CHAPTER 8

The Persuasive Camera

“A film is never really good unless the camera is an eye in the head of a poet.”

Orson Welles

Deep focus: A very wide depth of field.

Depth of field: The distance between the nearest and farthest objects in focus.

Dutch: Tilting the camera is called a “dutch” or a “canted” shot. This movement increases the dynamics of the shot.

Eye-level shot: Provide an image that is roughly at the eye level of the talent (in a studio show) or the average viewing audience.

High-angle shots: Provide a view from above the subject.

Low-angle shots: Provide a view from below the subject.

Pan shot: The pivoting of a camera to the left or right.

Tilt: Moving the camera up or down.

 

Communicating your ideas visually can be challenging. This chapter covers some of the most common techniques.

SHOOTING STYLE

The simplest way to cover a subject is to aim the camera at the subject and then zoom between long shots showing the general action and close-up shots showing detail. However, this mechanical, less-than-stimulating routine soon becomes very boring to watch. Creative techniques add to the subject’s appeal and helps hold the viewer’s interest.

When pointing a camera at a scene, you are doing much more than simply showing your audience what is going on there. You are selecting specific areas of the scene (Figure 8.1). You are drawing their attention to certain aspects of the action. The way you use your camera will influence the impact of the subject on the audience.

In an interview, for example, the guests can be shot from a low angle, which will give them a look of importance or self-confidence. From a high angle, they might look diminished and unimportant. Concentrating on detailed shots of their nervous finger movements helps build a sense of insecurity.

FIGURE 8.1
The camera isolates. The camera shows only what is going on in its frame of the scene. The audience does not really know what is outside the field of view. (Photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 8.2
“Pulling focus” can be used to guide the viewer through a scene. Notice the change of focus in the two photos. The audience can also be directed where to look, because the eye is drawn to what is in focus. (Photos by Josh Taber)

The camera interprets the scene for the audience. How the camera is used affects the audience’s responses. If the scene is just shot with no understanding of the impact of techniques, the result will be a haphazard production.

Whenever a camera is pointed at action, you have to make a series of fundamental decisions, such as:

 Which is the best angle? Can the action be seen clearly from there?

 Which features of the scene need to be emphasized at this moment? (See Figure 8.2.)

 Do you want the audience to concentrate on a specific aspect of the action?

 Do you want to convey a certain impression?

SCREEN SIZE

As discussed in previous chapters, the size of the screen on which the audience watches the production can influence how they respond to what they see there. It is more difficult to distinguish detail on a small screen (or a larger screen at a distance). The picture is confined and restricted, and we tend to feel detached as we closely inspect the overall effect. On the other hand, when watching on a large screen, we become more aware of detail. Our eyes have greater freedom to roam around the shot. We feel more closely involved with the action. We are onlookers at the scene.

At typical viewing distances, most television receivers allow us to effectively present a wide range of shot sizes, from vistas to microscopic close-ups. Although wide shots of large-scale events, and panoramic views are not particularly impressive on television, this limitation is not too restrictive in practice.

SELECTING THE SHOT

Each type of shot has its specific advantages and disadvantages. Some are best for setting the scene; others allow the audience to see intense details and emotions. For example, long shots can be used to:

 Show where all of the action is taking place, they establish the scene

 Allow the audience to follow broad movements

 Show the relative positions of subjects

 Establish mood

However, long shots do not allow your audience to see details, and they may be frustrated at what they are missing. For example, in a wide shot of an art gallery, audience members may feel that they are being prevented from seeing individual paintings clearly (Figure 8.3).

Closer shots are usually used to:

 Show detail

 Emphasize certain areas

 Reveal people’s reactions/emotions

 Dramatize the event

If too many close shots are used, the effect can be very restrictive. The audience can be left feeling that they were prevented from looking around the scene, from seeing the responses of other performers, from looking at other aspects of the subject, and from following the general action.

It is usually important to shoot both a wide-angle shot as well as close-ups. This technique enables the director to show both shots as needed. The benefit to the viewer is that they can see the whole situation, establish the scene, as well as the close-up detail, showing drama and emotion. If shown at the same time, it is sometimes called a combination shot (Figure 8.4).

FIGURE 8.3
Although long shots are beautiful, viewers want to see the close-up details.

FIGURE 8.4
Combined shots can show detail and the bigger picture simultaneously. This can be achieved by inserting a detail, or clarifying, shot. (Photos courtesy of Panasonic and Canon)

FIGURE 8.5
Although the extreme long shot (ELS) does not provide detail, it definitely establishes the scene for the viewer. Most of the time, the ELS shows the viewer the entire field of play, plus the audience.

If the action in the scene is incidental to the purpose of a sequence, such as someone speaking about their forthcoming vacation while they happen to be making an omelette, then shots should concentrate on the people involved, watching their interactions. However, if the purpose of the sequence is to show us how to cook, then we need detail shots of the action, with little or no interruption from reaction shots. Although this seems obvious, directors do make the wrong choice at times and may confuse or annoy the audience.

A shot that is appropriate at one moment could be very unsuitable the next. In fact, there are times when an inappropriate or a badly timed shot can totally destroy an entire sequence.

The Extreme Long Shot

The extreme long shot (ELS or XLS) enables you to establish the location and to create an overall atmospheric impression. It can be used to cover very widespread action, or to show various activities going on at the same time. It could be a high shot from a hilltop or an aerial view, such as from a blimp at a sports venue (Figure 8.5). An extreme long shot of a person would show a lot of the background, which is often done to show context or solitude. With extreme long shots, the audience takes a rather detached, impersonal attitude, surveying the scene without any sense of involvement. The extreme long shot is generally wider than the long shot. It usually shows much more than just the “field of play.”

The Long Shot

Often used at the start of a production, the long shot (LS) immediately shows where the action is happening. This establishing shot sets the location and atmosphere. It allows the audience to follow the purpose or pattern of action (Figure 8.6).

As the shot is tightened, and shows less of the scene, the audience is influenced less by the setting and the lighting. The people within the scene have a greater audience impact; their gestures and facial expressions become stronger and more important.

The Medium Shot

The medium shot (MS) is generally a mid-shot, although it may be framed a little larger or smaller. Its value lies in the idea that you are close enough to see expressions and emotions but far enough away to understand some of the context. Gestures can usually be captured in this type of shot. The medium shot is thought to be the one shot that “tells the story” (Figure 8.7).

FIGURE 8.6
Both of these shots are long shots. They set the scene. Left: A long shot of the venue. Right: A long shot of a person. In contrast, an extreme long shot of the first photo would have probably included the entire venue. (Derby photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 8.7
These medium shots, one from a sitcom and the other from a concert, demonstrate that the shot roughly cuts the subject in half. Generally, it is framed above or below the waistline of a person. (Concert photo by Paul Dupree)

The Close-Up

An extremely powerful shot, the close-up (CU) concentrates interest. With people, it draws attention to their reactions, responses, and emotions. Close-ups can reveal or point out information that might otherwise be overlooked, or only discerned with difficulty. They focus attention or provide emphasis (Figures 8.8 and 8.9).

The Extreme Close-Up

The extreme close-up (XCU or ECU) adds drama to the situation or clarifies a situation. By filling the screen with the face, it easily communicates the emotion of the situation. A closeup of an object allows the viewer to understand the detail a bit more (Figure 8.10).

When using a close-up, you have to ensure that the audience wants to look that close, and they do not feel that:

 They have been cheated of the wider view, where something more interesting may be happening

FIGURE 8.8
Close-ups of people are generally framed from mid-chest up. Note that you can see the framing of the interview on the stage’s I-mag screen to the far right. It is a close-up.

FIGURE 8.9
Close-up shots of a scene allow the viewer to see more detail as compared to the long shot of this same scene in Figure 8.6. (Photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 8.10
The extreme close-up generally cuts into the face and is a great tool for adding drama by communicating the emotion of the moment. (Photo by Paul Dupree)

 They have been thrust disconcertingly close to the subject—the audience may become overly aware of facial blemishes in enlarged faces

 Detail that is already familiar is being over-emphasized

 Through continually watching close-up fragments, they have forgotten how these relate to the main subject, or have become disorientated

DEPTH OF FIELD

The distance between the nearest and farthest areas of focus is called the depth of field or the focused zone. In the right situation (such as lots of bright light or a wide-angle lens), the depth can be huge. In other situations, the depth can be incredibly shallow (low light or shooting, a close-up shot, or a telephoto lens), requiring the camera operator to readjust the focus every time the subject moves forward or backward (Figure 8.11).

The depth of field varies with the following factors:

 The distance at which the lens is focused

 The size of the image sensors

 The focal length of the lens

 The lens f-stop (aperture) (Figure 8.12)

Alter any of these elements, and the depth of field changes.

FIGURE 8.11
By adjusting the aperture (f-stops), the depth of field can be increased or decreased. The larger the f-stop number, the larger the depth of field.

FIGURE 8.12
The lens aperture is adjustable in this illustration from a maximum of f/2 to a minimum of f/16. The larger the aperture (opening), the smaller the f-number (such as f/2), the shallower the depth of field. Less light is needed in this situation. The smaller the lens aperture, the larger the f-number (such as f/16), the larger the depth of field. More light is needed to shoot at higher number f-stops.

Large Depth of Field (Deep-Focus) Techniques

As you saw earlier, the depth of field in a scene varies with the lens f-stop, type of lens (wide-angle/telephoto), and focused distance. You can change it by altering any of these parameters.

Stopping down the lens (such as f/11 or f/16), everything from foreground to far distance appears sharply focused. The camera has no problems in following focus and there is little danger of subjects becoming soft-focused. There is an illusion of spaciousness and depth, enabling shots to be composed with subjects at various distances from the camera. However, higher light levels are necessary (Figure 8.13).

One weakness of this technique is that when there is little camera movement or few progressively distant planes in the picture, it can appear unattractively flat. Surfaces or subjects at very different distances can merge or become confusing to the audience.

Shallow Depth of Field (Shallow-Focus) Techniques

Using a wider lens aperture (e.g., f/2) restricts focused depth. It enables you to isolate a subject spatially, keeping it sharp within blurred surroundings, and avoids the distraction of irrelevant subjects. You can display a single sharply focused flower against a detail-free background, concentrating attention on the bloom and suppressing the confusion of foliage. Sharply defined detail attracts the eye more readily than defocused areas.

By deliberately restricting depth of field, you can soften obtrusive backgrounds, even if these are strongly patterned, so that people or other subjects stand out from their surroundings. On the other hand, restricted depth can prove embarrassing when essential details of a close object are out of focus. The camera must continually refocus in order to keep a close-up of a moving subject sharp. For instance, close-up shots along a piano keyboard can demand considerable dexterity when trying to follow and focus on quickly moving fingers.

Occasionally, by changing focus between subjects at different distances (pulling focus, throwing focus) you can move the viewer’s attention from one to another; however, this trick easily becomes disturbing unless coordinated with action. Blurred color pictures can be frustrating (Figures 8.14 and 8.15).

FIGURE 8.13
A large depth of field was achieved by using a wide-angle lens or a large-numbered f-stop, such as f/22. The bright sunlight in this photo allowed the large-numbered aperture.

MOVING THE CAMERA HEAD

In everyday life, we respond to situations by making specific gestures or movements. These reactions and actions often become very closely associated. We look around with curiosity; move in to inspect an object; withdraw or avert our eyes from a situation that we find embarrassing, distasteful, or boring.

It is not surprising to find that certain camera movements can evoke associated responses in the audience, causing them to have specific feelings toward what they see on the screen. These effects underlie the impact of persuasive camera techniques.

Panning the Camera

The pan shot is the smooth pivoting of the camera from left to right on the camera support, which might be a tripod or even a person (Figures 8.17 and 8.18). Panning shows the audience the spatial relationship between two subjects or areas. Cutting between two shots does not provide the same sense of continuity. When panning over a wide area, the intermediate parts of the scene help us to orient ourselves. We develop an impression of space. However, it is important to avoid panning across irrelevant areas, such as the “dead” space between two widely separated people.

FIGURE 8.14
The shallow depth of field was achieved by using a telephoto (narrow-angle) lens, along with a fairly small-numbered f-stop such as f/4. (Photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 8.15
The shallow depth of field shown here was achieved with the use of a telephoto (narrow angle) lens along with a fairly small numbered f-stop such as f/4. (Photo by Chad Crouch)

FIGURE 8.16
The background changes in size are due to the lens used. Note that the first photo was shot with a telephoto lens and the final shot was taken with a wide-angle lens. The camera had to be moved closer to the subject for each shot, as a wider lens was attached so that the subject would stay the same approximate size. (Photos by K. Brown)

FIGURE 8.17
The pan shot is the pivoting of a camera to the left or right. (Photo courtesy of Vortex)

FIGURE 8.18
The pan shot, as shown, smoothly moves from the red frame to the black frame, providing one continual shot when the action moves beyond the original red frame. (Photo courtesy of Dartfish)

Unless you are creating a special effect, panning should be smooth—neither jerking into action nor abruptly halting. Erratic or hesitant panning irritates the audience. If the pan and tilt head is correctly adjusted, problematic pan shots usually only occur when using long telephoto lenses or when the subject makes an unpredicted move.

FOLLOW PAN

The follow pan is the most common type of camera move. The camera pans as it follows a moving subject. In longer shots, the viewer becomes aware of the interrelationship between the subject and its surroundings. Visual interaction can develop between the subject and its apparently moving background pattern, creating a dynamic composition. In closer shots, the background becomes incidental, or even often indecipherably blurred (Figure 8.19).

SURVEY PAN

In the survey pan, the camera slowly searches the scene (a crowd, a landscape), allowing the audience to look around at choice. It can be a restful anticipatory action—providing that there is something worth seeing. It is not enough to pan hopefully.

The move can also be dramatic, building anticipation: The shipwrecked survivor scans the horizon, sees a ship … but will it notice him? But the surveying pan can build to an anticlimax, too; the fugitive searches to see whether she is being followed.

INTERRUPTED PAN

The interrupted pan is a long, smooth movement that is suddenly stopped (sometimes reversed) to provide visual contrast. It is normally used to link a series of isolated subjects. In a dance performance, the camera might follow a solo dancer from one group to the next, pausing for a short while as each becomes the new center of interest.

In a dramatic application, you might see escaping prisoners slowly trek through treacherous marshland. One man falls exhausted, but the camera stays with the rest. A moment later it stops and pans back to see what occurred to the person.

FIGURE 8.19
When following the subject in a wide arc with a handheld camera, the feet should face the midpoint of the arc. This will allow the camera operator to smoothly pan with the action.

WHIP PAN

The whip pan (also known as the swish, zip, or blur pan) moves so rapidly from one subject to the next that the intermediate scene becomes a brief, streaking blur. Whether the effect generates excitement or annoyance is largely determined by how the preceding and following shots are developed. As our attention is dragged rapidly to the next shot, this pan gives each subject transitory importance. The whip pan usually produces a dynamic change that continues the pace between two rapidly moving scenes. A whip pan has to be accurate as well as appropriate to be successful: no fumbling, reframing, or refocusing at the end of the pan.

Tilting the Camera Head

Tilting refers to moving the camera up or down (Figure 8.20). Tilting, like panning, allows you to visually connect subjects or areas that are spaced apart. Otherwise, you would need to intercut different shots, or use a longer shot to include both subjects.

Tilting can be used:

 To emphasize height or depth—tilting up from a climber to show the steep cliff face to be climbed

 To show relationships—as the camera tilts from the rooftop spy down to the person in the street below; or from the person in the street up to the rooftop, revealing that he is not alone

Camera Height

Camera height can have a significant influence on how the audience perceives your subject. How you get the angle is immaterial. You can use a jib, suspend a camera on wires, or use any other mechanism. The key is whether the image does what you want it to do. There are three general categories that deal with camera height:

Eye-level shots provide an image that is roughly at the eye level of the talent (in a studio show) or of the average viewing audience. This is the most common shot used in television and provides a sense of normalcy (Figure 8.21).

FIGURE 8.20
A camera tilt is when the camera is pointed up or down.

High-angle shots provide a view from above the subject. This high vantage point can provide the viewer with additional information, such as showing the actions and context of the subject. However, these shots can also give the viewer an impression that the subject is not important or even inferior (Figures 8.22, 8.23, and 8.24).

FIGURE 8.21
The eye-level angle is used more than any other angle. The other angles are used when appropriate.

FIGURE 8.22
Although high-angle shots can help the audience see what is on the desk in this shot from NBC’s The Office, they can also make the subject look inferior or unimportant. (Photo courtesy of Kobal)

Low-angle shots make the subject appear more important and very strong. These shots make the viewer feel inferior (Figures 8.25 and 8.26).

Extreme Camera Angles

Extreme angles can be creative and attention-grabbing. If appropriate, they can add a lot to the production. However, they sometimes draw attention to the abnormality or ingenuity of the camera’s position. If the audience is wondering how we got that shot, techniques have obscured artistic purpose (Figure 8.27).

Where extreme angles appear naturally, viewers accept them readily: looking down from an upper-story window; looking up from a seated position; even an eavesdropper peering through plank flooring to the room below. But an unexplained extreme shot usually becomes a visual stunt.

MOVING THE CAMERA

How freely the camera can be moved around is determined by the type of camera mount used. Although a jib offers incredible flexibility, it may not be able to relocate as rapidly as a handheld camera. Well-chosen camera moves add visual interest, plus influence certain audience reactions. However, camera movement needs to be motivated, appropriate, smoothly controlled, and done at a suitable speed, or it can become distracting and/or disturbing (Figures 8.28 and 8.29).

FIGURE 8.23
All high-angle shots do not make the subject look inferior. This shot allows the audience to see the drummer’s movements. (Photo courtesy of Sennheiser)

FIGURE 8.24
High-angle shots can be obtained in a number of ways, such as holding the camera high, using a jib, climbing onto a higher area, or shooting from a helicopter. (Photos courtesy of Sony and Jeff Hutchens)

FIGURE 8.25
Low-angle shots generally make the subject look important, strong, or powerful. (Photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 8.26
Low-angle shots are obtained by placing the camera lower than the subject. Even jibs, primarily used for high-angle shots, can be used to obtain low-angle shots. (Photo by Paul Dupree)

FIGURE 8.27
Extreme angles, like this photo of a cameraman, sometimes draw attention to the novelty of the shot, distracting the audience from the main subject. (Photo by Bill Miller)

Subjective Camera Treatment

When you use the camera subjectively, you are portraying an individual’s perception of the event. The subjective camera makes it look as if the viewer is actually walking around the scene, following the action. The camera can walk through a crowd, move up to inspect something, and then glance up at nearby details. We encounter this approach regularly when shoulder-mounted or Steadicam-type cameras are used instead of shooting from a stationary position on a tripod.

Subjective camera movement creates a participatory effect for the audience. But if the director moves the camera when the audience is not ready, or fails to show them something they wish to see, the audience will probably feel resentful. The skilled director persuades the audience to want a change of view or a move. The unskilled director thrusts it upon the audience.

Imitative Camera Movement

Cameras can be moved to suggest jogging or the rolling movement of a ship. The camera can significantly affect the dynamics of the subject. If used effectively, camera movements can even provide subjective influence on the action itself (Figure 8.30).

Using the Zoom Lens

As discussed earlier, the zoom lens brings both advantages and pitfalls for the unwary. It is too easy to change the lens angle just to change subject image size. There is always the temptation to stand and zoom, rather than move around with a normal lens. Zooming demands little of the camera operator or director. There is just the need for a prezoom focus check before zooming in for the shot.

Zooming is extremely convenient. However, the zoom only simulates camera movement. The zoom optically isolates a section of the scene. There are no natural parallactic changes as you zoom in; scale, distance, and shape become distorted through zooming. A slow zoom made during panning, tilting, or subject movement may disguise these discrepancies. A rapid zoom during an exciting fast-moving ball game can make the image more dynamic. Much depends on the occasion.

FIGURE 8.29
Dollying in causes increased interest and a build up of tension. However, the close-up may result in diminished interest. Dollying back usually results in lowered interest or relaxed tension—unless unseen subjects are revealed, or when curiosity, expectation, or hope have been aroused. Attention tends to be directed toward the edges of the picture. Dollying appears faster than it really is on a wide-angle lens, and slower on a narrower lens angle.

FIGURE 8.30
In order to increase the dynamics of this shot, the camera was tilted, which is usually called a “dutch” or “canted” shot, for ABC’s broadcast of Alias. (Photo courtesy of Touchstone TV/The Kobal Collection)

FIGURE 8.31
Zooming can provide a bridge between close-ups and long shots. In these shots, zooming out from the CU to an LS provides the context for the subjects.

FIGURE 8.32
A snap zoom quickly moves the audience from a CU to an LS or vice versa. (Photo by Will Adams)

Zooming can provide a visual bridge from the wide view to the close-up, without the time and effort involved in dollying or the interruption (and possible disorientation) of cutting (Figure 8.31). A rapid zoom-in produces a highly dramatic swoop onto the subject. An instant (snap) zoom-in flings subject detail at the audience (Figure 8.32). Such effects can be incredibly dynamic, or just plain annoying—it has to be done right.

Zoom should be smooth and decisive. Use zoom shots to direct attention, to increase tension, to give powerful emphasis, or to restrict the coverage. But the zooming action itself should be used discriminately for specific occasions.

Directors use different terms when calling for a zoom in or out. Some of the most commons terms for zooming out are “zoom-out,” “pull-out,” or “widen.” When needing a zoom-in, the director may ask for a “zoom-in,” “push-in,” or “tighten.”

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Each type of shot (CU, MS, and LS) conveys different information. Explain those differences.

2. How does the camera interpret the scene for the audience?

3. What are some of the challenges of shooting for the Internet?

4. How is deep focus obtained in an image?

5. How do you change the perspective of an image without moving the camera?

6. What are two of the types of pan shots and how can they be used?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: MATT GRIMM

Briefly define your job:, I work closely with the executive producer and/or series producer to deliver a finished program that will meet goals and expectations. I coordinate production staff (camera, audio, graphics, editors) to develop and ultimately deliver finished programs. In recent years, I have worked mostly on long-form documentaries

What do you like about your job? I enjoy the variety in my job. A career in television has opened doors of opportunity and access that I may not have been given otherwise. Projects have allowed me to travel overseas, have access to restricted areas, and interview many interesting people. I also enjoy the sense of accomplishment that comes after spending a year or two on a production, then being able to see a project complete. You learn all you can about a subject, pour your time and energy into examining it, and then share it with your audience. It is wonderful to see it all come to fruition.

What are the types of challenges you face in your position? Every project brings its own unique challenges to overcome. Budget constraints, production scheduling, and shooting logistics can all complicate a production. Universally, you are challenged to connect with your audience. If your audience isn’t enlightened, moved emotionally, or entertained then you have likely missed the mark. As a producer, I am charged with reaching our audience. However, I’d like to not just share a story with them, but share it in an impactful way.

How do you prepare for a production? Preproduction is huge. When planning a program, I first consider the goals and expectations for it. How it is going to be different than others already created? Who is the audience to be reached? Before ever picking up a camera, I like to meet with potential interview subjects. Get to know them a bit. This allows them to become comfortable with me and gives me a better feel for what they know. The shape of a production will present itself during this planning stage. Pre-production meetings with the camera operator and audio tech ensure that everyone is onboard with the look and feel of the production. Creative decisions and potential challenges are discussed and agreed upon before ever heading into the field for shooting.

What suggestions or advice do you have for someone interested in a position like yours? It may sound cliché, but work your way up. Learn all you can during school and in your entry-level positions. Hands-on experience is so valuable and cannot be replicated. For someone to become a great producer or director, I think they need to be a great videographer or editor first. Television production is a collaboration, bringing together so many different specialties. Having an understanding of each of them will help you eventually master one.

FIGURE 8.33
Matt Grimm, Producer

Matt Grimm is a Producer for Kentucky’s PBS station KET. Some of his productions have also aired nationally on PBS.