CHAPTER 5

The Script and Production Plan

“Stories can take us places of which we can only dream. An audience will suspend their disbelief in order to be swept into a story. We have to put aside the idea that ‘men can’t fly’ to enjoy Superman.”

Barry Cook, Director

“Every story should have a human face. Show the viewer someone to identify with; or show the viewer a problem he or she can understand, then show the solution.”

Tom Schroeppel, Director

Breakdown sheet: An analysis of a script, listing all of the production elements listed in order of the schedule.

Camera script: A revised script for camera rehearsals, including the details of the production treatment: cameras and audio, cues, transitions, stage instructions, and set changes.

Fact sheet/rundown sheet: Summarizes information about a product or item for a demonstration program, or details of a guest for an interviewer.

Outline script: Usually includes any prepared dialogue, such as the show opening and closing.

Preliminary script/writer’s script: Initial submitted full-page script (dialogue and action) before script editing.

Rehearsal script: Script prepared for television and used for prestudio rehearsal. Script details the settings, characters, action, talent directives, and dialogue.

Running order: In a live production, the program is shot in the scripted order.

Shooting order: When taping a production, the director can shoot in whatever order is most convenient for the crew, actors, and/or director.

Show format: Lists the items or program segments in a show, in the order in which they are to be shot. It may show durations, who is participating, shot numbers, and so on.

Synopsis: An outline of the characters, action, and plot. This synopsis helps everyone involved in the production understand what is going on.

 

Once an idea is conceived, it must be transformed into a message, a script, and/or a production plan. Generally, the script must be created before anything else is done, because it will be the source that every other area draws from.

THE SCRIPT’S PURPOSE

Planning is an essential part of a serious production and the script forms the basis for that plan. Scripts do the following:

 Help the director clarify ideas and develop a project that successfully communicates to the viewers

 Help the director coordinate the entire production team

 Help the director determine what resources will be needed for the television production (Figure 5.1)

FIGURE 5.1
Director, on the set of a sitcom, discussing the script with writers. Scripts help coordinate the production team.

Although some professional crews on location (at a news event, for instance) may appear to be shooting entirely spontaneously, they are usually working through a tried-and-true process or pattern that has been proven successful in past situations.

For certain types of production, such as narratives, the script usually begins the production process. The director then reads the draft script, which usually contains general information on characters, locations, stage directions, and dialogue. He or she then visualizes the scenes and assesses the possible treatment. The director must also anticipate the script’s potential and possible difficulties. At this stage, changes may be made to improve the script or make it more workable. Next, the director goes on to prepare a camera treatment.

Another method of scripting begins with an outline. In this method, you decide on the various topics you want to cover and the amount of time that you can allot to each topic. A script is then developed based on this outline and decisions are made concerning the camera treatment for each segment.

When preparing a documentary, an extended outline becomes a shooting script, showing perhaps the types of shots that the director would like. It usually also includes rough questions for on-location interviews with participants. All other commentary is usually written later, together with effects and music, to finalize the edited production.

In order to have a concise, easy-to-read script, abbreviations are usually used. These abbreviations significantly reduce the amount of wordage on the script, which also reduces the number of required pages (Table 5.1).

THE SCRIPT/PRODUCTION PLAN

The Unscripted Production Plan

There are some types of programs that cannot be scripted. For example, sports events cannot be controlled; you never know where they are going to go. However, the director still needs to think through a quasi script or what is often known as a production plan. These production plans are designed to map out the general flow of the production, with contingency plans taking into consideration that the event could take many unexpected turns along the way.

The Outline Script: Semiscripted Production

The type of script used will largely depend on the kind of program being made. There will be some production situations—particularly where talent improvises as they speak or perform—when the “script” simply lists details of the production group, facilities needed, and scheduling, and shows basic camera positions, and so on.

An outline script usually includes any prepared dialogue, such as the show’s opening and closing. When people are going to improvise, the script may just list the order of topics to be covered. During the show, the list may be included on a card held by the talent, a cue card positioned near the camera, or a teleprompter in order to remind the host. If the show is complicated with multiple guests or events occurring, a show format is usually created (Table 5.2). This lists the program segments (scenes) and shows the following:

 The topic (such as a guitar solo)

 The amount of time allocated for this specific segment

 The names of all talent involved (hosts and guests)

 Facilities (cameras, audio, and any other equipment and space needed)

 External content sources that will be required (such as tape, digital, satellite, and so on)

When segments (or edited packages) have been previously recorded to be inserted into the program, the script may show the opening and closing words of each and the package’s duration. This step assists accurate cueing.

Fully Scripted Shows

When a program is fully scripted, it includes detailed information on all aspects of the production, as described in the following subsections.

SCENES

Most productions are divided into a series of scenes. Each scene covers a complete continuous action sequence and is identified with a number and location (e.g., Scene 3—Office set). A scene can involve anything from an interview to a dance routine, a song, or a demonstration sequence.

SHOTS

When the director has decided how he or she is going to interpret the script, each scene will be subdivided into a series of shots; each shot shows the action from a specific viewpoint. The shots are then numbered consecutively for easy reference on the script, in the order in which they will be screened.

In a live production, the program is shot in the scripted order (running order). When taping a production, the director can shoot in whatever order is most convenient (shooting order) for the crew, actors, and/or director. The director may decide to omit shots (“drop Shot 25”) or to add extra shots (Shots 24A, 24B, etc.). He or she may decide to record Shot 50 before Shot 1 and then edit them into the correct running order at a later time.

DIALOGUE

The entire prepared dialogue, spoken to the camera or between people. The talent may memorize the script or read it off teleprompters or cue cards.

EQUIPMENT

The script usually indicates which camera/microphone is being used for each shot (e.g., Cam. 2 Fishpole).

BASIC CAMERA INSTRUCTIONS

Details of each shot and camera moves (e.g., Cam. 1 CU on Joe’s hand; dolly out to long shot).

SWITCHER (VISION MIXER) INSTRUCTIONS

For example: cut, fade.

CONTRIBUTORY SOURCES

Details of where videotape, graphics, remote feeds, and so on appear in the program. When is it necessary to fully script a production?

1. When the dialogue is to follow a prescribed text that is to be learned or read from a prompter or script.

2. Where action is detailed, so that people move to certain places at particular times and do specific things there. (This can affect cameras, sound, and lighting treatment.)

3. When there are carefully timed inserts (prerecorded materials) that have to be cued accurately into the program.

4. When the duration of a section must be kept within an allotted time slot, yet cover certain agreed-upon subject points. (The speaker might otherwise dwell on one point, and miss another altogether.)

5. Where there are spot cues—such as a lightning flash and an effects disc sound of thunder—at a point in the dialogue.

Script Stages

The fully scripted show is developed in several stages, as described in the following subsections.

DRAFT/ PRELIMINARY SCRIPT/OUTLINE SCRIPT/WRITER’S SCRIPT

The initial submitted full-page script (dialogue and action) before script editing.

REHEARSAL SCRIPT

A script prepared for television and used for prestudio rehearsal. The script details the locales (settings), characters, action, talent directives, and dialogue (Table 5.3).

CAMERA SCRIPT

A revised script for camera rehearsals, augmented with details of production treatment: cameras and audio, cues, transitions, stage instructions, and set changes (Table 5.4).

FULL SCRIPT

The full script is not, as some people believe, an artistically inhibiting document that commits everyone concerned to a rigid plan of procedure. It can be modified as the need arises. It simply informs everyone about what is expected at each moment of the production. Rehearsal time is too precious to use up explaining what is expected of everyone as you go. It is far better to have a detailed script that shows the exact moment for the lighting change, to cue the graphics, or to introduce a special effect. The full script is a changeable plan of how the production will proceed that has details added to it as the production develops.

Fully scripted approaches can be found in newscasts, drama productions, operas, situation comedy shows, documentaries, and commercials. When dialogue and/or action are spontaneous, there can be no script—only an outline of where the show is headed (e.g., discussions). A formal talk is usually scripted.

The more fragmentary or disjointed the actual production process is, the more essential the script becomes. It helps everyone involved to anticipate. And in certain forms of production (such as chroma-key staging), anticipation is essential for tight scheduling.

In a complex production that is videotaped out of sequence, the production crew may be unable to function meaningfully without a full script, that makes it clear how shots/sequences are interrelated and reveals continuity. The lighting director may, for example, need to adjust the lighting balance for a scene so that it will cut smoothly with the different shots that were previously captured.

The full script can be a valuable coordinating document, enabling you to see at a glance the relationships between dialogue, action, treatment, and mechanics. During planning, of course, it helps the team estimate how much time there is for a camera move, how long there is for a costume change, whether rearranging shooting order will give the necessary time for a makeup change, the scenes during which the “rain” should be seen outside the windows of the library set (i.e., the water spray turned on and the audio effects introduced)—and the thousand and one details that interface in a smooth-running show.

The full script is used differently by various members of the production team. For the director, the script has two purposes: as a reference point when developing treatment, estimating the duration of sequences, planning camera moves, and so on, and to demonstrate to members of the team what he or she requires. The director’s assistant(s) follows the script carefully during rehearsals and taping, checking dialogue accuracy, noting where retakes are needed, timing sections (their durations, where a particular event occurred), perhaps readying and cuing contributory sources, as well as “calling shots” on the intercom—for example, “Shot 24 on 2. Coming to 3.” The person operating the production switcher follows the script in detail, preparing for upcoming transitions, superimpositions, effects, and so on, while checking the various monitor pictures.

Others in the team for whom a script would be too distracting (e.g., camera and boom operators) use it as a detailed reference point when necessary, but are guided by simplified outlines such as breakdown sheets and camera cards as they memorize their operations (Table 5.5).

Basic Script Layout Formats

There is not one standard script layout. Script layout styles can vary widely. Some prefer a single-column cinematic format, with transitions in a left margin, and all video and audio information in a single main column. Other versions use two vertical columns, with picture treatment (cameras, switching) on the left, and action and dialogue on the right, together with studio instructions and lighting/effects cues. Directors often mark up their script by hand with their own instructional symbols to indicate transitions and shots.

SINGLE-COLUMN FORMAT

Although there are different variations of the single-column format, all video and audio information is usually contained in a single main column. Before each scene, an explanatory introduction describes the location and the action.

Reminder notes can be made in a wide left-hand margin, including transition symbols (for example: X = cut; FU = fade-up), cues, camera instructions, thumbnail sketches of shots or action, and so on.

This type of script is widely used for narrative film-style production and single-camera video, in which the director works alongside the camera operator. It is perhaps less useful in a multicamera setup, in which the production team is more dispersed, with everyone needing to know the director’s production intentions (Table 5.6).

TWO-COLUMN FORMAT

Like the one-column format, there are many variations of the two-column format. This traditional television format is extremely flexible and informative. It gives all members of the production crew shot-by-shot details of what is going on. They can also add their own specific information (e.g., details of lighting changes) as needed. See Table 5.7.

Two versions of the script are sometimes prepared. In the first (rehearsal script), the right column only is printed. Subsequently, after detailed planning and preproduction rehearsals, the production details are added to the left column to form the camera script.

Keep It Brief

THE DRAMA SCRIPT

The dramatic full script may be prepared in two stages: the rehearsal script and the camera script.

The rehearsal script usually begins with general information sheets, including a cast/character list, production team details, rehearsal arrangements, and similar details. There may be a synopsis of the plot or storyline, particularly when scenes are to be shot/recorded out of order. The rehearsal script generally includes the following types of details:

 Location: The setting where the scene will be shot

 Time of day and weather conditions

 Stage or location instructions (The room is candlelit and a log fire burns brightly)

 Action: Basic information on what is going to happen in the scene, such as actors’ moves (Joe gets in the car)

 Dialogue: Speaker’s name (character) followed by their dialogue; all delivered speech, voiceover, voice inserts (for example, phone conversation), commentary, announcements, and so on (perhaps with directional comments such as “sadly” or “sarcastically”) (Figure 5.2)

 Effects cues: Indicating the moment for a change to take place (lightning flash, explosion, Joe switches light out)

 Audio instructions: music and sound effects

FIGURE 5.2
Actors review the script as they rehearse for CBS Television’s Without A Trace. (Photo by Mitch Haddad/CBS/Landov)

The camera script adds full details of the production treatment to the left side of the rehearsal script, and usually includes:

 The shot number

 The camera used for the shot and possibly the position of the camera

 Basic shot details and camera moves (CU on Joe; dolly back to LS as he rises)

 Switcher instructions (cut, dissolve, etc.)

SUGGESTIONS ON SCRIPTWRITING

There are no shortcuts to good scriptwriting, any more than there are to writing short stories, composing music, or painting a picture. Scriptwriting techniques are learned through observation, experience, and reading. But there are some general guidelines that are worth keeping in mind as you prepare your script, as explained in the following sections.

Be Visual

Although audio and video images are both very important in a television production, viewers perceive television as primarily a visual medium. Material should be presented in visual terms as much as possible. If planned and shot well, the images can powerfully move the audience—sometimes with very few words. Other times programs rely almost entirely on the audio, using the video images to strengthen, support, and emphasize what is heard. Visual storytelling is difficult but powerful when done well.

When directors want their audience to concentrate on what they are hearing, they try to make the picture less demanding. If, for instance, the audience is listening to a detailed argument and trying to read a screen full of statistics at the same time, they will probably not do either successfully.

Pacing the Program

Keep in mind that writing for print is totally different than writing for television. In print, the reader can read at their own pace, stop, and reread whenever they want to. In a television program, the viewing audience generally has to watch the program at the director’s chosen pace. An essential point to remember when scripting television is that the difference between the rates at which the viewer can take in information. A lot depends, of course, on how familiar the audience already is with the subject and the terms used. Where details are new to the audience, and the information is complicated, more time will be required to communicate the information in a meaningful way. Ironically, something that can seem difficult and involved at the first viewing may appear slow and obvious a few viewings later. That is why it is so hard for directors to estimate the effect of material on those who are going to be seeing it for the first time. Directors become so familiar with it that they know it by heart and lose their objectivity.

The key to communicating complex subjects is to simplify. If the density of information or the rate at which it is delivered is too high, it will confuse, bewilder, or just encourage the audience to switch it off—mentally, if not physically.

As sequences are edited together, editors find that video images and the soundtrack sometimes have their own natural pace. That pace may be slow and leisurely, medium, fast, or brief. If editors are fortunate, the pace of the picture and the sound will be roughly the same. However, there will be occasions when they find that they do not have enough images to fit the sound sequence, or they do not have enough soundtrack to put behind the amount of action in the picture.

Often when the talent has explained a point (perhaps taking 5 seconds), the picture is still showing the action (perhaps 20 seconds). The picture, or action, needs to be allowed to finish before taking the commentary on to the next point. In the script, a little dialogue may go a long way, as a series of short pieces cut into the program, rather than a continual flow of verbiage.

The reverse can happen, too, when the action in the picture is brief. For example, a locomotive passes through the shot quickly in a few seconds, taking less time than it takes the talent to talk about it. So, more pictures of the subject are needed, perhaps from another viewpoint, to support the dialogue.

Even when picture and sound are more or less keeping the same pace, do not habitually cut to a new shot as soon as the action in the picture is finished. Sometimes it is better to continue the picture briefly, in order to allow time for the audience to process the information that they have just seen and heard, rather than move on with fast cutting and a rapid commentary.

It is all too easy to overload the soundtrack. Without pauses in a commentary, it can become an endless barrage of information. Moreover, if the editor has a detailed script that fits in with every moment of the image, and the talent happens to slow down at all, the words can get out of step with the key shots they are related to. Then the editor has the choice of cutting parts of the commentary, or building out the picture (with appropriate shots) to enable picture and sound to be brought back into sync.

Style

The worst type of script for television is the type that has been written in a formal literary style, as if for a newspaper article or an essay, where the words, phrases, and sentence construction are those of the printed page. When this type of script is read aloud, it tends to sound like an official statement or a pronouncement, rather than the fluent everyday speech that usually communicates best with a television audience—we don’t want a script that is so colloquial that it includes all the hesitations and slangy half-thoughts one tends to use, but we also want to avoid complex sentence construction.

It takes some experience to be able to read any script fluently, with the required natural expression that brings it alive. But if the script itself is written in a stilted style, it is unlikely to improve with hearing. The material should be presented as if the talent were talking to an individual in the audience, rather than proclaiming on a stage, or addressing a public meeting.

The way the information is delivered can influence how interesting the subject seems to be. The mind boggles at: “The retainer lever actuates the integrated contour follower.” But we immediately understand if it is written this way: “Here you can see, as we pull this lever, the lock opens.”

If the audience has to pause to figure out what is meant, they will not be listening closely to what is being said immediately afterwards. Directors can often assist the audience by anticipating the problems with a passing explanation, or a subtitle (especially useful for names), or a simple diagram.

Hints on Developing the Script

How scripts are developed will vary with the type of program and the way individual directors work. The techniques and processes of good scriptwriting are a study in themselves, but we can take a look at some of the guiding principles and typical points that need to be considered.

WRITERS OFTEN COLLABORATE

Many television shows are written by a team of writers who collaborate on scripts (Figure 5.3). For example, on a sitcom, writers cannot be funny every day. So, a team of comedy writers work together to get the best script possible.

FIGURE 5.3
Teams of writers often collaborate in order to get the best script possible. The writers and producers of CSI:NY are shown working together. (Photo by Cliff Lipson/CBS/Landov)

WRITER’S BLOCK

There will be times when you “hit a wall” when writing. When you have been working for awhile and realize that you are not getting any traction on the script, take a break and do something else for a while to help clear your mind. Then go back with a fresh perspective (Figure 5.4).

THE NATURE OF THE SCRIPT

The Script May Form the Basis of the Entire Production Treatment

Here the production is staged, performed, and shot as indicated in the script. As far as possible, dialogue and action follow the scripted version.

FIGURE 5.4
Two writers from the television series Monk take a break during a scriptwriting session to play air-hockey. On the wall behind them are notecards filled with ideas for the show. (Photo courtesy of NNS/Landov)

The Scriptwriter May Prepare a Draft Script (i.e., a suggested treatment)

This is studied and developed by the director to form a shooting script.

The Script May Be Written after Material Has Been Shot

Certain programs, such as documentaries, may be shot to a preconceived outline plan, but the final material will largely depend on the opportunities of the moment. The script is written to blend this material together in a coherent storyline, adding explanatory commentary/dialogue. Subsequent editing and postproduction work is based on this scripted version.

The Script May Be Written after Material Has Been Edited

Here the videotape editor assembles the shot material, creating continuity and a basis for a storyline. The script is then developed to suit the edited program. Occasionally, a new script replaces the program’s original script with new or different text. For example, when the original program was created in a different language from that of the intended audience, it may be marketed as an M&E version, in which the soundtrack includes only “music and effects.” All dialogue or voiceover commentary is added (dubbed in) later by the recipient in another language.

SCRIPTWRITING BASICS

A successful script satisfies two important requirements:

 The program’s main purpose: to amuse, inform, intrigue, persuade, and so on.

 It must be practical. The script must be a workable vehicle for the production crew.

Fundamentally, we need to ensure that:

 The script meets its deadline. When is the script required? Is it for a specific occasion?

 The treatment is feasible for the budget, facilities, and time available. An overambitious script will necessarily have to be rearranged, edited, and have its scenes rewritten to provide a workable basis for the production.

 The treatment usually must fit the anticipated program length. Otherwise, it will become necessary to cut sequences or pad the production with added scenes afterwards to fit the show to the allotted time slot.

 The style and the form of presentation are appropriate for the subject. An unsuitable style, such as a lighthearted approach to a very serious subject, may trivialize the subject.

 The subject treatment is suitable for the intended audience. The style, complexity, concentration of information, and other details are relative to their probable interest and attention span.

ASK YOURSELF

Who Is the Program For? What Does Your Audience Already Know?

Analyzing your audience is covered in Chapter 4.

What Is the Purpose of This Program?

Examples of program style are entertainment, information, instruction, or persuasion (as in advertising, program trailers, propaganda). Is there a follow-up to the program (such as publicity offers or tests)?

Is the Program One of a Series?

Does it relate to or follow other programs? Do viewers need to be reminded of past information? Does the script style need to be similar to previous programs? Were there any omissions, weaknesses, or errors in previous programs that can be corrected in this program?

What Is the Length of the Program?

Is it brief? (Must it make an immediate impact?) Is it long enough to develop arguments or explanations for a range of topics?

How Much Detail Is Required in the Script?

Is the script intended to be complete with dialogue and action? (Actual visual treatment depends on the director.) Is the script a basis for improvisation (e.g., by a guide or lecturer)? Is it an ideas sheet, giving an outline for treatment?

Are You Writing Dialogue?

Is it for actors to read, or inexperienced performers? (For the latter, keep it brief, in short “bites” to be read from a prompter or spoken in their own words.) Is the dialogue to be naturalistic or “character dialogue”?

Is the Subject a Visual One?

If the subjects are abstract, or no longer exist, how will you illustrate them?

Have You Considered the Script’s Requirements?

It takes only a few words on the page to suggest a situation, but to reproduce it in pictures and sound may require considerable time, expense, and effort (e.g., a battle scene). You may have to rely on available stock library video. Does the script pose obvious problems for the director? For example, a script involving special effects, stunts, and the like?

Does the Script Involve Costly Concepts That Can Be Simplified?

An intercontinental conversation could be covered by an expensive two-way video satellite transmission, or can it be accomplished by utilizing an online telephone call accompanied by previously acquired footage or still images?

Does the Subject Involve Research?

The script may depend on what researchers discover while investigating the subject. Do you already have information that can aid the director (have contacts, know of suitable locations, availability of insert material, etc.)?

Where Will the Images Come From?

Will the subjects be brought to the studio? (This allows maximum control over the program treatment and presentation.) Or will cameras be going on location to the subjects? (This may include situations like shooting in museums.) Script opportunities may depend on what is available when the production is being shot.

REMEMBER

Start Scripting with a Simple Outline

Before embarking on the main script treatment, it can be particularly helpful to rough out a skeleton version, which usually includes a general outline treatment, covering the various points that need to be included, in the order in which the director proposes dealing with them.

Visualize

 Sometimes pictures alone can convey the information more powerfully than the spoken word.

 The way a commentary is written (and spoken) can influence how the audience interprets a picture (and vice versa).

 Pictures can distract. People may concentrate on looking instead of listening!

 Avoid “talking heads” wherever possible. You may want to show the subject being talked about, rather than the person who is speaking.

 The script can only indicate visual treatment. It will seldom be specific about shot details, unless that is essential to the plot or situation. Directors have their own ideas!

Avoid Overloading

 Keep it simple. Don’t be long-winded or use complicated sentences. Keep to the point. When a subject is difficult, an accompanying diagram, chart, or graph may help make the information easier to understand.

 Do not give too much information at a time. Do not attempt to pack too much information into the program. It is better to do justice to a few topics than to cover many inadequately.

Develop a Flow of Ideas

 Deal with one subject at a time. Generally, avoid cutting between different topics.

 Do not have different information on the screen than in the commentary. This can be very distracting and confusing to the viewer.

 Aim to have one subject or sequence lead naturally into the next.

 When there are a number of separate different topics, think through how they are related and the transitions necessary to keep the audience’s interest.

Consider Pace

 Vary the pace of the program. Avoid a fast pace when imparting facts. It conveys an overall impression, but facts do not sink in. A slow pace can be boring or restful, depending on the content.

 Remember that the audience cannot refer to the program later (unless it is interactive or they have a video recorder). If they miss a point, they may fail to understand the next—and will probably lose interest.

Watch Your Style

 Use an appropriate writing style for the intended viewer. Generally, aim for an informal, relaxed style.

 There is a world of difference between the style of the printed page and the way people normally speak. Reading from a prompter produces an unnatural, stilted effect.

 Be very careful about introducing humor in the script!

Scripting Tools

Most writers use one of the numerous scriptwriting software programs to create their scripts. These programs usually have a variety of formats, allowing the writer to select the most appropriate script format that fits the production they are working on. Some of this software will allow the writer to create the full script designed in a way that other scripts, such as a camera script, can be easily printed with little additional effort.

Scriptwriting apps have also been created that allow mobile phones and tablets to be used for scriptwriting. These tools are especially helpful to update a script while in the field or write down ideas when you are not close to your computer (Figure 5.5).

Storyboards

Many directors need to think through each production scene in their minds, capturing the images and turning them into a storyboard. The storyboard is primarily used for dramatic productions, but is used for other events as well. An example would be the opening ceremonies at the Olympics (Figure 5.6).

FIGURE 5.5
There are many different computer-based scriptwriting programs. The first image shows a screen shot of Final Draft software and a script. The second image shows a smartphone scriptwriting app.

The storyboard is a series of rough sketches that help the director visualize and organize his or her camera treatment. It is a visual map of how the director hopes to arrange the key shots for each scene or action sequence (Figures 5.7 and 5.8).

There are many advantages to using a storyboard:

 Assist the director in thinking through the shot sequences

 Help the director be more efficient on the set

 Visualize the sequence so that others can give feedback

 Allows the crew to know how the number camera angles and camera placements

 Assists with scene continuity

Directors find that the storyboard can be a valuable aid, whether they are going to shoot action:

 Continuously, from start to finish

 In sections or scenes (one complete action sequence at a time)

 As a series of separate shots or “action segments,” each showing a part of the sequence

Storyboards can be designed a number of different ways. There are software programs that assist the director in visualizing ideas; someone can roughly sketch them out; or a storyboard artist can create detailed drawings that can even be animated to be shown during the fundraising period (Figures 5.9–5.12).

FIGURE 5.6
This storyboard was a page from the opening ceremony at the Olympics. Hand-drawn, it served as a guide to the staff involved in the broadcast of the production. (Image courtesy of International Sports Broadcasting)

FIGURE 5.7
This storyboard was created for a television commercial. (Image courtesy of Jim Mickle)

Hand-drawn storyboards usually begin with a grid of frames. Start to imagine your way through the first scene, roughly sketching the composition for each shot. You don’t have to be able to draw well to produce a successful storyboard. Even the crudest scribbles can help you organize your thoughts and show other people what you are trying to do. If the action is complicated, you might need a couple of frames to show how a shot develops. Let’s look at a very simple storyline, to see how the storyboard provides you with imaginative opportunities.

The young person has been sent to buy her first postage stamp.

There are dozens of ways to shoot this brief sequence. You could simply follow her all the way from her home, watching as she crosses the road, enters the post office, goes up to the counter … the result would be totally boring.

ANALYZING ACTION

Let’s think again. We know from the previous scene where she is going and why. All we really want to register are her reactions as she buys the stamp. So let’s cut out all the superfluous footage, and concentrate on that moment (Figure 5.13):

1. The child arrives at the counter, and looks up at the clerk.

2. Hesitatingly, she asks for the stamp.

3. She opens her fingers, to hand the money to the clerk.

FIGURE 5.8
These storyboards were created by artist Josh Sheppard for dramatic productions.

FIGURE 5.9
Left: A frame from a storyboard. Right: How the camera shot that specific scene. (Photo by Taylor Vincent)

FIGURE 5.10
A storyboard used for a dramatic production that was created by computer software designed for nonartists. (Image created using StoryBoard Quick by Power Production)

4. The clerk smiles and takes the money and pulls out the stamp book.

5. A close shot of the clerk tearing the stamp from a sheet.

You now have a sequence of shots, far more interesting than a continuous follow-shot. It stimulates the imagination. It guides the audience’s thought processes. It has a greater overall impact. However, if this type of treatment is carried out poorly, the effect can look very disjointed, contrived, and posed. It is essential that the treatment matches the style and theme of the subject.

FIGURE 5.11
Storyboard programs are available on all types of devices. Both of these screenshots were taken from a storyboard program on an iPhone. (Software by Cinemek)

FIGURE 5.12
Computer-based storyboard programs allow the nonartist to create professional looking storyboards. (Software by Power Production)

The whole sequence could have been built with dramatic camera angles, strong music, and effects. But would it have been appropriate? If the audience knows that a bomb is ticking away in a parcel beneath the counter, it might have been. It is all too easy to over-dramatize or “pretty-up” a situation (such as star filters producing multiray patterns around highlights, and diffusion filters for misty effects). Resist the temptation to add too much to the scene, keep it appropriate.

This breakdown has not only helped you to visualize the picture treatment, but allowed you to begin to think about how one shot is going to lead into the next. You can start to deal with practicalities. You see, for example, that shots 1 and 3 are taken from the front of the counter, and shots 2, 4, and 5 need to be taken from behind it. Obviously, the most logical approach is to shoot the sequence out of order. The storyboard becomes a shooting plan.

To practice storyboarding, review a motion picture carefully, making a sketch of each key shot. This way, you will soon get into the habit of thinking in picture sequences, rather than in isolated shots.

Additional Production Plan Information

In addition to the script and possibly a storyboard, there are a number of other production/scripting tools that may be helpful.

Synopsis: An outline of characters, action, and plot. Appended to a dramatic script, particularly when shot out of sequence, or to coordinate a series. This synopsis is helpful to assist everyone involved in the production to understand what is going on.

Fact sheet/rundown sheet: Summarizes information about a product or item for a demonstration program, or details of a guest for an interviewer. Provided by a researcher, editor, or agency for guidance.

Show format/breakdown sheet/running order: Lists the events or program segments in order, allowed durations, participants’ names, cameras, audio pickup allocated, setting used, video and audio inserts, and so on. (This is sometimes also called a rundown sheet, but is not to be confused with the fact sheet.) Invaluable for unscripted, semiscripted, and scripted shows that contain a series of self-contained segments (sequences, scenes). It is also useful as a summary of a complex dramatic script to show at a glance: shot numbers for each scene, operational details, inserts, break for major resetting (clearing props, redressing set, moving scenery), costume, makeup changes, and so on. (See Table 5.5.)

FIGURE 5.13
When edited together correctly, a sequence looks natural. But even a simple scene showing a person buying a stamp needs to be thought through. Note how shots 1 and 3 are taken on one side of the counter, and shots 2, 4, and 5 on the other. (Illustration created by StoryBoard Quick software)

Individual camera information:

Shot sheet: The shot sheet is a list of all of the individual camera’s required shots. Shot sheets reduce the amount of communication between the director and the camera operators during the actual production, as the shots are already on the sheet.

Team roster: In sports production, it is often helpful for camera operators to have a list of team members with their jersey numbers. That way, if the director tells them to shoot a specific person (by name), they can see what their number is (Figure 5.14).

FIGURE 5.14
Camera operators often use information, such as a shot sheet or a team roster, that assists them in doing their job.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the different types of scripts and how are they used in a production?

2. Why is a show format used during a production?

3. When is it necessary to fully script a production?

4. How is a storyboard used in a production?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: ANDREA GYERTSON NASFELL

Briefly define your job: I create the story for movies and TV shows and turn it into the script that communicates the artistic vision as well as the practical instructions to the production crew. Usually I am hired by a producer who has a particular story in mind (based on an existing property like a book, or a concept that they like), and my job is to understand that vision and create a story and script that meets the need. Sometimes I write my own projects (“spec scripts”) and take those finished projects to producers who might buy them.

What do you like about your job? I like the flexibility. I can write when and how I want to, as long as I am meeting deadlines. This helps me juggle my family and other responsibilities with my work. I like the fact that if I’m not on a work-for-hire project I can still write my own projects to sell. I like the variety in projects—for months I may be writing an intense drama, but when it’s done, I can write comedy for a while. There is always a new challenge. I love the creative aspect of it, combined with the problemsolving aspect of it. While you can create totally new and original people and worlds, you are also working for the needs of the producer and the market, so you have to know how to make the art and commerce come together, which is it’s own kind of creativity. I love to see a finished project, remembering that I was sitting in my kitchen wondering how to make that character or plot point work, and then months or years later, a team of amazingly creative people brought it all to life, and it went out into the world and touched an audience. That’s an exhilarating feeling.

What are the types of challenges that you face in your position? Writers are considered easily expendable, so there is a lot of pressure to deliver a perfect project in order to stay hired for multiple drafts and keep writing credit (which can determine residual payments). If you’re not a person that can listen to criticism and execute notes, then you can face a lot of challenges finding work or staying employed on a project. Producers want writers to listen, understand, and be flexible. But there are numerous ways to get fired, from just not hitting the mark, to the producers wanting a different “feel,” to the producer wanting to hire a buddy as a favor. Another major challenge is that screenwriting can pay big money, but the big jobs only come along once in a while. In features you can make seven figures one year and then not work for the next three or four years. (Television is a little more stable, if you are “staffed” on a show, but if the show gets cancelled, it’s a similar problem.) There are a lot of writers vying for the same jobs, and only “A-list” writers get hired on the top projects. You have to live cautiously and know how to make money last over long periods of time.

How do you prepare for a production? All of my work comes before production. I’m usually off writing something else by the time my script goes into production, but if its a smaller project I’m sometimes brought back for production rewrites for specific locations they’ve found or actor challenges they might face. To prepare for writing in general, I studied a lot of story structure and character theory, and watched a lot of movies and TV shows. For specific projects, I’ll do heavy research into the locations, the characters’ careers, or any other unique element of the story. I’ll also watch a lot of other films in the genre, especially any that the producer wants to use as a template for tone, structure, etc.

What suggestions or advice do you have for someone interested in a position like yours? Read everything you can about writing for film and television, and then read the scripts of movies or shows you love. You can find a lot of scripts online now, if you search, and it’s very educational to see how it went from the page to the screen. After that, write, write, write. And show people what you are writing. All of the jobs I’ve landed came from connections I made and from showing my scripts around. It takes several scripts before you really get the hang of formatting, screenplay style, structure, and character. I know professionals in the business who won’t read a new writer’s work unless they’ve written three (and even up to ten!) screenplays already. Write, write, write.

FIGURE 5.15
Andrea Gyertson Nasfell, Screenwriter

Andrea Gyertson Nasfell is a partner at Sodium Entertainment in Los Angeles.

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: HAKEM DERMISH

Briefly define your job: I anchor the weekend sports at NBC 4 in Washington, D.C. I also co-host our two sports shows Capital Games and Sports Final. I also produce two days a week in addition to my anchoring and reporting duties.

What do you like about your job? I love having the opportunity to entertain people with great video and stories. My greatest passion is telling stories of people who have overcome great adversity. It’s a privilege to have the opportunity to share stories of inspiration.

What are the types of challenges that you face in your position? Challenging myself to always write creative fresh stuff that engages and informs our viewers. Managing time is crucial; for example, on Sunday nights I prepare for two shows: the 11 P.M. sportscast and our 30-minute sports show. I have a lot of energy, but sometimes it starts to wane before the 11 P.M. sports, so a little bit of caffeine from the vending machine helps.

How do you prepare for a production? Including watching the games that night, I research, research, and research. I always look for that interesting nugget or fact that makes the story stronger. The exciting part is using that bit of information and crafting a lead to set up the highlights. Another great thing is the opportunity to learn something new every day, whether it be about a specific team or player. Being prepared is critical because it proves your credibility as a journalist. I like to think that because I’m prepared, our viewers trust me and the information I provide.

What suggestions or advice do you have for someone interested in a position like yours? Work hard. It’s said all the time, but you really have to work hard to obtain a position in television. There’s so much competition, so while you’re in school, go the extra mile, do the extra work, challenge yourself. If your professors don’t have a particular curriculum that allows you to do something you’d like, ask them if you can go “outside the box” and you might surprise yourself with the end result. Be focused when you’re in school, it’s a time to have fun, but really turn your attention on your future. Be aggressive. Go after things, don’t hesitate because you think it’s too difficult. I enjoy my job because I get paid to talk about sports every day which is very satisfying for a sports junkie like myself; find something you’re really passionate about, be it sports, weather, or news. As a senior in college, get a resume tape together and begin sending it out in the spring before graduation. Waiting until after you graduate just makes it that more difficult. It should have a montage of you in different settings, i.e., in studio, in the field, etc. follow that with a sportscast/weathercast/newscast, then a story or two that shows your writing. Also, get an internship, that’s really where you’ll learn the most about the business. Observing what goes on and having the chance to get your hands on a camera or editing equipment will help develop your skills. Having the ability to do several “things” will help you go further.

FIGURE 5.16
Hakem Dermish, Sports Reporter/Anchor

Hakem Dermish is a sports anchor and reporter for WRC/NBC4 in Washington, D.C.