CHAPTER 4

The Production Process

“The reality in the production world in which budget, bottom lines, timelines, and Murphy’s Law bump into creativity, character, and story is what the production process is all about. Television projects are made in preproduction. They may be executed in production, but they are made in the preproduction phase. There is no substitution for preproduction before you get into production. That is one of the toughest things for a director or producer to learn when creating television and film projects.”

Adapted from Myrl Schreibman, Producer

“If it doesn’t look as if it’s going to work on paper, then it probably won’t work. Put enough effort into planning and then communicate those plans to everyone.”

Claire Popplewell, Senior Producer and Director, BBC

Dolly: The action of moving the whole camera and mount slowly toward or away from the subject.

Goals: Broad concepts of what you want to accomplish in a production.

I-mag: Image magnification; refers to video on large television screens next to a stage in order to help the viewers see the stage action.

Objectives: Measurable goals.

Postproduction: Editing, additional treatment, and duplication of the project.

Storyboard: A series of rough sketches that help someone visualize and organize the desired camera treatment.

 

As you would expect, in the real world there is a broad spectrum of approaches to television production. One end of the spectrum is a “get me a good shot” approach, largely relying on the initiative of the camera team to find the best shots. At the other extreme are directors who know precisely what they want, and arrange the talent and cameras to get exactly that.

THE THREE STAGES OF PRODUCTION

Most television productions go through three main stages:

1. Planning and preparation. The preparation and organization of the production and rehearsal before the production begins. Ninety percent of the work on a production usually goes into the planning and preparation stage (Figure 4.1).

2. Production. Actually shooting the production.

3. Postproduction. Editing, additional treatment, and duplication.

The amount of work at each stage is influenced by the nature of the subject. One that involves a series of straightforward “personality” interviews is generally a lot easier to organize than one on an Arctic exploration or a historical drama. But in the end, a great deal depends on how the director decides to approach the subject.

FIGURE 4.1
During the flow of the video production process, roughly 90 percent of the work goes into the planning and preparation stage.

Working at the highest quality level, directors can create incredible programming by using simple methods. Treatment does not have to be elaborate to make its point. If a woman in the desert picks up her water bottle, finds it empty, and the camera shows a patch of damp sand where it rested, the shot has told us a great deal without any need for elaboration. A single look or a gesture can often have a far stronger impact than lengthy dialogue attempting to show how two people feel about each other.

It is important to understand the complexity of the production. Some ideas seem simple enough, but can be difficult or seem impossible to carry out. Others look very difficult or impracticable, but are easily achieved on the screen.

STAGE 1: PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Why Plan?

Some people find the idea of planning very restrictive. They want to get on with the shooting. For them, planning somehow turns the thrill of the unexpected into an organized commitment.

But many situations must be planned and worked out in advance. Directors need to get permission to shoot on private property, to make appointments to interview people, to arrange admissions, and so on. They might occasionally have success if they arrive unannounced, but it is not safe to assume this. However, directors also need to be prepared to take advantage of unexpected opportunities. It is worth taking advantage of the unexpected, even if you decide not to use it later.

The television production process is sometimes linear and sometimes nonlinear. Sometimes the concept starts with a piece of music and sometimes a script. Other times the concept may originate with a writer, the producer, the director, or even a production assistant. So, even though the steps in the process may be in a different order at times, the most common process is described in the following sections—and it always starts with an idea.

The Idea: Starting with a Concept

Something triggers the idea. Usually, it comes from an interesting personal experience, a story you heard, something you read in a book or newspaper—some interesting incident that gave you the idea for your production. After the idea, you have to begin to formulate your goals and objectives.

Setting the Goals and Objectives

What do you really want your audience to know after they have viewed your production? It could be that you want the program to be educational, to entertain, or to inspire. The answer to this question is essential, as it guides the entire production process. The goals and objectives will determine what is used as a measuring stick throughout the rest of the production process. Goals are broad concepts of what you want to accomplish. Here’s a sample goal: I want to explain how to field a Formula One racing team.

Objectives are measurable goals. That means something that can be tested to see whether the audience reacted the way you wanted them to react to the program. Take the time to think through what the audience should know after seeing your program. The following are some sample objectives.

When the viewers finish watching the program, 50 percent of them should be able to:

 Identify three types of sponsorship

 Identify four crew positions

Both of these are objectives, because they are measurable. The number of objectives is determined by the goals. This means that sometimes only one objective is needed; other times, five may be required.

The Target Audience

Whether your program is a sitcom, a news program, commercial, or a sports production, it is essential to determine who the program is for, and its chief purpose:

 Who is the viewing audience? Are they senior citizens, teens, or children?

 Is it for the general public, for specific groups, or for a local group?

 What level of content is required: basic, intermediate, or advanced? If the audience consists of children who cannot read, relevant images may be required.

 Is any specific background, qualification, language, or group experience necessary for the audience? If the audience is new to the language, carefully chosen words will need to be used.

 Are there specific production styles that this audience favors? Teens lean toward an MTV television style, yet older viewers may appreciate a CBS News Sunday Morning production style. The target audience should determine your program’s coverage and style. It is self-evident that the sort of program you would make for a group of content experts would be very different than one made for young children (Figure 4.2).

The conditions under which the audience is going to watch the program are important too. Today, most video programs are not made to be broadcast. They are viewed as DVDs or streamed into homes, classrooms, corporate offices, and many other locations. So the wise director tries to anticipate these conditions because they can considerably affect the way the program is produced. How and where is your audience going to see the program (Figure 4.3)? Consider:

FIGURE 4.2
The intended audience should determine how the director covers the subject. In this situation, generally a younger crowd would favor a different style of coverage than elderly people. (Photo by Paul Dupree)

 Will they be watching a traditional television screen in their homes?

 Will they be a seated group of students watching a large screen in a darkened classroom?

 Will the viewer be watching a streamed video over the Internet while at the office?

 Will the program be viewed on an iPod while riding in a car?

 Will the video be projected on large screens next to a stage in order to help the viewers see the stage action? This is known as image magnification (I-mag).

FIGURE 4.3
Different ways to watch television. (Photos by Panasonic, Jon Cypher, and YouTube)

Try to anticipate the problems for an audience watching a distant picture monitor. Long shots have correspondingly little impact. Closer shots are essential, as they add emotion and drama. Small lettering means nothing on a small distant screen. To improve the visibility of graphics, keep details basic and limit the information.

If your target audience may be watching on an iPod or other very small-screen device, directors should lean toward more close-ups than usual, as the long shots may not be as discernable on the small screen (Figure 4.4).

Here are a number of reminder questions that can help you anticipate your audience’s potential problems:

 Does the program rely on their previously established knowledge?

 How much does the audience already know about the subject?

 Will the program be watched straight through, or will it be stopped after sections for discussion?

 Will there be other competing, noisy attractions as they watch, such as at an exhibition?

 Will the program soon be out of date?

 What is the time limit for the program?

FIGURE 4.4
Close-up shots add emotion and drama to a production and add needed detail to smallscreen productions such as those seen on an iPodtype device.

The Budget

It is understandable that most directors are more creative minded than business minded. However, you have to be financially savvy in order to stay within the budget constraints—and every production has budget constraints. Figure 4.5 shows a sample basic television budgeting sheet.

FIGURE 4.5
An example of a simple television budget sheet. (Courtesy of Kristof Creative, Inc./KristofCreative.com)

It is important to understand what you have available financially at the beginning of the project. Once the total budget has been established, it needs to be broken down into categories. The categories may include but are not confined to the following:

 Transportation

 Staff/crew

 Talent/actors

 Script

 Equipment costs (rental or purchase)

 Postproduction

 Props

 Permits

 Food

 Lodging

 Supplies

An estimate needs to be made for each category. Once the estimates are completed, you can see if your project is going to fit the assigned overall budget. Most of the time you will need to trim in order to fit the budget. However, occasionally you will see that you have some extra money in the budget, allowing you to increase a category or two (Figure 4.6).

Once the budget is final, it is important to begin tracking each expenditure. This enables you to keep an eye on the categories as well as the overall budget. If you go over in one category, it means that you have to take money from a different category—or you will go over budget.

Building a track record of being able to stay within budgets will increase the trust that clients have in you, knowing that you can responsibly create productions.

FIGURE 4.6
Budgeting software keeps track of production expenses, comparing the estimated costs to the actual costs. Computer software is available to keep a very detailed budget. Mobile software that works on a portable device is helpful when in the field. This is a screenshot from Film Budget, a free iPhone budgeting app for small films.

Limitations/Restrictions

There are a number of obvious factors that determine what you can do, and how you go about the production, including budget restrictions; the amount of time available; money and legal issues; the time of day or season; weather; limitations or shortages of equipment or personnel; the experience and adaptability of the talent; and any local intrusions, such as location noises.

The Production Plan

Every program needs a production plan. As mentioned earlier, sometimes the program may be an unscripted event unfolding live, right in front of you. Although some live events cannot be scripted, a production plan is still a necessity. Going through almost the same process as creating a script, the director must know the event and create the best coverage plan. After reviewing the various outcomes of the event, it is important to come up with enough contingency plans that will allow you to continue covering the event, no matter what happens (Figure 4.7).

Production Methods

Great ideas are not enough. Ideas have to be worked out in realistic, practical terms. They have to be expressed as images and sounds. In the end, the director has to decide what the camera is going to shoot, and what the audience is going to hear. Where do you start?

There are two very different approaches to video production:

 The unplanned method, in which instinct and opportunity are the guides.

 The planned method, which organizes and builds a program in carefully arranged steps.

FIGURE 4.7
A sports event is an example of an unscripted event that still requires a production plan. (Photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 4.8
Some documentaries are shot using the unplanned approach, in which instinct and opportunity are the guides. (Photo by Will Adams)

THE UNPLANNED APPROACH

Directors following the unplanned approach get an idea, then look around for subjects and situations that relate to it. After shooting possible material, they later create a program from whatever they have found. Their inspiration springs from the opportunities that have arisen.

An example would be if a director decides to make a program about safety at sea. Using the unplanned approach, the director might go to a marina and develop a production based on the stories heard there. Or the idea could be discussed with the lifeguards, and the director might then decide to follow an entirely different plan. A commercial dock could also be visited, and the director might discover material there of an entirely different kind.

After accumulating a collection of interesting sequences (atmospheric shots, natural sound, interviews, etc.), the content is reviewed and then put into a meaningful order. A program could then be created that fits the accumulated material, probably writing a commentary as a voiceover to match the edited pictures.

At best, this approach is fresh, uninhibited, improvisational, makes use of the unexpected, avoids rigid discipline, and is very adaptable. Shots are interestingly varied. The audience is kept alert, watching and interpreting the changing scene.

At worst, the result of such shot-hunting is a haphazard disaster, with little cohesion or sense of purpose. Because the approach is unsystematic, gaps and overlaps abound. Good coherent editing may be difficult. Opportunities may have been missed. The director usually relies heavily on the voiceover to try to provide any sort of relationship and continuity between the images (Figure 4.8).

THE PLANNED APPROACH

The planned method of production approaches the problem quite differently, although the results on the screen could be similar. In this situation the director works out, in advance, the exact form he or she wants the program to take and then creates it accordingly.

Fundamentally, you can either:

 Begin with the environment or setting and decide how the cameras can be positioned to get the most effective shots (Figure 4.9).

 Envision certain shots or effects that you want to see, and create a setting that will provide those results (Figure 4.10).

FIGURE 4.9
Production and engineering staff review a venue for a television production using the planned approach. They begin with the setting and then decide where to place the cameras.

A lot will depend on which of the following scenarios applies:

 Interpreting an existing script (as in drama). This will involve analyzing the script: examining the storyline and the main action in each scene and visualizing individual shots.

 Building a treatment framework. That is, considering how you are going to present a specific program subject and working out the kinds of shots you want.

At best, the planned approach is a method in which a crew can be coordinated to give their best. There is a sense of systematic purpose throughout the project. Problems are largely ironed out before they develop. Production is based on what is feasible. The program can have a smooth-flowing, carefully thought out, persuasive style.

At worst, the production becomes bogged down in organization. The program can be stodgy and routine and lack originality. Opportunities are ignored, because they were not part of the original scheme, and would modify it. The result could be a disaster.

In reality, an experienced director uses a combination of the planned and unplanned approaches, starting off with a plan and then taking advantage of any opportunities that become available.

FIGURE 4.10
Narrative directors use the planned approach to production by utilizing a storyboard. However, they create the setting to fit the story.

Schedule

It is imperative to sit down and establish a schedule that includes the essential deadlines. These deadlines usually revolve around the following issues: When does the script need to be completed? When do locations need to be chosen? When does the talent need to be selected and contracted? Deadlines are also selected for the crew, equipment, rehearsals, graphics, props, rehearsals, and rough production and postproduction schedule. Keep in mind that at this stage you are not actually doing any of these things; you are determining the schedule and setting the deadlines as to when they must be completed.

Any time the schedule is not met, there will be a ripple effect on the other areas of the production, because one of two things is going to happen: the production will either go over budget or some elements will need to be cut in order to make up for lost time and/or money.

Coverage

What do you want to cover in the available time? How much is reasonable to cover in that time? If there are too many topics, it will not be possible to do justice to any of them. If there are too few, the program might seem slow and labored. There is nothing to be gained by packing the program full of facts, for although they may sound impressive, audiences rarely remember more than a fraction of them. Unlike with the printed page, the viewer cannot check back to confirm something, unless the program is designed to be stopped and rewound or is frequently repeated.

The kind of subject that is being covered, as well as who makes up the audience and the content that needs to be featured, will influence how the camera is utilized in the program, where it concentrates, how close the shots are, and how varied they are. Here are some of the areas that the director or producer should consider in advance:

 What are the content areas that need to be covered?

 Is the subject (person, event, or object) best seen from specific angles? Does a specific angle help communicate the message more effectively? (See Figure 4.11.)

 Would the addition of graphics help the audience understand the content of the production?

 If possible, watch a preliminary unfilmed rehearsal so that the best viewpoints and shots can be determined.

 Give the talent and crew the vision and goals for the production and then help them know what they can do to assist in attaining the goals.

FIGURE 4.11
This producer is determining the best camera angles for coverage in a stadium.

Building a Program Outline

The program outline begins with a series of headings showing the main themes that need to be discussed.

Let’s use the example of an instructional video about building a wall. In this case, the topics that might be covered could include: tools needed, materials, foundation, making mortar, and methods of laying bricks and pointing. We can now determine how much program time can be devoted to each topic. Some will be brief and others relatively lengthy. Some of the topics will need to be emphasized; others will be skipped over to suit the purpose of the program.

The next stage is to take each of the topic headings and note the various aspects that need to be covered as a series of subheadings. Under “tools,” for instance, each tool that must be demonstrated should be listed. Now there is a structure for the program and the director can begin to see the form it is likely to take.

Research

Some programs, such as dramas (especially period dramas), documentaries, news, interviews, and others need to complete research in order to create the program’s content or make sure that the existing content is accurate. This research may involve going to the library, doing online research, or contacting recognized experts in the content area of the show. Travel may even be required.

The important thing to remember here is that research is time consuming and may affect the production budget—especially if a content expert wants an appearance fee or flights and lodging are included for the crew or guest.

Thinking through the Shots

There are a number of different shots that are used in productions: interviews, panel discussions, piano and instrumental performances, singers, and newscasts. These are usually familiar to a studio production crew and meaningful shooting variations can be limited. What the talent is saying (or playing) is more important than straining to achieve new and original shots. Consequently, these productions follow normal patterns so that the director often starts off with planned angles and then may introduce a specific treatment as it becomes desirable (Figures 4.12 and 4.13).

Planning for regular productions is primarily a matter of coordinating staff and facilities; ensuring that the video packages or clips are available (with known timing and cue points); preparation of graphics, titles, and similar features; and organizing any additional material. The production itself may be based on a series of key shots and some spontaneous on-the-fly decisions.

Treatment Breakdown

For many shows, the action is predetermined by the program format—the talent is going to enter by walking down a staircase and sitting in a specific chair to be interviewed, then move over to a table to talk about the product on display. The shots are straightforward. The director checks over the plans, and with an eye to the program script, places cameras in regular positions that fit the treatment (long shots, group shots, singles, reaction shots). Any variations can be worked out during rehearsals.

FIGURE 4.12
In a formal interview, there are relatively few shots.

FIGURE 4.13
There is often a broad range of shot options. (Photos by Austin Brooks)

However, if you are directing a more complicated production, planning will need to be more detailed. You begin by reading through the script, with the sets and layouts of the location. As you read, you visualize each scene and consider issues such as whether talent is going to make an entrance or exit, what they are going to do, where they will be doing it, and whether they will need props such as a map. Are they going to speak to the camera? Are other people in the scene, and what are they doing? Are they going to move around (look out a window on the set)? Although these questions sound very obvious, they don’t just happen. Everything has to be planned, arranged, and learned.

The next step is to systematically block out the action. For example, you might ask yourself, “Would it be better if the hostess is seen entering the room and moving over to the desk, or should we discover her already seated? Because the show is about dress design, would it be preferable if the audience saw her clothing as she enters rather than opening with a head and shoulders shot at the desk? Is the idea of a desk too formal anyway? Would an easy chair be preferable?” and so on.

After determining the action, consider what type of shots would be appropriate and where the cameras should be to get them. If one camera moves into the set to get a close shot of the item they are discussing, will the camera now be in the second camera’s shot? Would it be better to record some shots of the product after the formal interview and then edit in the insert shot during postproduction? This is how a director builds a continuous succession of shots, noting them in the script margin, either as abbreviated reminders or as tiny sketches. The same situation can often be tackled in various different but equally successful ways. Let us look at an example for a dramatic production:

Returning husband enters door, wife has an unexpected guest.

This could be broken down as:

Shot 1: Husband enters door, hangs up hat … medium shot shows who it is and orientates the audience.

Shot 2: Wife looks up, greeting him … medium two-shot showing her with guest.

Shot 3: Husband turns and sees the guest … close-up shot of husband’s reaction.

Shot 4: The guest rises, walks to greet the husband … from medium two-shot; pans with guest, dollying in for tight two-shot of guest and husband.

Developing the Camera Plan

Depending on the type of production, the director may need to determine the type of lenses required for a specific type of shot. In order to plan the specifics, it is very helpful to have a scale-accurate floor plan or ground plan. The other option is to visit the location and measure it. These issues arise especially often when working at remote sites. One of the ways to calculate the lenses needed is to use a lens calculator (a chart or PDA software). You can also judge the types of shot (close-up, full length, etc.) that a certain lens angle will give.

The resultant production plan (camera plan), together with margin action notes or sketches, will form the basis for all technical planning and subsequent rehearsals. Even the biggest productions can be analyzed into shots or sequences in this way.

Storyboards

Directors need to think through each scene in their minds, capturing the images and turning them into a storyboard. A storyboard is a series of rough sketches that help the director visualize and organize their camera treatment. It is a visual map of how the director hopes to arrange the shots for each scene or action sequence. Storyboards are covered in more detail in Chapter 5 (Figure 4.14).

Production Aspects

Once the script and/or production plan, and possibly even storyboards, are completed, there is a whole series of planning and preparation that needs to be completed. These tasks are not linear; that is, the production staff can be working on all of them at the same time. The producer and director often act as coaches, reviewing the work by each segment of their staff, encouraging, giving feedback, providing quality control, and challenging them to move forward at a brisk pace. The producer or the director has to juggle all of these aspects at the same time.

SELECT AND OBTAIN LOCATIONS

Shoot locations must be chosen. A location may be a studio, a sports venue, a house, or some other location. Permits or contracts may need to be obtained. Later in this chapter, we will discuss the location site survey.

FIGURE 4.14
A storyboard on the set of a production. The storyboard roughly visualizes what the program will look like. (Photo by Taylor Vinson)

DETERMINE CAMERA LOCATIONS

By determining the specific camera locations, you can calculate cable lengths, contract equipment if needed, and plan other steps.

SELECT AND CONTRACT THE TALENT

Anchors, narrators, actors, or anyone else who will be appearing in front of the camera must be chosen and then contracted. Once the talent has been chosen, then you look at contracts, costuming, makeup, and similar related details.

SELECT AND HIRE THE CREW

The appropriate production and engineering crew must be hired. This may or may not involve contracts. Each person needs to know their start and end dates as well as their pay, instructions, and a multitude of other details.

CREATE AND IMPLEMENT THE AUDIO PLAN

Audio specifications must be determined. For example, what needs to be heard? Once you know what must be heard, an audio plan is created. This plan should include the placements for each microphone, needed sound effects, and any other required audio inputs.

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENT THE GRAPHIC PLAN

Working with designers and decorators, graphics will need to be designed to create a mood or look for the production. These graphics may include text, animations, and even set graphics. It is imperative that the graphics are consistent.

EQUIPMENT MUST BE CHOSEN AND CONTRACTED

The equipment needs must be determined. This may include cameras, audio gear, lights, and so on. This equipment may already be owned or may need to be rented, which would then require contracts.

FIGURE 4.15
Production meetings allow the staff from the various areas to get together to be updated on a regular basis. These joint meetings also provide an opportunity for the staff to ask questions.

The Production Meeting

Production meetings are an essential part of the planning process. These meetings should include representatives from each of the production areas listed previously, as well as engineering, the production manager, and location personnel. Each person participating in the meeting will then have the opportunity to stay informed and ask questions, with all of the other area representatives present. This approach allows them to work out complicated situations that arise when changes are made (Figure 4.15).

Once the meeting is complete, each individual follows up on the issues raised in the meeting. This may include documentation, budgeting, staffing, scheduling, and so on. This production planning meeting forms the basis for efficient teamwork. Problems anticipated and overcome at this stage prevent last-minute compromises. Camera cable routing, for example, is a typical potential hazard. Cables get tangled and can impede other cameras, or drag around noisily.

Remote Location Surveys (Recce)

Fundamentally, there are two types of shooting conditions: at your base and remote location. Your base is wherever you normally shoot. It may be a studio, theater, room, or even a stadium. The base is where you know exactly what facilities are available (equipment, supplies, and scenery), where things are, the amount of room available, and so on. If you need to supplement what is there, it usually can be easily done.

A remote location is anywhere away from your normal shooting location. It may be just outside the building or way out in the country. It could be in a vehicle, down in a mine, or in someone’s home. The main thing about shooting away from your base is to find out in advance what you are going to deal with. It is important to be prepared. The preliminary visit to a location is generally called a remote survey, site survey, or location survey (Figure 4.16). It can become anything from a quick look around to a detailed survey of the site. What is found on the survey may influence the planned production treatment. The remote survey checklist gives more specifics.

FIGURE 4.16
Site surveys allow you to check out the actual location to make sure that it will meet the production needs.

Setup

All of the production equipment—which may include the cameras, mounting gear, lights, microphones, graphic generators, and related cabling—must be set up early enough to leave time for troubleshooting. This means that the setup usually begins hours before it is needed. If everything works, then the crew gets a break before the production begins. If there are problems, the crew may still be troubleshooting when the production begins. Once everything is operational, rehearsals may begin.

The Rehearsal

Depending on the type of production, one or many rehearsals may occur. These rehearsals give the director, crew, and talent the chance to see how everything flows, whether the equipment works the way it was planned, and whether changes need to be made. When the rehearsals are complete, it is generally time to begin the production (Figure 4.17).

STAGE 2: PRODUCTION

We have finally reached the production! Hard work in the planning and preparation stage should diminish the number of problems that occur during the production. It does not mean that you won’t have problems, but it should at least reduce the number.

The Director during the Production

During the production is when the director finally gets to direct the crew to capture the audio and video needed to communicate the message. The director visually interprets the script or event, motivates the crew to do their best work, and guides the talent to get the best performances (Figures 4.18 and 4.19).

FIGURE 4.17
The director works with the actors during a rehearsal.

FIGURE 4.18
The director directing a studio show. (Photo by Jon Greenhoe)

FIGURE 4.19
The director of this sitcom is directing from the floor of the studio, reviewing the camera shots on a quad-split monitor.

The Producer during the Production

The producer’s responsibilities vary based on the type of production. However, he or she always keeps an eye on the budget and the production schedule and ensures that the production is meeting the originally stated goals.

Production Emphasis

You can use images and sounds to report events simply, undramatically, and unobtrusively. For some types of production, the best kind of staging and camera treatment provides a quiet, sympathetic background to the performance—such as for an opera or an interview. However, there are program subjects that need as much “hype” as possible—flashing, swirling light effects, arresting color, unusual sound quality, bizarre camera angles, and unpredictable cutting—to create an exciting production.

Some productions have a relatively loose format, others require split-second timing, with accurately cued images coming from live remote locations. Some programs effectively use a compilation of prerecorded material woven together by commentary and music. Other types of productions concentrate on action; others on reaction. Dialogue may be all-important—or quite incidental.

Away from the studio, productions can be anything from a one-camera shoot trailing wildlife to a large-scale remote (outside broadcast) covering a vast area with many cameras. Unforeseen problems are inevitable, and the restrictions of the environment and the weather affect the director’s opportunities.

Selective Tools

The camera and microphone do not behave like our eyes and ears, but substitute for them. Our eyes flick around with a knowledge of our surroundings, providing us with an impression of unrestricted stereoscopic vision; in fact, we can detect detail and color over only a tiny angle, and our peripheral vision is monochromatic and quite blurred. In daily life, we build up an impression of our environment by personally controlled sampling: concentrating on certain details while ignoring others. The camera and microphone, on the other hand, provide us with only restricted segments. And the information provided in these segments is modified in various ways, as we have seen, by the characteristics of the medium (distorting space, proportions, scale, etc.).

Selective Techniques

If you simply set up your camera and microphone overlooking the action and zoom in close for detail, the viewer progressively loses the overall view and struggles to understand the big picture. If you go with a wide shot, showing more of the scene, some detail will become indiscernible. The choice of suitable viewpoint and shot size provides the concept of guided selection—the beginnings of techniques.

Good production techniques provide variety of scale and proportion; of composition pattern; of centers of attention and changing subject influence. You achieve these things by variation in shot size and camera viewpoint, by moving the subject and/or the camera, or by altering the subject that is seen.

Although you may sometimes encourage the viewer to browse around a shot, you will generally want him or her to look at a particular feature, and to follow a certain thought process.

The Screen Transforms Reality

The camera and microphone can only convey an impression of the subject and scene. Whatever the limitations or inaccuracies of these images, they are the only direct information our viewer has available to them. And, of course, interpretation must vary with one’s own experience and previous knowledge. Whether you are aiming to convey an accurate account (newscast) or to conjure an illusion (drama), the screen will transform reality.

You could fill the screen with a shot of a huge aircraft, or with a diminutive model. The pictures would look very similar. Yet neither conveys the subjective essentials—that is, how you feel standing beside the giant plane or handling the tiny model. Introducing a person into the shot would establish scale, but it would still not include our characteristic responses to such a situation: the way we would be awed by the huge size, or intrigued by the minute detail.

The camera can be used to select detail from a painting or a photograph and the television screen puts a frame around it, transforming this isolated area into a new complete picture; an arrangement that did not originally exist; or an arrangement that if sustained in a close-up can easily become detached and dissociated in the audience’s minds from the complete subject.

When a solid sculpture is shot in its three-dimensional form, it becomes reproduced as a flat pattern on the television screen. Planes merge and interact as they cannot do when we examine the real sculpture with our own eyes. Only on the flat screen can a billiard ball become transformed into a flat disc under diffused lighting. In practice, you can actually make use of this falsification of reality. The very principles of scenic design heavily rely on it. Keep in mind that the camera and microphone do inevitably modify the images they convey; and that these images are easily mistaken for truth by the viewer.

Interpretative Production Techniques

It is one of those production paradoxes that although your camera can show what is happening, it will often fail to convey the atmosphere or spirit of the occasion. You can often achieve more convincing representative results by deliberately using selective techniques than by directly shooting the event.

Straightforward shots of a mountain climber may not communicate the thrills and hazards of the situation. But use low camera angles to emphasize the treacherous slope—show threatening overhangs, straining fingers, slipping feet, dislodged stones, laboring breath, slow ascending music—and the illusion grows. Even climbing a gentle slope can appear hazardous if strong interpretative techniques are used.

Sometimes the audience can be so strongly moved by this subjective treatment that sympathetic bodily reactions set in when watching such scenes—even dizziness or nausea. Even situations outside the viewer’s personal experience (e.g., the elation of freefall or the horror of quicksand) can be conveyed to some degree by carefully chosen images and audio.

Techniques can also be introduced obtrusively for dramatic effect, or so unobtrusively that the effect appears natural, and the viewer is quite unaware that the situation is contrived:

Obtrusive: The camera suddenly drops from an eye-level shot to a low-angle shot.

Unobtrusive: The camera shoots a seated actor at eye level. He stands, and the camera tilts up with him. We now have a low-angle shot.

When situations seem to occur accidentally or unobtrusively, they are invariably more effective. For example, as an intruder moves toward the camera, he becomes menacingly underlit by a nearby table lamp.

Many techniques have become so familiar that we now regard them as the norm—a natural way of doing things. But they are really illusions that help us convey specific concepts:

 “Chipmunk” voices (high-pitched audio) for small creatures

 Echo behind ghostly encounters

 Rim light in “totally dark” scenes

 Background music

In a live program, the production process generally ends at the completion of the production segment of the process. However, if it was recorded for later distribution, the next stage is postproduction.

STAGE 3: POSTPRODUCTION

Everything that was shot earlier is now assembled together in a sequential fashion. Mistakes can be corrected and visual effects, sound effects, and music added. Postproduction is covered in detail in Chapter 16.

The goal is a final show that is polished, without any noticeable production issues. If the production meets the originally stated goals, then it is a success!

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the three stages of a television production.

2. Where do concepts come from for a production?

3. How do setting production goals and objectives impact the way you shoot a program?

4. Describe the differences between the planned and unplanned approaches to production.

5. What is the value of a production meeting? Who attends this meeting?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: JAMES STUART

Define your job: Coordinate overall logistics, facilities, and vendors for network programs and studio shows. Financial control of show cost budgets. Maintain crew logs and daily schedules. Liaison with various sports leagues, teams, and venues.

What do you like about your job? Even though I may be working on a specific sport for the entire season, the work is never the same. Each city, venue, or game presents its own unique challenges whether it be logistically, operationally, or production/technical wise. I may be able to have a baseline on how I approach each event, but I need to adjust for the wrinkles each event presents. That keeps it fresh and prevents getting in a cookie -cutter rut.

What are the types of challenges that you face in your position? Challenges come both from work and personal life. You need to be able to balance both. There are times when you will be traveling 4–5 days a week with little time for home life. If you are single, that may not be much of an issue, but you’re if married with kids, you need to be sure everyone is on board with your chosen profession. Work challenges will be all the unforeseen last-minute changes that come up. Could be anything from a flight being delayed, bad weather, delay or postponement of game, power outage, adding a camera to the broadcast or breaking news, whether it’s event related, or other national news.

How do you prepare for a production? The start to each event begins with a production meeting so you know what the goal of the broadcast is and what is expected. From there I am able to begin the logistical planning and work with the teams, venues, etc. on preparing for our arrival at the venue. If it’s a studio show I am working on, it’s finding out the info on what games we will focus on and need additional production support at in order to make our show stand out.

What suggestions or advice do you have for someone interested in a position like yours? Organization and multitasking are key traits to possess if wanting to get into broadcast production management. You will not just be working on the game being broadcast that week. You will be working on games 3–4 weeks out and also other events as well. You could be working on NFL, NHL, and figure skating all at the same time. A person needs to be able to budget their time and keep everything in sync in order to be successful.

FIGURE 4.20
James Stuart, Production Manager

James Stuart is a production manager for NBC Sports Group. He has worked on multiple Olympics, Dateline, and specials, as well as other sports events.