80, 84, 118, 120, 154
ways to control, 78–96
fast-charge capability, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 118
fast-charge cells, 72, 77, 142
fast charging, 154
Faure, 6, 27
float applications, 13, 113, 153, 186, 194–195, 207, 225
float charging, 154, 186
float life, 225, 226
float voltage, 190, 198
flooded lead-acid battery, 6, 9, 12, 24, 27
application of, 27

G

Gates Energy Products, 51, 92, 144, 156, 221, 231
and sealed-lead battery, 7
gelled electrolyte, See starved-electrolyte recombining sealed-lead cell,
general battery concepts, 9–14
General Motors, 6
grid oxidation, 209–210, 214

H

handling, sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 129
hazard function, 109
high-energy density, sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 117–118
high-rate discharge, 173
high-rate discharge capability, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 118
history of rechargeable battery, 6–8
early, 6
invention of, 6
recent developments, 8
hobby uses, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 137–138
humidity, and operating environment considerations, 220

I

improper charging, and battery life, 113
incremental temperature cutoff, 86–87
Industry Advisory Councils, 147
inflection point cutoff (IPCO), 94–95
ingestion, 149
INTELSAT-V, 21
intermittent surge power, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 132–133
International Electrochemical Commission, see IEC
inventory, 129

J

JIS, 147
Jungner, Waldmar, 7

K

Kettering, Charles, 6
knee of the discharge curve, 158, 174

L

lead sulfate, 174
lead-acid battery, 91
commercial uses for, 6
flooded, 6, 9, 12, 24, 27
spirally wound, 6
life of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery life,
lithium metal rechargeable battery, 8
loaded-storage, 107–108
low-temperature charge, 101–102

M

maintenance, and sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 119
maximum capacity, 161
maximum-power current discharge rate (Imp), 125–126
maximum-power operating point (Pmax), 125–126
measurement of fully charged capacity, 51–52
methods of, 51
mechanical shock, and battery life, 114
mid-point voltage (MPV), 39–40, 42, 49, 170, 228
and cell cutoff voltage, 63–64
military, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 130
assembly of, 26
motor loads, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 133–137
heavy, 136
light, 137
mounting, battery, 218–219
MPV, See mid-point voltage
multi-cell battery, 80, 161, 182–183, 195–196, 233
multi-cell capacity, 51

N

National Electrical Code, See NEC
National Fire Protection Association, See NFPA
NEC, 147
negative electrode, 12
negative temperature coefficient (NTC), 83
NFPA, 145, 147
nickel-cadmium, chemistry of, 15
nickel-cadmium battery, 15–20, 26
designing, 123–124
sintered-plate, 7–8, 20
development of, 8
nickel-cadmium battery charging
behavior, 67
current, 66
efficiency, 67–70
temperature, 68
nickel-cadmium cell, 15–20
applications of, 28
difference between nickel-metal hydride cell, 30
enhancements in conventional technology, 28
forms of, 19–20
pocket-plate, 20
primary failure mode, 89
sealed, See sealed nickel-cadmium cell
vented, 19–20
nickel-hydrogen cell, 21
applications of, 21
nickel-hydrogen rechargeable battery, 8
nickel-metal hydride cell, 28–31
application considerations of, 30–31
capacity of, 29
chemistry of, 29
construction of, 29–30
difference between nickel-cadmium chemistry, 30
nickel-metal hydride system rechargeable battery, 8

O

occupational health, 30–32
OCV, See open-circuit voltage
open-circuit voltage (OCV), 202–206, 229
operating life, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 118
orientation, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 119
OSHA, 145
overcharge, 16–17, 68, 70, 71–76, 78, 113–114. See also sealed lead battery overcharge
and cell temperature, 72
definition of, 183
excessive, 178–179
and oxygen recombination reaction, 183–184
and safety, 234
and sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 119
and Tafel curves, 184–185
as cause of voltage depression, 59
overdischarge, problems of, 174

P

parallel connection of cells, 11
parallel discharge, 126
performance, of sealed lead battery, 153
photovoltaic cell, 102–103, 186
photovoltaic power source, 200
physical considerations, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery, physical considerations
Plant, Gaston, 6
pocket-plate nickel-cadmium battery, 20
polarity reversal, See cell polarity reversal
portable audio/video, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 138
portable power, 155, 221, 223
positive temperature coefficient (PTC), 83
power, 155
power density, of sealed lead battery, 153
power discharge, 124–126
power sources, charging, 199–201
pressure, and operating environment considerations, 220
pressure contacts, 128
primary battery, 9, 105, 178, 202
compared to secondary battery, 9
primary failure mode for nickel-cadmium cell, 89
primary switching, 61
product performance, and battery voltage, 62
product verification testing, 140, 144, 224, 228–229
pulse discharge, 164–165

Q

quality control, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery, quality control
quick-charge cells, 72, 77, 118, 120, 142

R

rate, as variable in cell charging capacity, 53
rate of temperature change control, charging with, 88–89
rate-of-voltage-change charge control, 94, 208
real-time testing, for battery life qualification, 141–144
rechargeable battery
history of, 6–8
lithium metal, 8
nickel-hydrogen, 8
nickel-metal hydride system, 8
recent developments in, 28–32
uses for, 8
recombination, 23–24, 27, 178, 183–184
rectification, AC power, 97–99
recycling, 31–32
regulatory agencies, See agencies
regulatory controls, 31–32
Required Application Voltage (RAV), 62, 63
resistance, 42, 43
rest period, open-circuit, 55
rest temperature, as variable in cell capacity, 53
rest time, as variable in cell capacity, 53
during open-circuit rest period, 55
Ritter, Johann, 6
run time, and scaling the discharge curve, 56–57

S

safety, sealed lead battery, See sealed lead battery safety
sealed lead cells, See sealed lead battery safety
sealed nickel-cadmium battery, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery safety
sealed nickel-cadmium cell, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery safety
seal deterioration, 112
sealed lead battery, 7, 23–27
construction of, 24–26
discharge limits, 173–176
discharging, disconnecting circuits, 176
discharging in parallel, 176–177
features of, 153–154
charging, 154
design flexibility, 154
life, 153–154
performance, 153
power density, 153
voltage maintenance, 153
forms of, 27
storage, 105
sealed lead battery applications, 155, 215–223
economic considerations of, 215–217
cyclic, 215–216
standby power, 216–217
functional, 221–223
operating environment considerations of, 220–221
physical considerations of, 217–219
mounting, 218–219
packing, 217
safety, 219
single-cell vs. monobloc, 217
sealed lead battery capacity, 159–166. See also cell capacity
during battery life, 164
as function of battery temperature, 163
definitions, 160–162
design concerns, 159–160
as function of discharge rate, 163
measurement of, 162–163
effect of pulse discharge on, 164–165
ratings, 160–162
and discharge rate, 165–166
sealed lead battery charge acceptance, 181–183
and charge rate, 181–182
factors affecting, 182–183
and state of charge, 181
and temperature, 181
sealed lead battery charging,
characteristics of, 178–183,
importance of, 178
power sources, 199–201
AC, 200
DC, 199–200
photovoltaic, 200
and pressure, 179–181
special situations, 197–199
elevated temperature, 199
high-voltage, 197–198
low-temperature, 199
series/parallel, 198–199
and temperature, 179–181
and voltage, 179–181
sealed lead battery discharge characteristics, 157–177
sealed lead battery discharge performance, measures of, 158–159
sealed lead battery discharge types, 157
high-rate, 157, 173
medium-rate, 157
sealed lead battery life, 190, 192, 207–214
aging mechanisms, 208–209
application distinctions, 207–208
cycle life, 211–213
charging parameters, 213
definition of, 211
factors affecting, 211–212
and temperature, 213
end-of-life definition, 207–208
float life, 209–211
and charge current/voltage, 210
definition of, 210
discharge parameters, 211
and temperature, 210–211
and grid oxidation, 209, 210
mechanical deterioration, 209
tradeoffs, 213–214
sealed lead battery overcharging, 183–185
and Tafel curves, 184–185
oxidation effects of, 184
sealed lead battery safety, 197, 232–235
and cell contents, 232
cautions, 232
disposal, 234
handling cells and batteries, 233
overcharge protection, 234
shipping, 233–234
shorting precautions, 232–234
storage, 233–234
venting, 234
sealed lead battery storage, 153–154, 202–206
capacity retention during, 203
charge retention, 203–205
compared to nickel-cadmium battery, 202
conditions, 205–206
limits, 205–206
recovery, 206
and safety, 234
and self-discharge, 202, 203, 205, 206
and state-of-charge indication, 202–203
sealed lead battery testing
characterization test procedures, 224–228
charge acceptance, 224, 225
discharge, 224, 225
effective cell internal resistance, 225, 228
life, 225–227
logistics, 229–231
mechanical/environmental behavior, 225, 228
overdischarge recovery, 227
precautions, 231
preparations for, 225
product verification, 228–229
purposes for, 224
troubleshooting, 231
sealed lead cell, 23–27
assembly of, 25–26
construction of, 24–26
electrochemistry of, 23
starved-electrolyte recombining, 27
storage, 105
theory of operation, 23–24
sealed nickel-cadmium, voltage during charging, 89–90
sealed nickel-cadmium battery
charge indicator, 122
charging power sources, 96–103
detachable chargers, 130
discharge characteristics, 122–123
economic considerations, 119–122
and battery duty cycle, 120–121
life-cycle vs. first cast, 121–122
electrical considerations, 122–126
parallel discharge, 126
power discharge, 124–126
voltage selection, 124
environmental considerations, 128–129
features of, 35–37, 117–119
construction, 36
discharge voltage regulation, 37
discharging, 35
energy density, 35
environments, 36
maintenance, 37
operating life, 36
orientation, 36–37
overcharge capability, 37
recharging, 35–36
storage life, 36
temperatures, 36
physical considerations, 126–129
assemblies, 127–128
cell interconnection, 128
design, 127
location to charger, 126–127
quality control, 140–148
specification, 144–148
standards, 146–148
storage, 106–108
trouble-shooting, 144
voltage characteristics of, 90
sealed nickel-cadmium battery applications, 37, 109, 130–139
consumer devices/products, 137
electronic loads, 131–132
emergency, 130–131
hobby uses, 137–138
intermittent surge power, 132–133
military, 130
portable audio/video, 138
standby power, 130
toys, 138
sealed nickel-cadmium battery charging
elevated temperature, 102
low-temperature, 101–102
series/parallel, 101
sealed nickel-cadmium battery life, 109–116
and cell construction, 11, 4–116, 164
use factors, 113–114
useful, 110–111
variables of, 109
wear-out mechanisms, 111–112
electrolyte deterioration, 111
seal deterioration, 112
separator deterioration, 112
vent integrity deterioration, 112
and battery integration with product, 152
detachable chargers, 152
potential hazards, 149–152
bums, 149–150
chemical bums, 149
disposal, 150
electric shock, 150
ingestion, 149
venting, 150–152
warnings, 152
sealed nickel-cadmium battery testing, 140–144
product verification, 144
qualification
life, 141–144
performance, 140–141
sealed nickel-cadmium cell, 15–17
charging power sources, 96–103
construction of, 17
design criteria of, 16
discharge voltage curve, 46
discharging characteristics, 35, 39–65
cell discharge voltage performance, 41–49
and cell performance, 42–44
discharge voltage curve, 39–40
performance measures, 39–40, 42
operation of, 1, 6–17
storage, 106–108
sealed nickel-cadmium cell charging, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery charging
secondary battery, 9, 178, 202
compared to primary battery, 9
self-discharge, 30, 55, 105–106, 227
mechanisms, 105–106
and storage, 202
self-discharge rate, 30, 105
separator, 13, 17
and cell operation functions, 64–65
separator deterioration, 112
series connection of cells, 11, 175
series/parallel charging, 101, 198–199
service life, of nickel-metal hydride cell, 30
shock, and operating environment considerations, 220–221
short-circuit current (Isc), 125–126
single-cell battery, 80, 161
single-potential constant-voltage charging, 187–189, 217, 221
single-rate constant-current charging, 192–194
sintered-plate nickel-cadmium battery, 7–8, 20
solar cell, See photovoltaic cell
specification, See sealed nickel-cadmium battery, specifi-cation
split-rate charging, 78
split-rate constant-current charging, 194–196
standard cell capacity, 49–50, 160
standard-charge cells, 72, 77, 120, 142
standards, conformance to, 145
application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 130
starved-electrolyte recombining sealed-lead cell, 27
starved-electrolyte sealed-lead battery, See sealed lead battery
state-of-charge indication, 202–203
state of discharge
and effective cell internal resistance, 45–46
and effective cell no-load voltage, 47
steady-state performance, 43
steady-state resistance, See effective cell internal resistance,
steady-state values, 71–72
storage
loaded-, 107–108
long-term, 106–107
of nickel-metal hydride cell, 30
sealed lead battery, See sealed lead battery storage
short-term, 105–106
storage life, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 118

T

taper-current charging, 185,
temperature
and cell capacity, 129
effecting charging, 68, 70–71, 179–181
and operating environment considerations, 220
and sealed nickel-cadmium battery/cell, 118–119
and sealed nickel-cadmium cell, 128–129
as variable in cell charging capacity, 52–53
temperature acceleration, 142
temperature cutoff, 83–86
and cold battery, 85
and hot battery, 86
incremental, 86–87
and low-temperature environment, 85
temperature sensing control
charging with, 80–89
methods of, 82–84
thermal runaway, 92
thermal stress testing, protocol for, 142
thermistor temperature sensing, and charging, 83–84
thermostat temperature sensing, and charging, 82–83
Thévenin equivalent discharge circuit, 42–43
Thévenin equivalent-circuit model, 166–167
time control, charging with
dumped, 80
simple, 79–80
time, as variable in cell charging capacity, 53
toys, application for sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 138
transportation, 221, 233
trickle charge, 16, 87, 93, 195, 198, 210
troubleshooting, 144, 231

U

UL, See Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., 145, 147, 197
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), 173
Universal Discharge Curve, 56, 57
vacuum, and operating environment considerations, 220

V

VDE, 147
vent integrity deterioration, 112
vented battery, 19, 91
ventilation, of battery pack, 129
venting, 179–180, 193, 194
and safety, 150–152, 234
vibration
and battery life, 114
and operating environment considerations, 220–221
Volta, Alessandro, 6
voltage, 41, 42, 70–71, 121, 122–123. See also battery voltage; cell voltage
and scaling the discharge curve, 57
and temperature sensing control, charging with, 95–96
voltage characteristics, of sealed nickel-cadmium battery, 90
voltage-decrement cutoff (VDCO), 95
voltage depression, 59–60, 173
voltage limit temperature cutoff (VLTCO), 96
voltage maintenance, of sealed lead battery, 153
voltage performance characteristics, 10
voltage plateau, 39–40, 158, 173, 174
voltage selection, 124
voltage sensing control, charging with, 89–95
voltage-temperature cutoff (VTCO), 95–96

W

warnings, 152
watt-hour, 121–122
wear-out mechanisms, of battery life, 111–112
welded interconnections, 128
wound sealed-lead cell, 24–27, 29
..................Content has been hidden....................

You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.
Reset
18.191.43.140